Every day we are faced with a mass of means of artistic expression, we often use them in speech ourselves, without even meaning it. We remind mom that she has golden hands; we remember bast shoes, while they have long gone out of general use; we are afraid to get a pig in a poke and exaggerate objects and phenomena. All these are tropes, examples of which can be found not only in fiction, but also in the oral speech of every person.
What are means of artistic expression?
The term "paths" comes from the Greek word tropos, which in translation into Russian means "turn of speech". They are used to give figurative speech, with their help, poetic and prose works become incredibly expressive. Tropes in literature, examples of which can be found in almost any poem or story, constitute a separate layer in modern philological science. Depending on the situation of use, they are divided into lexical means, rhetorical and syntactic figures. Tropes are widespread not only in fiction, but also in oratory, and even everyday speech.
Lexical means of the Russian language
Every day we use words that in one way or another decorate speech, make it more expressive. Vibrant tropes, examples of which are countless in works of art, are no less important than lexical means.
- Antonyms- Words that are opposite in meaning.
- Synonyms- lexical units that are close in meaning.
- Phraseologisms- stable combinations, consisting of two or more lexical units, which, according to semantics, can be equated to one word.
- Dialectisms- words that are common only in a certain territory.
- Archaisms- obsolete words denoting objects or phenomena, modern analogues of which are present in the culture and everyday life of a person.
- historicisms- terms denoting objects or phenomena that have already disappeared.
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Tropes in Russian (examples)
At present, the means of artistic expression are magnificently demonstrated in the works of the classics. Most often these are poems, ballads, poems, sometimes stories and novels. They decorate speech and give it imagery.
- Metonymy- substitution of one word for another by adjacency. For example: At midnight on New Year's Eve, the whole street went out to let off fireworks.
- Epithet- a figurative definition that gives the subject an additional characteristic. For example: Mashenka had magnificent silk curls.
- Synecdoche- the name of the part instead of the whole. For example: A Russian, a Finn, an Englishman, and a Tatar study at the Faculty of International Relations.
- personification- the assignment of animate qualities to an inanimate object or phenomenon. For example: The weather was worried, angry, raging, and a minute later it started to rain.
- Comparison- an expression based on a comparison of two objects. For example: Your face is fragrant and pale, like a spring flower.
- Metaphor- transferring the properties of one object to another. For example: Our mother has golden hands.
Tropes in literature (examples)
The presented means of artistic expression are less often used in the speech of a modern person, but this does not diminish their significance in the literary heritage of great writers and poets. Thus, litotes and hyperbole often find use in satirical stories, and allegory in fables. Paraphrase is used to avoid repetition in literary text or speech.
- Litotes- artistic understatement. For example: A man with a fingernail works at our factory.
- paraphrase- replacement of a direct name with a descriptive expression. For example: The night luminary is especially yellow today (about the Moon).
- Allegory- the image of abstract objects with images. For example: Human qualities - cunning, cowardice, clumsiness - are revealed in the form of a fox, a hare, a bear.
- Hyperbola- Deliberate exaggeration. For example: My buddy has incredibly huge ears, about the size of a head.
Rhetorical figures
The idea of each writer is to intrigue his reader and not demand an answer to the problems posed. A similar effect is achieved through the use of rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals, silences in a work of art. All these are tropes and figures of speech, examples of which are probably familiar to every person. Their use in everyday speech is approving, the main thing is to know the situation when it is appropriate.
A rhetorical question is put at the end of a sentence and does not require a response from the reader. It makes you think about the real issues.
A rhetorical exclamation ends the motivating sentence. Using this figure, the writer calls for action. The exclamation should also be classified under the "paths" section.
Examples of rhetorical appeal can be found in Pushkin ("To Chaadaev", "To the Sea"), in Lermontov ("Death of a Poet"), as well as in many other classics. It does not apply to a specific person, but to the entire generation or era as a whole. Using it in a work of art, the writer can blame or, conversely, approve of actions.
Rhetorical silence is actively used in lyrical digressions. The writer does not express his thought to the end and gives rise to further reasoning. 
Syntactic figures
Such techniques are achieved through sentence construction and include word order, punctuation; they contribute to intriguing and interesting sentence design, which is why every writer strives to use these tropes. Examples are especially noticeable when reading the work.
- polyunion- deliberate increase in the number of unions in the proposal.
- Asyndeton- the absence of unions when listing objects, actions or phenomena.
- Syntax parallelism- comparison of two phenomena by their parallel image.
- Ellipsis- deliberate omission of a number of words in a sentence.
- Inversion- violation of the order of words in the construction.
- Parceling- intentional segmentation of the sentence.
Figures of speech
Tropes in Russian, examples of which are given above, can be continued indefinitely, but do not forget that there is another conditionally distinguished section of means of expression. Artistic figures play an important role in written and oral speech.
Table of all trails with examples
It is important for high school students, graduates of humanitarian faculties and philologists to know the variety of means of artistic expression and the cases of their use in the works of classics and contemporaries. If you want to know in more detail what tropes are, a table with examples will replace dozens of literary critical articles for you.
Lexical means and examples |
|
Synonyms | Let us be humiliated and offended, but we deserve a better life. |
Antonyms | My life is nothing but black and white stripes. |
Phraseologisms | Before buying jeans, find out about their quality, otherwise you will be slipped a pig in a poke. |
Archaisms | Barbers (hairdressers) do their job quickly and efficiently. |
historicisms | Bast shoes are an original and necessary thing, but not everyone has them today. |
Dialectisms | Kozyuli (snakes) were found in this area. |
Stylistic tropes (examples) |
|
Metaphor | You have iron nerves, my friend. |
personification | The leaves sway and dance in the wind. |
The red sun sets over the horizon. |
|
Metonymy | I've already eaten three bowls. |
Synecdoche | The consumer always chooses quality products. |
paraphrase | Let's go to the zoo to look at the king of animals (about the lion). |
Allegory | You are a real donkey (about stupidity). |
Hyperbola | I've been waiting for you for three hours! |
Is this a man? A man with a fingernail, and nothing more! |
|
Syntactic figures (examples) |
|
How many of those with whom I can be sad |
|
We'll go raspberry! |
|
gradation | I think about you, I miss you, I remember you, I miss you, I pray. |
Pun | I, through your fault, began to drown sadness in wine. |
Rhetorical figures (address, exclamation, question, default) | When will you, the younger generation, become polite? Oh what a wonderful day today! And you say that you know the material superbly? Come home soon - look... |
polyunion | I perfectly know algebra, and geometry, and physics, and chemistry, and geography, and biology. |
Asyndeton | The store sells shortbread, crumbly, peanut, oatmeal, honey, chocolate, diet, banana cookies. |
Ellipsis | Not there (it was)! |
Inversion | I would like to tell you one story. |
Antithesis | You are everything and nothing to me. |
Oxymoron | Living Dead. |
The role of means of artistic expression
The use of tropes in everyday speech elevates each person, makes him more literate and educated. A variety of means of artistic expression can be found in any literary work, poetic or prose. Paths and figures, examples of which every self-respecting person should know and use, do not have an unambiguous classification, since from year to year philologists continue to explore this area of the Russian language. If in the second half of the twentieth century they singled out only metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche, now the list has grown tenfold.
Speech. Analysis of expressive means.
It is necessary to distinguish between tropes (figurative and expressive means of literature) based on the figurative meaning of words and figures of speech based on the syntactic structure of the sentence.
Lexical means.
Usually, in the review of task B8, an example of a lexical means is given in brackets, either in one word or in a phrase in which one of the words is in italics.
| synonyms(contextual, linguistic) - words that are close in meaning | soon - soon - one of these days - not today or tomorrow, in the near future |
| antonyms(contextual, linguistic) - words that are opposite in meaning | they never said to each other you, but always you. |
| phraseological units- stable combinations of words that are close in lexical meaning to one word | at the edge of the world (= “far away”), missing teeth (= “frozen”) |
| archaisms- obsolete words | squad, province, eyes |
| dialectism- Vocabulary common in a certain area | chicken, goof |
| book, colloquial vocabulary |
daring, associate;
corrosion, management; squander money, outback |
Trails.
In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in brackets, as a phrase.
Types of trails and examples for them in the table:
| metaphor- transferring the meaning of a word by similarity | dead silence |
| personification- likening an object or phenomenon to a living being | dissuadedgolden grove |
| comparison- comparison of one object or phenomenon with another (expressed through unions as, as if, as if, comparative degree of adjective) | bright as the sun |
| metonymy- replacement of the direct name with another by adjacency (i.e. based on real connections) | The hiss of foamy glasses (instead of: foamy wine in glasses) |
| synecdoche- the use of the name of the part instead of the whole and vice versa | a lonely sail turns white (instead of: a boat, a ship) |
| paraphrase– replacing a word or group of words to avoid repetition | author of "Woe from Wit" (instead of A.S. Griboyedov) |
| epithet- the use of definitions that give the expression imagery and emotionality | Where are you going, proud horse? |
| allegory- expression of abstract concepts in specific artistic images | scales - justice, cross - faith, heart - love |
| hyperbola- exaggeration of the size, strength, beauty of the described | in a hundred and forty suns the sunset burned |
| litotes- underestimation of the size, strength, beauty of the described | your spitz, lovely spitz, no more than a thimble |
| irony- the use of a word or expression in the reverse sense of the literal, with the aim of ridicule | Where, smart, are you wandering, head? |
Figures of speech, sentence structure.
In task B8, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.
| epiphora- repetition of words at the end of sentences or lines following one another | I would like to know. Why am I titular councilor? Why exactly titular councilor? |
| gradation- construction of homogeneous members of the sentence by increasing meaning or vice versa | came, saw, conquered |
| anaphora- repetition of words at the beginning of sentences or lines following one another | Ironthe truth is alive with envy,
Ironpestle, and iron ovary. |
| pun- play on words | It was raining and two students. |
| rhetorical exclamation (question, appeal) - exclamatory, interrogative sentences or a sentence with an appeal that do not require a response from the addressee | Why are you standing, swaying, thin mountain ash?
Long live the sun, long live the darkness! |
| syntactic parallelism- the same construction of sentences | young everywhere we have a road,
old people everywhere we honor |
| polyunion- repetition of an excess union | And a sling, and an arrow, and a crafty dagger
Years spare the winner ... |
| asyndeton- construction of complex sentences or a series of homogeneous members without unions | Flickering past the booth, women,
Boys, benches, lanterns ... |
| ellipsis- omission of implied word | I'm behind a candle - a candle in the stove |
| inversion- indirect word order | Our amazing people. |
| antithesis- opposition (often expressed through the unions A, BUT, HOWEVER or antonyms | Where the table was food, there is a coffin |
| oxymoron- a combination of two contradictory concepts | living corpse, ice fire |
| citation- transmission in the text of other people's thoughts, statements indicating the author of these words. | As it is said in the poem by N. Nekrasov: “You have to bow your head below the thin bylinochka ...” |
| questionable-reciprocal the form statements- the text is presented in the form of rhetorical questions and answers to them | And again a metaphor: "Live under minute houses ...". What do they mean? Nothing lasts forever, everything is subject to decay and destruction |
| ranks homogeneous members of the proposal- enumeration of homogeneous concepts | He was waiting for a long, serious illness, leaving the sport. |
| parceling- a sentence that is divided into intonation-semantic speech units. | I saw the sun. Above your head. |
Remember!
When completing task B8, you should remember that you fill in the gaps in the review, i.e. restore the text, and with it the semantic and grammatical connection. Therefore, an analysis of the review itself can often serve as an additional clue: various adjectives of one kind or another, predicates that agree with omissions, etc.
It will facilitate the task and the division of the list of terms into two groups: the first includes terms based on changes in the meaning of the word, the second - the structure of the sentence.
Parsing the task.
(1) The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun through the infinite Universe. (2) The life support system on our beautiful ship is so ingenious that it is constantly self-renewing and thus keeps billions of passengers traveling for millions of years.
(3) It is difficult to imagine astronauts flying on a ship through outer space, deliberately destroying a complex and delicate life support system designed for a long flight. (4) But gradually, consistently, with amazing irresponsibility, we are putting this life support system out of action, poisoning rivers, cutting down forests, spoiling the oceans. (5) If astronauts fussily cut wires, unscrew screws, drill holes in the skin on a small spacecraft, then this will have to be qualified as suicide. (6) But there is no fundamental difference between a small ship and a large one. (7) It's only a matter of size and time.
(8) Humanity, in my opinion, is a kind of disease of the planet. (9) Wound up, multiply, swarm microscopic, on a planetary, and even more so on a universal, scale of being. (10) They accumulate in one place, and immediately deep ulcers and various growths appear on the body of the earth. (11) One has only to introduce a drop of harmful (from the point of view of the earth and nature) culture into the green coat of the Forest (a team of lumberjacks, one barracks, two tractors) - and now a characteristic, symptomatic painful spot spreads from this place. (12) They scurry, multiply, do their work, eating away the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous administrations.
(13) Unfortunately, just as vulnerable as the biosphere, just as defenseless against the pressure of the so-called technical progress, are such concepts as silence, the possibility of solitude and intimate communication between man and nature, with the beauty of our land. (14) On the one hand, a person, twitched by the inhuman rhythm of modern life, crowding, a huge flow of artificial information, is weaned from spiritual communication with the outside world, on the other hand, this outside world itself has been brought to such a state that sometimes it no longer invites a person to spiritual fellowship with him.
(15) It is not known how this original disease called humanity will end for the planet. (16) Will the Earth have time to develop some kind of antidote?
(According to V. Soloukhin)
“The first two sentences use a trope like _______. This image of the "cosmic body" and "cosmonauts" is the key to understanding the author's position. Discussing how humanity behaves in relation to its home, V. Soloukhin comes to the conclusion that "humanity is a disease of the planet." ______ (“they scurry, multiply, do their job, eating away the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous administrations”) convey the negative deeds of man. The use of _________ in the text (sentences 8, 13, 14) emphasizes that everything said by the author is far from being indifferent. Used in the 15th sentence ________ "original" gives the argument a sad ending, which ends with a question.
List of terms:
- epithet
- litotes
- introductory words and interstitial constructions
- irony
- extended metaphor
- parceling
- question-answer form of presentation
- dialectism
- homogeneous members of a sentence
We divide the list of terms into two groups: the first - epithet, litote, irony, extended metaphor, dialectism; the second - introductory words and plug-in constructions, parcelling, question-answer form of presentation, homogeneous members of the sentence.
It is better to start the task with passes that do not cause difficulties. For example, omission #2. Since the whole sentence is given as an example, some syntactic means is most likely implied. In a sentence “they scurry, multiply, do their job, eating away the bowels, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous departures” rows of homogeneous members of the sentence are used : Verbs scurry, multiply, do business, gerunds eating away, exhausting, poisoning and nouns rivers, oceans, atmosphere. At the same time, the verb “transfer” in the review indicates that the place of the gap should be a plural word. In the list in the plural there are introductory words and plug-in constructions and homogeneous member sentences. A careful reading of the sentence shows that the introductory words, i.e. those constructions that are not thematically related to the text and can be removed from the text without losing their meaning are absent. Thus, at the place of pass No. 2, it is necessary to insert option 9) homogeneous members of the sentence.
In pass number 3, the numbers of sentences are indicated, which means that the term again refers to the structure of sentences. Parceling can be immediately “discarded”, since the authors must indicate two or three consecutive sentences. The question-answer form is also an incorrect option, since sentences 8, 13, 14 do not contain a question. There are introductory words and plug-in constructions. We find them in sentences: in my opinion, unfortunately, on the one hand, on the other hand.
In place of the last gap, it is necessary to substitute the masculine term, since the adjective “used” must agree with it in the review, and it must be from the first group, since only one word is given as an example “ original". Masculine terms - epithet and dialectism. The latter is clearly not suitable, since this word is quite understandable. Turning to the text, we find what the word is combined with: "original disease". Here, the adjective is clearly used in a figurative sense, so we have an epithet in front of us.
It remains to fill only the first gap, which is the most difficult. The review says that this is a trope, and it is used in two sentences, where the image of the earth and us, people, as an image of a cosmic body and astronauts is rethought. This is clearly not irony, since there is not a drop of mockery in the text, and not litotes, but rather, on the contrary, the author deliberately exaggerates the scale of the disaster. Thus, the only possible option remains - a metaphor, the transfer of properties from one object or phenomenon to another based on our associations. Expanded - because it is impossible to isolate a separate phrase from the text.
Answer: 5, 9, 3, 1.
Practice.
(1) As a child, I hated matinees, because my father came to our kindergarten. (2) He sat on a chair near the Christmas tree, chirped on his accordion for a long time, trying to find the right melody, and our teacher strictly told him: “Valery Petrovich, higher!” (Z) All the guys looked at my father and choked with laughter. (4) He was small, plump, began to go bald early, and although he never drank, for some reason his nose always had a beet red color, like that of a clown. (5) Children, when they wanted to say about someone that he was funny and ugly, said this: “He looks like Ksyushka’s dad!”
(6) And at first in the kindergarten, and then at school, I carried the heavy cross of my father's absurdity. (7) Everything would be fine (you never know who has any fathers!), But it was not clear to me why he, an ordinary locksmith, went to our matinees with his stupid harmonica. (8) I would play at home and not dishonor myself or my daughter! (9) Often straying, he sighed thinly, like a woman, and a guilty smile appeared on his round face. (10) I was ready to sink through the ground with shame and behaved emphatically coldly, showing with my appearance that this ridiculous man with a red nose had nothing to do with me.
(11) I was in the third grade when I had a bad cold. (12) I have otitis media. (13) In pain, I screamed and pounded my head with my palms. (14) Mom called an ambulance, and at night we went to the district hospital. (15) On the way we got into a terrible snowstorm, the car got stuck, and the driver shrillly, like a woman, began to shout that now we will all freeze. (16) He screamed piercingly, almost cried, and I thought that his ears also hurt. (17) The father asked how much was left to the regional center. (18) But the driver, covering his face with his hands, repeated: “What a fool I am!” (19) The father thought and quietly said to his mother: “We will need all the courage!” (20) I remembered these words for the rest of my life, although wild pain circled me like a snowflake blizzard. (21) He opened the car door and went out into the roaring night. (22) The door slammed behind him, and it seemed to me that a huge monster, with a clanging jaw, swallowed my father. (23) The car was rocked by gusts of wind, snow was falling on the frosty windows with a rustle. (24) I cried, my mother kissed me with cold lips, the young nurse looked doomed into the impenetrable darkness, and the driver shook his head in exhaustion.
(25) I don’t know how much time has passed, but suddenly the night was lit up with bright headlights, and a long shadow of some giant fell on my face. (26) I closed my eyes and through my eyelashes I saw my father. (27) He took me in his arms and pressed me to him. (28) In a whisper, he told his mother that he had reached the regional center, raised everyone to their feet and returned with an all-terrain vehicle.
(29) I dozed in his arms and through my sleep I heard him coughing. (30) Then no one attached any importance to this. (31) And for a long time later he was ill with bilateral pneumonia.
(32) ... My children are perplexed why, when decorating a Christmas tree, I always cry. (ZZ) From the darkness of the past, a father comes to me, he sits under the tree and puts his head on the button accordion, as if he stealthily wants to see his daughter among the dressed up crowd of children and smile at her cheerfully. (34) I look at his face shining with happiness and also want to smile at him, but instead I start to cry.
(According to N. Aksyonova)
Read a fragment of a review based on the text that you analyzed while completing tasks A29 - A31, B1 - B7.
This fragment examines the language features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the gaps with the numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. If you do not know which number from the list should be in place of the gap, write the number 0.
The sequence of numbers in the order in which you wrote them down in the text of the review at the place of the gaps, write down in the answer sheet No. 1 to the right of the task number B8, starting from the first cell.
“The use by the narrator to describe the blizzard of such a lexical means of expression as _____ ("terrible blizzard", "impenetrable darkness"), gives expressive power to the depicted picture, and such paths as _____ ("pain circled me" in sentence 20) and _____ ("the driver began to scream shrillly, like a woman" in sentence 15), convey the drama of the situation described in the text . A technique such as _____ (in sentence 34) enhances the emotional impact on the reader.
A polysemantic word, except for its direct meaning, i.e., the primary one, directly related to the object or phenomenon of reality ( varnish- “lacquer”), can also have a figurative meaning, secondary, not directly related to the real object ( varnish- “to embellish, to present something in a better way than it actually is”).
Tropes are turns of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense for the purpose of greater artistic expressiveness, figurativeness.
Types of trails:
1. An epithet is a figurative definition that allows you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of objects or phenomena: deceived steppe, tanned hills, dissolute wind, drunken expression of a cloud(Chekhov).
General epithets are distinguished, constantly used ( bitter cold, quiet evening), folk poetic ( red girl, clean field, damp land), individually-author's: marmalade mood(Chekhov), globe belly(Ilf, Petrov), rough smell of naphthalene balls(Nabokov).
2. Metaphor - a type of path, which is based on the transfer of meaning based on the similarity of objects in shape, color, nature of action, quality, etc. It is customary to define a metaphor as a hidden comparison.
According to the degree of figurativeness, metaphors are erased, common language ( the prow of the ship, the gold of the hair, the speech flows) and original, individual author's, speech: I open the pages of my palms(Okudzhava); this vobla lives(about a human ) on his wife's estate(Chekhov).
According to the composition of words, metaphors are simple (see above) and complex, detailed, cf. metaphorical image of a storm: Here the wind embraces a flock of waves with a strong hug and throws them on a grand scale in wild anger on the cliffs, breaking emerald masses into dust and spray.(Bitter).
3. Metonymy - a type of path, which is based on the transfer of contiguity, contact of objects, phenomena, their close connection in space and time. This is the relationship between a) an object and the material from which it is made: Not on silver - on gold ate(Griboyedov); b) content and containing: The theater is already full: the boxes are shining, the stalls and chairs, - everything boils(Pushkin); c) action and instrument of action: The pen of his revenge breathes(A.K. Tolstoy); d) the author and his work: I read Apuleius willingly, but I did not read Cicero(Pushkin), etc.
4. Synecdoche - transferring meaning from part to whole or vice versa: All flags will visit us(Pushkin); the use of the singular instead of the plural or vice versa: And it was heard before dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced(Lermontov).
5. Comparison - a figurative expression based on the likening of one object to another on the basis of a common feature. The comparison is expressed: a) by the instrumental case of the noun: Ippolit Matveyevich, who could not bear all the upheavals of night and day, laughed like a rat's laugh.(Ilf, Petrov); b) using the words "similar", "similar": crying song(Chekhov); c) turnovers with comparative conjunctions “like”, “as if”, “exactly”: Tables, chairs, creaky cabinets scattered around the rooms ... like the bones of a disassembled skeleton(Nabokov); Life was rough and low like a bass clef(Ilf, Petrov); d) the form of the comparative degree of adjectives, adverbs: Under it, a stream of lighter azure(Lermontov).
6. Allegory - allegory, the image of an abstract concept using a specific image, for example, in fables, cowardice appears in the form of a hare, cunning - in the form of a fox, carelessness - in the form of a dragonfly, etc.
7. Hyperbole - a strong exaggeration: A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper(Gogol); Oh, spring without end and without edge - Without end and without edge dream!(Block).
8. Litota - an underestimation of the size, strength, significance of an object, phenomenon (this is an inverse hyperbole): Your spitz, lovely spitz, no more than a thimble(Griboyedov).
9. Irony is an allegory in which words take on the opposite meaning, denial and ridicule under the guise of approval and consent. Often used in fables: Otkle, smart, you wander, head(about a donkey)? (Krylov).
10. Personification - attributing to inanimate objects the properties of living beings: And the star speaks to the star(Lermontov); What are you howling about, night wind, What are you so madly complaining about?(Tyutchev); The steppe threw off the morning penumbra, smiled, sparkled(Chekhov).
11. Oxymoron - a combination of contrasting words in meaning: Mother! Your son is beautifully ill(Mayakovsky); And the snow all around burned and froze(Parsnip).
Types of figures of speech
In addition to tropes, to increase the figurativeness and emotionality of artistic speech, stylistic syntax techniques (figures of speech) can be used:
1. Antithesis - a sharp opposition of any phenomena, signs, etc. to give speech a special expressiveness: They agreed. Wave and stone, Poetry and prose, Ice and fire Not so different from each other…(Pushkin); I see sad eyes, I hear cheerful speech(A.K. Tolstoy).
2. Inversion - indirect word order, which has a certain stylistic and semantic meaning: The servants do not dare to die, waiting for you around the table(Derzhavin); Smooth horns rustle in the straw A sloping cow's head(Zabolotsky).
3. Repetitions (words, several words, whole sentences) - are used to enhance the utterance, to give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm.
There are repetitions:
a) at the beginning of sentences (anaphora):
I know the city will
I know the garden is blooming
When such people
In the Soviet country there is(Mayakovsky);
b) at the end of phrases (epiphora):
Dear friend, and in this quiet house
The fever hits me.
Can't find me a place in a quiet house
Near peaceful fire(Block);
c) at the junction of poetic lines (anadiplosis), which gives the effect of "enlarging" the overall picture of the depicted:
He fell on the cold snow
On the cold snow, like a pine(Lermontov).
4. A rhetorical question that does not require an answer serves to emotionally affirm or deny something: What Russian does not like fast driving?(Gogol); Didn't you first so viciously persecute His free, bold gift?(Lermontov).
5. Rhetorical appeal - an appeal to an absent person, an inanimate object to enhance the expressiveness of speech: I greet you, a deserted corner, a haven of tranquility, work and inspiration.(Pushkin).
6. Gradation - alignment of homogeneous members according to the principle of strengthening (ascending gradation) or weakening (descending gradation) of a sign, action: You were, you are, you will be forever!(Derzhavin).
Tropes and figures of speech are used not only in fiction, but also in journalism, in oratory speeches, as well as in proverbs and sayings, in works of oral folk art.
Tasks for self-study
1. Indicate the tropes and stylistic figures used in this text.
I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
Withering gold embraced,
I won't be young anymore.
Now you won't fight so much
Cold touched heart
And the country of birch chintz
Not tempted to wander around barefoot.
Wandering spirit! You are less and less
You stir the flame of your mouth.
Oh my lost freshness
A riot of eyes and a flood of feelings.
Now I have become more stingy in desires,
My life, or did you dream of me?
Like I'm a spring echoing early
Ride on a pink horse.
All of us, all of us in this world are perishable,
Copper quietly pours from maple leaves ...
May you be blessed forever
That came to flourish and die.
(S. Yesenin)
2. Determine in what functional style the passage of this text is written, argue your answer.
This day has been preserved in me as a memory of the gentle smell of dusty homespun rugs with a cozy, gaudy old-fashioned pattern, the feeling of warmth with which the recently whitewashed walls were soaked through and through, and the image of a huge stove, like a formidable black ship, rooted into one of the white walls.
We drank fragrant tea, smelling of the countryside, from dull glasses, bit by bit with the city biscuits we had brought, and raspberry jam flowed down on the striped oilcloth of the table in thick bloody waterfalls. The glasses clinked festively on the coasters, a freshly woven silver cobweb shone cunningly in the corner, and somehow natively floated into the room from the cold vestibule a dope of worn, frosted boots and wicker mushroom baskets.
We go to the forest, the winter forest frozen in crystal. I was given earflaps eaten by more than one generation of moths, felt boots that belonged to the once deceased Pooh's grandfather, and a cheburashka fur coat that belonged to Pooh himself. We walk along a drizzled path leading to Nowhere, since near the forest itself, ceasing to wind, it sticks into the snowdrift pulp. Further only on skis. Skis, too, Pooh, with one stick, in scales of peeling paint, like two flat skinny fish.
Frost burns bare hands, pitifully peeking out of the stubby, not the size of a quilted jacket. Shrouded in mirror blue, the branches tinkle above our heads like a theatrical chandelier. And silence. (S.-M. Granik "My Fluff")
TROPE
Trope is a word or expression used figuratively to create artistic image and achieve greater expressiveness. Pathways include techniques such as epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes referred to as hyperbolas and litotes. No work of art is complete without tropes. The artistic word is polysemantic; the writer creates images, playing with the meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound - all this makes up the artistic possibilities of the word, which is the only tool of the writer or poet.
Note!
When creating a trail, the word is always used in a figurative sense.
Consider the different types of trails:
EPITHET(Greek Epitheton, attached) - this is one of the tropes, which is an artistic, figurative definition. An epithet can be:
adjectives: gentle face (S. Yesenin); these poor villages, this meager nature ... (F. Tyutchev); transparent maiden (A. Blok);
participles: edge abandoned(S. Yesenin); frantic dragon (A. Blok); takeoff radiant(M. Tsvetaeva);
nouns, sometimes together with their surrounding context: Here he is, leader without squad(M. Tsvetaeva); My youth! My dove is swarthy!(M. Tsvetaeva).
Each epithet reflects the uniqueness of the author's perception of the world, therefore it necessarily expresses some kind of assessment and has a subjective meaning: a wooden shelf is not an epithet, so there is no artistic definition, a wooden face is an epithet that expresses the impression of the interlocutor speaking about the facial expression, that is, creating an image.
There are stable (permanent) folklore epithets: remote burly kind well done, clear the sun, as well as tautological, that is, epithets-repetitions that have the same root with the word being defined: Oh you, grief is bitter, boredom is boring, mortal! (A. Blok).
In a work of art An epithet can perform various functions:
- characterize the subject: shining eyes, eyes diamonds;
- create atmosphere, mood: gloomy morning;
- convey the attitude of the author (narrator, lyrical hero) to the subject being characterized: "Where will our prankster"(A. Pushkin);
- combine all previous functions in equal proportions (in most cases, the use of the epithet).
Note! All color terms in a literary text are epithets.
COMPARISON- this is an artistic technique (tropes), in which an image is created by comparing one object with another. Comparison differs from other artistic comparisons, for example, similes, in that it always has a strict formal feature: a comparative construction or a turnover with comparative conjunctions. as, as if, as if, exactly, as if and the like. Type expressions he looked like... cannot be considered a comparison as a trope.
Comparison examples:
Comparison also plays certain roles in the text: sometimes authors use the so-called extended comparison, revealing various signs of a phenomenon or conveying one's attitude to several phenomena. Often the work is entirely based on comparison, as, for example, V. Bryusov's poem "Sonnet to Form":
PERSONALIZATION- an artistic technique (tropes), in which an inanimate object, phenomenon or concept is given human properties (do not confuse, it is human!). Personification can be used narrowly, in one line, in a small fragment, but it can be a technique on which the whole work is built (“You are my abandoned land” by S. Yesenin, “Mom and the evening killed by the Germans”, “Violin and a little nervously” by V. Mayakovsky and others). Personification is considered one of the types of metaphor (see below).
Impersonation task- correlate the depicted object with a person, make it closer to the reader, figuratively comprehend the inner essence of the object, hidden from everyday life. Personification is one of the oldest figurative means of art.
HYPERBOLA(Greek Hyperbole, exaggeration) is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative sense to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes. A technique opposite to hyperbole in content is LITOTES(Greek Litotes, simplicity) is an artistic understatement.
Hyperbole allows the author to show the reader in an exaggerated form the most characteristic features of the depicted object. Often, hyperbole and litotes are used by the author in an ironic vein, revealing not just characteristic, but negative, from the author's point of view, sides of the subject.
METAPHOR(Greek Metaphora, transfer) - a type of so-called complex trope, speech turnover, in which the properties of one phenomenon (object, concept) are transferred to another. Metaphor contains a hidden comparison, a figurative likening of phenomena using the figurative meaning of words, what the object is compared with is only implied by the author. No wonder Aristotle said that "to compose good metaphors means to notice similarities."
Metaphor examples:
METONYMY(Greek Metonomadzo, rename) - type of trail: a figurative designation of an object according to one of its signs.
Examples of metonymy:
When studying the topic "Means of artistic expression" and completing tasks, pay special attention to the definitions of the above concepts. You must not only understand their meaning, but also know the terminology by heart. This will protect you from practical mistakes: knowing for sure that the comparison technique has strict formal features (see theory on topic 1), you will not confuse this technique with a number of other artistic techniques that are also based on a comparison of several objects, but are not a comparison .
Please note that you must start your answer either with the suggested words (by rewriting them), or with your own version of the beginning of the full answer. This applies to all such assignments.
Recommended literature:
- Literary criticism: Reference materials. - M., 1988.
- Polyakov M. Rhetoric and Literature. Theoretical aspects. - In the book: Questions of Poetics and Artistic Semantics. - M.: Sov. writer, 1978.
- Dictionary of literary terms. - M., 1974.
Trope - the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense in order to create an artistic image, which results in an enrichment of meaning. Tropes include: epithet, oxymoron, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, pun, irony, sarcasm, paraphrase. No work of art is complete without tropes. The literary word is multi-valued, the writer creates images, playing with the meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound.
Metaphor - the use of a word in a figurative sense; a phrase that characterizes a given phenomenon by transferring to it the features inherent in another phenomenon (due to one or another similarity of the converging phenomena), which is so. arr. replaces him. The peculiarity of a metaphor as a type of trope is that it is a comparison, the members of which have merged so much that the first member (what was compared) is displaced and completely replaced by the second (what was compared).
"A bee from a wax cell / Flies for tribute in the field" (Pushkin)
where honey is compared with tribute and a beehive with a cell, with the first terms replaced by the second. Metaphor, like any trope, is based on the property of the word that in its meaning it relies not only on the essential and general qualities of objects (phenomena), but also on all the wealth of its secondary definitions and individual qualities and properties. For example, in the word "star" we, along with the essential and general meaning (celestial body), also have a number of secondary and individual features - the radiance of the star, its remoteness, etc. M. and arises through the use of "secondary" meanings of words, which allows you to establish new connections between them (a secondary sign of tribute is that it is collected; cells are its tightness, etc.). For artistic thinking, these "secondary" signs, expressing moments of sensuous visualization, are a means of revealing through them the essential features of the reflected class reality. M. enriches our understanding of a given subject, attracting new phenomena to characterize it, expanding our understanding of its properties.
Metonymy is a type of trope, the use of a word in a figurative sense, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, as a metaphor, with the difference from the latter that this substitution can only be made by a word denoting an object (phenomenon) located in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object (phenomenon), which is denoted by the replaced word. The meaning of metonymy is that it singles out a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the rest. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, by a greater real relationship of substituting members, and on the other hand, by greater limitation, the elimination of those features that are not directly given in this phenomenon. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general, but it is of particular importance in artistic and literary creativity, receiving in each specific case its own class saturation and use.
"All flags will visit us", where the flags replace the countries (a part replaces the whole). The meaning of metonymy is that it singles out a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the rest. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, by a greater real interconnection of substituting members, and, on the other hand, by greater limitation, by the elimination of those features that are not directly noticeable in this phenomenon. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general (cf., for example, the word "wiring", the meaning of which is metonymically extended from action to its result), but it has a special meaning in artistic and literary creativity.
Synecdoche is a type of trope, the use of a word in a figurative sense, namely, the replacement of a word denoting a known object or group of objects with a word denoting a part of a named object or a single object.
Synecdoche is a type of metonymy. Synecdoche is a technique that consists in transferring meaning from one object to another on the basis of quantitative similarity between them.
"The buyer chooses quality products." The word "Buyer" replaces the entire set of possible buyers.
"Stern moored to the shore." The ship is meant.
Hyperbole is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative sense to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes.
"I've said it a thousand times"
"We have enough food for six months"
"For four years we have been preparing an escape, we have saved three tons of grubs"
Litota is the reverse of hyperbole, a stylistic figure of explicit and deliberate understatement, belittling and destruction, with the aim of enhancing expressiveness. In essence, the litote is extremely close to hyperbole in its expressive meaning, which is why it can be considered as a type of hyperbole.
"A horse the size of a cat"
"A person's life is one moment"
"Waist, no thicker than the neck of a bottle"
Personification - an expression that gives an idea of a concept or phenomenon by depicting it in the form of a living person endowed with the properties of this concept (for example, the image of the Greeks and Romans of happiness in the form of a capricious goddess-fortune, etc.).
Very often, personification is used in the depiction of nature, which is endowed with certain human features, "revived":
"the sea laughed"
"... The Neva rushed to the sea all night against the storm, not overcoming their violent dope ... and arguing
it became too much for her... The weather became more and more fierce, the Neva swelled and roared... and suddenly, like a wild beast, it rushed at the city... Siege! Attack! evil waves, like thieves, climb through the windows, etc.
Allegory is a conditional representation of abstract ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue. Thus, the difference between allegory and related forms of figurative expression (tropes) is the presence in it of specific symbolism, subject to abstract interpretation; therefore, the rather common definition of allegory as an extended metaphor (J.P. Richter, Fischer, Richard Meyer) is essentially incorrect, since the metaphor lacks that logical act of reinterpretation, which is inherent in allegory Of the literary genres based on allegory, the most important are: fable, parable , morality. But allegory can become the main artistic device of any genre in cases where abstract concepts and relationships become the subject of poetic creativity.
"He tangled up such allegories and equivocations that, it seems, a century would not have succeeded"
Antonomasia - a turn of speech, expressed in the replacement of the name or name by indicating some essential feature of the subject (for example: the great poet instead of Pushkin) or its relationship to something (the author of "War and Peace" instead of Tolstoy; Peleus son instead of Achilles). In addition, anthonomasia is also considered to be the replacement of a common noun with a proper name (Aesculapius instead of a doctor).
Epithet - refers to tropes, this is a figurative definition that gives an artistic description of an object or phenomenon. An epithet is a hidden comparison and can be expressed both as an adjective and as an adverb, noun, numeral or verb. Due to its structure and special function in the text, the epithet acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, helps the word (expression) to acquire color, richness.
Nouns: "Here he is, the leader without squads," "My youth! My swarthy dove!"
Paraphrase is a syntactic-semantic figure that consists in replacing a one-word name of an object or action with a descriptive verbose expression. School and classical style distinguishes several types of paraphrases:
I. As a grammatical figure:
- a) the property of the object is taken as a control word, while the name of the object is taken as a controlled word: "The poet used to amuse the khans with rattlesnakes" (a paraphrase of the word "verses");
- b) the verb is replaced by a noun formed from the same stem with another (auxiliary) verb: "an exchange is made" instead of "is exchanged".
II. As a stylistic figure:
c) the name of the object is replaced by a descriptive expression, which is an expanded path (metaphor, metonymy, etc.): "send me, in the language of Delisle, twisted steel piercing the tarred head of the bottle, i.e. a corkscrew"
Comparison is a comparison of one object or phenomenon with another, which gives the description a special figurativeness, visibility, pictoriality.
Examples: trope artwork
"There, like a black iron leg, ran, galloped poker"
"A white snowdrift rushes along the ground like a snake"
