Ivan 3 was appointed by fate to restore autocracy in Russia, did not suddenly accept this great deed and did not consider all means permitted.

Karamzin N.M.

The reign of Ivan 3 lasted from 1462 to 1505. This time entered the history of Russia as the beginning of the unification of the lands of specific Russia around Moscow, which created the foundations of a single state. It was also Ivan 3 who was the ruler under whom Russia got rid of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, which lasted almost 2 centuries.

Ivan 3 began his reign in 1462 at the age of 22. The throne passed to him according to the will from Vasily 2.

State administration

Beginning in 1485, Ivan III proclaimed himself the sovereign of all Russia. From this moment begins a unified policy aimed at strengthening the international position of the country. As for internal control, it is difficult to call the power of the prince absolute. The general scheme of governing Moscow and the entire state under Ivan 3 is presented below.

The prince, of course, ascended above everyone, but the church and the boyar duma were quite a bit inferior in importance. It suffices to note that:

• The power of the prince does not extend to church lands and boyar estates.
• The church and the boyars have the right to mint their own coin.

Thanks to the Sudebnik of 1497, the feeding system takes root in Russia, when princely officials receive broad powers in terms of local government.

Under Ivan 3, a system of transfer of power was first implemented, when the prince appointed himself a successor. It was also during this era that the first Orders began to take shape. The order of the Treasury and the Palace were founded, which were in charge of the receipt of taxes and the distribution of land to the nobles for service.

Unification of Russia around Moscow

Conquest of Novgorod

Novgorod during the period of Ivan 3 coming to power retained the principle of governance through veche. Veche chose the posadnik, who determined the policy of Veliky Novgorod. In 1471, the struggle between the boyar groups "Lithuania" and "Moscow" intensified. This was ordered to the massacre at the veche, as a result of which the Lithuanian boyars won the victory, led by Marfa Boretskaya, the wife of the retired posadnik. Immediately after this, Marfa signed the vassal oath of Novgorod to Lithuania. Ivan 3 immediately sent a letter to the city, demanding to recognize the supremacy of Moscow in the city, but the Novgorod veche was against it. This meant war.

In the summer of 1471, Ivan 3 sent troops to Novgorod. The battle took place near the Shelon River, where the Novgorodians were defeated. On July 14, a battle took place near the walls of Novgorod, where the Muscovites won, and the Novgorodians lost about 12 thousand people killed. Moscow strengthened its positions in the city, but kept self-government for Novgorodians. In 1478, when it became obvious that Novgorod did not stop trying to go under the rule of Lithuania, Ivan 3 deprived the city of any self-government, finally subordinating it to Moscow.

Novgorod was now ruled by the Moscow governor, and the famous bell, symbolizing the freedom of the Novgorodians, was sent to Moscow.

Accession of Tver, Vyatka and Yaroslavl

Prince of Tver Mikhail Borisovich, wishing to preserve the independence of his principality, married the granddaughter of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Kazemir 4. This did not stop Ivan 3, who in 1485 started the war. The situation for Mikhail was complicated by the fact that many Tver boyars had already switched to the service of the Moscow prince. Soon the siege of Tver began, and Mikhail fled to Lithuania. After that, Tver surrendered without resistance. Ivan 3 left his son Ivan to manage the city. So there was a subordination of Tver to Moscow.

Yaroslavl during the reign of Ivan 3 formally retained its independence, but it was a gesture of goodwill from Ivan 3 himself. Yaroslavl was completely dependent on Moscow, and its independence was expressed only in the fact that local princes had the right to inherit power in the city. The wife of the Yaroslavl prince was the sister of Ivan 3, Anna, which is why he allowed her husband and sons to inherit power and rule independently. Although all important decisions were made in Moscow.

Vyatka had a control system similar to Novgorod. In 1489, Tver submitted to the rule of Ivan III, passing into the control of Moscow along with the ancient city of Arsk. After that, Moscow strengthened as a single center for the unification of Russian lands into a single state.

Foreign policy

The foreign policy of Ivan 3 was expressed in three directions:

• East - liberation from the yoke and the solution of the problem of the Kazan Khanate.
• Southern - confrontation with the Crimean Khanate.
• Western - the solution of border issues with Lithuania.

East direction

The key task of the eastern direction is the deliverance of Russia from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. The result was standing on the Ugra River in 1480, after which Russia gained independence from the Horde. 240 years of the yoke were completed and the rise of the Muscovite state began.

Wives of Prince Ivan 3

Ivan 3 was married twice: the first wife was Princess Maria of Tver, the second wife was Sophia Paleolog from the family of Byzantine emperors. From his first marriage, the prince had a son - Ivan Molodoy.

Sophia (Zoya) Palaiologos was the niece of the Byzantine emperor Constantine 11, but after the fall of Constantinople, she moved to Rome, where she lived under the auspices of the pope. For Ivan III, this was a great option for marriage, after the death of Princess Mary. This marriage made it possible to unite the ruling dynasties of Russia and Byzantium.

In January 1472, an embassy was sent to Rome for the bride, headed by Prince Ivan Fryazin. The Pope agreed to send Palaiologos to Russia under 2 conditions:

1. Russia will persuade the Golden Horde to war with Turkey.
2. Russia in one form or another will accept Catholicism.

The ambassadors accepted all the conditions, and Sophia Paleolog went to Moscow. On November 12, 1472, she entered the capital. It is noteworthy that at the entrance to the city, traffic was stopped for several days. This was due to the fact that Catholic priests were at the head of the delegation. Ivan 3 considered worship of someone else's faith a sign of disrespect for his own, so he demanded that the Catholic priests hide the crosses and move deeper into the column. Only after meeting these requirements, the movement continued.

succession to the throne

In 1498, the first dispute over the succession to the throne arose. Part of the boyars demanded that his grandson Dmitry become the heir of Ivan 3. It was the son of Ivan the Young and Elena Voloshanka. Ivan Young was the son of Ivan 3 from his marriage to Princess Mary. Another group of boyars spoke out for Vasily, the son of Ivan 3 and Sophia Paleolog.

The Grand Duke suspected his wife that she wanted to poison Dmitry and his mother Elena. A conspiracy was announced and some people were executed. As a result, Ivan 3 became suspicious of his wife and son, so on February 4, 1498, Ivan 3 names Dmitry, who at that time was 15 years old, as his successor.

After that, there was a change in the mood of the Grand Duke. He decided to re-investigate the circumstances of the assassination attempt on Dmitry and Elena. As a result, Dmitry was already taken into custody, and Vasily was appointed prince of Novgorod and Pskov.

In 1503, Princess Sophia died, and the prince's health became noticeably worse. Therefore, he gathered the boyars and declared Vasily, the future Prince Vasily 3, his heir.

The results of the reign of Ivan 3

In 1505 Prince Ivan III dies. After himself, he leaves a great legacy and great deeds that were destined to be continued by his son Vasily. The results of the reign of Ivan 3 can be characterized as follows:

• Elimination of the reasons for the fragmentation of Russia and the unification of the lands around Moscow.
• The beginning of the creation of a single state
• Ivan 3 was one of the strongest rulers of his era

Ivan 3 was not an educated person, in the classical sense of the word. He could not get enough education in childhood, but this was compensated by his natural ingenuity and quick wit. Many call him a cunning king, because he very often achieved the results he needed by cunning.

An important stage in the reign of Prince Ivan III was the marriage to Sophia Paleolog, as a result of which Russia became a strong power, and it began to be discussed throughout Europe. This, no doubt, gave impetus to the development of statehood in our country.

Key events of the reign of Ivan III:

• 1463 - annexation of Yaroslavl
• 1474 - annexation of the Rostov principality
• 1478 - annexation of Veliky Novgorod
• 1485 - annexation of the Tver principality
• Liberation of Russia from the Horde yoke
• 1480 - standing on the Ugra
• 1497 - adoption of the code of law Ivan 3.

Ivan 3 Vasilyevich
Predecessor:	Vasily II the Dark
Successor:	Vasily III
Religion:	Orthodoxy
Birth:
Buried:	Archangel Cathedral in Moscow
Dynasty:	Rurikovichi
	Vasily II the Dark
	Maria Yaroslavna, daughter of Prince Yaroslav Borovsky
	1) Maria Borisovna 2) Sofia Fominichna Paleolog
	Sons: Ivan, Vasily, Yuri, Dmitry, Semyon, Andrey daughters: Elena, Feodosia, Elena and Evdokia

Childhood and youth

Foreign policy

"Gathering the Lands"

Annexation of Novgorod

Union with the Crimean Khanate

Trips to Perm and Yugra

Domestic politics

Introduction to the Law Code

Architecture

Literature

Church politics

First conflicts

Struggle of heirs

The death of the Grand Duke

Character and appearance

Board results

Ivan III Vasilievich(also known as Ivan the Great; January 22, 1440 - October 27, 1505) - the Grand Duke of Moscow from 1462 to 1505, the son of the Moscow Grand Duke Vasily II Vasilyevich the Dark.

During the reign of Ivan Vasilyevich, a significant part of the Russian lands around Moscow was united and it became the center of the all-Russian state. The final liberation of the country from the rule of the Horde khans was achieved; the Code of Laws was adopted - a set of laws of the state, and a number of reforms were carried out that laid the foundations for the local system of land tenure.

Childhood and youth

Ivan III was born on January 22, 1440 in the family of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily Vasilyevich. Ivan's mother was Maria Yaroslavna, the daughter of the appanage prince Yaroslav Borovsky, the Russian princess of the Serpukhov branch of the house of Daniel (the Danilovich family) and a distant relative of his father. He was born on the day of memory of the Apostle Timothy, and in his honor received his "direct name" - Timothy. The next church holiday was the day of the transfer of the relics of St. John Chrysostom, in honor of which the prince received the name by which he is best known.

Reliable data on the early childhood of Ivan III has not been preserved; most likely, he was brought up at the court of his father. However, further events dramatically changed the fate of the heir to the throne: on July 7, 1445, near Suzdal, the army of Grand Duke Vasily II suffered a crushing defeat from the army under the command of the Tatar princes Mamutyak and Yakub (sons of Khan Ulu-Mohammed). The wounded Grand Duke was captured, and power in the state temporarily passed to the eldest in the family of the descendants of Ivan Kalita - Prince Dmitry Yuryevich Shemyaka. The capture of the prince and the expectation of the Tatar invasion led to the growth of confusion in the principality; The situation was exacerbated by a fire in Moscow.

In autumn, the Grand Duke returned from captivity. Moscow had to pay a ransom for its prince - about several tens of thousands of rubles. Under these conditions, a conspiracy matured among the supporters of Dmitry Shemyaka, and when in February 1446 Vasily II went to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery with his children, a rebellion began in Moscow. The Grand Duke was captured, transported to Moscow, and on the night of February 13-14, blinded by order of Dmitry Shemyaka (which earned him the nickname "Dark"). According to Novgorod sources, the Grand Duke was accused of "bringing the Tatars to the Russian land" and giving them Moscow lands "for feeding".

The six-year-old prince Ivan did not fall into the hands of Shemyaka: the children of Vasily, together with the faithful boyars, managed to escape to Murom, which was under the rule of a supporter of the Grand Duke. After some time, Ryazan Bishop Jonah arrived in Murom, announcing the consent of Dmitry Shemyaka to allocate an inheritance to the deposed Vasily; relying on his promise, Basil's supporters agreed to hand over the children to the new authorities. On May 6, 1446, Prince Ivan arrived in Moscow. However, Shemyaka did not keep his word: three days later, Vasily's children were sent to Uglich to their father, to imprisonment.

After several months, Shemyaka nevertheless decided to grant the former Grand Duke an inheritance - Vologda. Vasily's children followed him. But the deposed prince was not at all going to admit his defeat, and left for Tver to ask for help from the Grand Duke of Tver Boris. The formalization of this union was the engagement of the six-year-old Ivan Vasilyevich with the daughter of the Tver prince Maria Borisovna. Soon Vasily's troops occupied Moscow. The power of Dmitry Shemyaka fell, he himself fled, Vasily II reasserted himself on the grand prince's throne. However, Shemyaka, who had entrenched himself in the northern lands (the recently taken city of Ustyug became his base), was not at all going to surrender, and the internecine war continued.

This period (approximately the end of 1448 - the middle of 1449) is the first mention of the heir to the throne, Ivan, as the "Grand Duke". In 1452, he was already sent as a nominal head of the army on a campaign against the Ustyug fortress of Kokshenga. The heir to the throne successfully fulfilled the assignment he received, cutting off Ustyug from the Novgorod lands (there was a danger of Novgorod entering the war on the side of Shemyaka) and brutally ruining the Kokshenga volost. Returning from a campaign with a victory, Prince Ivan married his bride, Maria Borisovna (June 4, 1452). Soon, Dmitry Shemyaka, who suffered a final defeat, was poisoned, and the bloody civil strife that had lasted a quarter of a century began to wane.

Accession to the throne

In subsequent years, Prince Ivan becomes co-ruler with his father. On the coins of the Muscovite state, the inscription “defend all Russia” appears, he himself, like his father, Vasily, bears the title “Grand Duke”. For two years, the prince, as a specific prince, rules Pereslavl-Zalessky, one of the key cities of the Moscow state. An important role in the upbringing of the heir to the throne is played by military campaigns, where he is a nominal commander. So, in 1455, Ivan, together with the experienced governor Fyodor Basenko, made a victorious campaign against the Tatars invading Russia. In August 1460, he led the Russian army, blocking the way to Moscow for the Tatars of Khan Akhmat, who invaded Russia and laid siege to Pereyaslavl-Ryazan.

In March 1462, Ivan's father, Grand Duke Vasily, fell seriously ill. Shortly before that, he made a will, according to which he divided the grand-ducal lands between his sons. As the eldest son, Ivan received not only the great reign, but also the main part of the territory of the state - 16 main cities (not counting Moscow, which he was supposed to own together with his brothers). The rest of Vasily's children were bequeathed only 12 cities; while most of the former capitals of the specific principalities (in particular, Galich - the former capital of Dmitry Shemyaka) went to the new Grand Duke. When Vasily died on March 27, 1462, Ivan became the new Grand Duke without any problems and fulfilled the will of his father, endowing the brothers with lands according to the will.

The Grand Duke, who ascended the throne, marked the beginning of his reign by issuing gold coins, on which the names of Grand Duke Ivan III and his son, heir to the throne, Ivan the Young, were minted. The issue of coins did not last long, and was discontinued after a short time.

Foreign policy

During the entire reign of Ivan III, the main goal of the country's foreign policy was the unification of northeastern Russia into a single Muscovite state. It should be noted that this policy proved to be extremely successful. At the beginning of Ivan's reign, the Principality of Moscow was surrounded by the lands of other Russian principalities; dying, he handed over to his son Vasily the country that united most of these principalities. Only Pskov, Ryazan, Volokolamsk and Novgorod-Seversky retained relative (not too wide) independence.

Beginning with the reign of Ivan III, relations with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania took on a special urgency. Moscow's desire to unite the Russian lands was clearly in conflict with Lithuanian interests, and constant border skirmishes and the transition of border princes and boyars between states did not contribute to reconciliation. Meanwhile, success in expanding the country also contributed to the growth of international relations with European countries.

In the reign of Ivan III, the final formalization of the independence of the Russian state takes place. The already fairly nominal dependence on the Horde ceases. The government of Ivan III strongly supports the opponents of the Horde among the Tatars; in particular, an alliance was concluded with the Crimean Khanate. The eastern direction of foreign policy also turned out to be successful: combining diplomacy and military force, Ivan III introduces the Kazan Khanate into the channel of Moscow politics.

"Gathering the Lands"

Having become the Grand Duke, Ivan III began his foreign policy activities with the confirmation of previous agreements with neighboring princes and a general strengthening of positions. So, agreements were concluded with the Tver and Belozersky principalities; Prince Vasily Ivanovich, married to the sister of Ivan III, was placed on the throne of the Ryazan principality.

Beginning in the 1470s, activities aimed at annexing the rest of the Russian principalities sharply intensified. The first is the Yaroslavl principality, which finally loses the remnants of independence in 1471, after the death of Prince Alexander Fedorovich. The heir of the last Yaroslavl prince, Prince Daniil Penko, entered the service of Ivan III and later received the rank of boyar. In 1472, Prince Yuri Vasilyevich Dmitrovsky, Ivan's brother, died. The Dmitrov principality passed to the Grand Duke; however, this was opposed by the rest of the brothers of the deceased Prince Yuri. The brewing conflict was hushed up not without the help of Vasily's widow, Maria Yaroslavna, who did everything to extinguish the quarrel between the children. As a result, the younger brothers also received part of Yuri's lands.

In 1474, the turn of the Rostov principality came. In fact, it was part of the Muscovite state before: the Grand Duke was a co-owner of Rostov. Now the princes of Rostov have sold "their half" of the principality to the treasury, thus finally turning into the service nobility. The Grand Duke transferred what he received to the inheritance of his mother.

Annexation of Novgorod

The situation with Novgorod developed differently, which is explained by the difference in the nature of the statehood of the specific principalities and the commercial and aristocratic Novgorod state. A clear threat to independence from the Grand Duke of Moscow led to the formation of an influential anti-Moscow party. It was headed by the energetic widow of the posadnik Martha Boretskaya and her sons. The clear superiority of Moscow forced the supporters of independence to search for allies, primarily in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. However, in the conditions of the religious struggle between Orthodoxy and Uniatism, the appeal to the Catholic Casimir, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, was perceived extremely ambiguously by the veche, and the Orthodox prince Mikhail Olelkovich, the son of the Kiev prince and cousin of Ivan III, who arrived on November 8, 1470, was invited to defend the city. However, in connection with the death of the Novgorod archbishop Jonah, who invited Mikhail, and the ensuing aggravation of the internal political struggle, the prince did not stay in Novgorod land for long, and already on March 15, 1471 he left the city. The anti-Moscow party managed to win a major success in the internal political struggle: an embassy was sent to Lithuania, after the return of which a draft treaty was drawn up with Grand Duke Casimir. According to this agreement, Novgorod, while recognizing the power of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, nevertheless kept its state system intact; Lithuania also pledged to help in the fight against the Muscovite state. A clash with Ivan III became inevitable.

On June 6, 1471, a ten-thousandth detachment of Moscow troops under the command of Danila Kholmsky set out from the capital in the direction of Novgorod land, a week later the army of Obolensky's Striga set out on the campaign, and on June 20, 1471, Ivan III himself began the campaign from Moscow. The advance of Moscow troops through the lands of Novgorod was accompanied by robberies and violence, designed to intimidate the enemy.

Novgorod also did not sit idly by. A militia was formed from the townspeople, the command was taken by the posadniks Dmitry Boretsky and Vasily Kazimir. The number of this army reached forty thousand people, but its combat effectiveness, due to the haste of the formation of citizens not trained in military affairs, remained low. In July 1471, the Novgorod army advanced in the direction of Pskov, in order to prevent the Pskov army, allied to the Moscow prince, from joining the main forces of Novgorod's opponents. On the Shelon River, Novgorodians unexpectedly encountered Kholmsky's detachment. On July 14, a battle began between the opponents.

During the battle on Shelon, the Novgorod army was utterly defeated. The losses of the Novgorodians amounted to 12 thousand people, about two thousand people were captured; Dmitry Boretsky and three other boyars were executed. The city was under siege, among the Novgorodians themselves, the pro-Moscow party took over, which began negotiations with Ivan III. On August 11, 1471, a peace treaty was concluded, according to which Novgorod was obliged to pay an indemnity of 16,000 rubles, retained its state structure, but could not “surrender” under the rule of the Lithuanian Grand Duke; a significant part of the vast Dvina land was ceded to the Grand Duke of Moscow. One of the key issues in relations between Novgorod and Moscow was the question of the judiciary. In the autumn of 1475, the Grand Duke arrived in Novgorod, where he personally dealt with a number of cases of unrest; some figures of the anti-Moscow opposition were declared guilty. In fact, during this period, judicial dual power was taking shape in Novgorod: a number of complainants went directly to Moscow, where they presented their claims. It was this situation that led to the emergence of a pretext for a new war, which ended with the fall of Novgorod.

In the spring of 1477, a number of complainants from Novgorod gathered in Moscow. Among these people were two minor officials - Nazar from Podvoi and clerk Zakhary. Outlining their case, they called the Grand Duke “sovereign” instead of the traditional address “lord”, which suggested the equality of “lord of the great prince” and “lord of the great Novgorod”. Moscow immediately seized on this pretext; ambassadors were sent to Novgorod, demanding official recognition of the title of sovereign, the final transfer of the court into the hands of the grand duke, as well as the device in the city of the grand duke's residence. Veche, after listening to the ambassadors, refused to accept the ultimatum and began preparations for war.

On October 9, 1477, the Grand Duke's army set out on a campaign against Novgorod. It was joined by the troops of the allies - Tver and Pskov. The beginning of the siege of the city revealed deep divisions among the defenders: supporters of Moscow insisted on peace negotiations with the Grand Duke. One of the supporters of the conclusion of peace was the Archbishop of Novgorod Theophilus, which gave the opponents of the war a certain advantage, expressed in sending an embassy to the Grand Duke with the archbishop at the head. But an attempt to negotiate on the same terms was not successful: on behalf of the Grand Duke, the ambassadors were given stringent requirements (“I’ll ring the bell in our fatherland in Novgorod, don’t be a posadnik, but keep our state”), which actually meant the end of Novgorod independence. Such a clearly expressed ultimatum led to new unrest in the city; from behind the city walls, high-ranking boyars began to move to the headquarters of Ivan III, including the military leader of the Novgorodians, Prince V. Grebenka-Shuisky. As a result, it was decided to give in to the demands of Moscow, and on January 15, 1478, Novgorod surrendered, the veche orders were abolished, and the veche bell and the city archive were sent to Moscow.

"Standing on the Ugra" and liberation from the power of the Horde

Relations with the Horde, already tense, by the beginning of the 1470s, finally deteriorated. The Horde continued to disintegrate; on the territory of the former Golden Horde, in addition to the immediate successor (“Great Horde”), the Astrakhan, Kazan, Crimean, Nogai and Siberian Hordes were also formed. In 1472, Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat began a campaign against Russia. At Tarusa, the Tatars met a large Russian army. All attempts of the Horde to cross the Oka were repulsed. The Horde army managed to burn the city of Aleksin, but the campaign as a whole ended in failure. Soon (in the same year 1472 or in 1476) Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Khan of the Great Horde, which would inevitably lead to a new clash. However, until 1480, Akhmat was busy fighting the Crimean Khanate.

According to the "Kazan History" (a literary monument written no earlier than 1564), the immediate reason for the start of the war was the execution of the Horde embassy sent by Akhmat to Ivan III for tribute. According to this news, the Grand Duke, refusing to pay money to the Khan, took "the basma of his face" and trampled it; after that, all the Horde ambassadors, except for one, were executed. However, the messages of the Kazan History, which contain, among other things, a number of factual errors, are frankly legendary in nature and, as a rule, are not taken seriously by modern historians.

One way or another, in the summer of 1480, Khan Akhmat moved to Russia. The situation for the Muscovite state was complicated by the deterioration of relations with its Western neighbors. The Lithuanian Grand Duke Casimir entered into an alliance with Akhmat and could attack at any moment, and the Lithuanian army could overcome the distance from Vyazma, which belonged to Lithuania, to Moscow in a few days. The troops of the Livonian Order attacked Pskov. Another blow for Grand Duke Ivan was the rebellion of his brothers: the appanage princes Boris and Andrei Bolshoi, dissatisfied with the oppression of the Grand Duke (for example, in violation of customs, after the death of his brother Yuri, Ivan III took all his inheritance for himself, did not share with the brothers the rich booty taken in Novgorod, and also violated the ancient right of departure of the nobles, ordering to seize Prince Obolensky, who had left the Grand Duke for his brother Boris), together with his entire court and squads, drove off to the Lithuanian border and entered into negotiations with Kazimir. And although, as a result of active negotiations with the brothers, as a result of bargaining and promises, Ivan III managed to prevent their action against him, the threat of a repeat of the civil war did not leave the Russian state.

Finding out that Khan Akhmat was moving towards the Russian border, Ivan III, having gathered troops, also headed south, to the Oka River. The troops of the Grand Duke of Tver also came to the aid of the Grand Duke's army. For two months, the army, ready for battle, was waiting for the enemy, but Khan Akhmat, also ready for battle, did not start offensive operations. Finally, in September 1480, Khan Akhmat crossed the Oka south of Kaluga and headed through Lithuanian territory to the Ugra River - the border between Moscow and Lithuanian possessions.

On September 30, Ivan III left the troops and left for Moscow, instructing the troops under the formal command of the heir, Ivan the Young, who also included his uncle, specific prince Andrei Vasilyevich Menshoi, to move in the direction of the Ugra River. At the same time, the prince ordered to burn Kashira. Sources mention the hesitation of the Grand Duke; in one of the chronicles it is even noted that Ivan panicked: “the horror was found on n, and you want to run away from the shore, and your Grand Duchess Roman and the treasury with her were sent to Beloozero.”

Subsequent events are interpreted in the sources ambiguously. The author of an independent Moscow collection of the 1480s writes that the appearance of the Grand Duke in Moscow made a painful impression on the townspeople, among whom a murmur arose: you sell nonsense (you exact a lot of what you shouldn’t). And now, having angered the tsar himself, without paying him an exit, you betray us to the tsar and the Tatars. After that, the annals report that Bishop Vassian of Rostov, who met the prince together with the metropolitan, directly accused him of cowardice; after that, Ivan, fearing for his life, left for Krasnoye Sel'tso, north of the capital. Grand Duchess Sophia, with her entourage and the sovereign's treasury, was sent to a safe place, to Beloozero, to the court of the appanage prince Mikhail Vereisky. The Grand Duke's mother refused to leave Moscow. According to this chronicle, the Grand Duke repeatedly tried to summon his son Ivan the Young from his army, sending him letters, which he ignored; then Ivan ordered Prince Kholmsky to bring his son to him by force. Kholmsky did not comply with this order, trying to persuade the prince, to which he, according to the message of this chronicle, replied: “It is fitting for me to die here, and not to go to my father.” Also, as one of the measures to prepare for the invasion of the Tatars, the Grand Duke ordered the Moscow Posad to be burned.

As R. G. Skrynnikov notes, the story of this chronicle is in clear contradiction with a number of other sources. So, in particular, the image of the Rostov Bishop Vassian as the worst accuser of the Grand Duke does not find confirmation; judging by the "Message" and the facts of his biography, Vassian was completely loyal to the Grand Duke. The researcher connects the creation of this vault with the environment of the heir to the throne, Ivan the Young and the dynastic struggle in the grand-ducal family. This, in his opinion, explains both the condemnation of Sophia's actions and the praise addressed to the heir - as opposed to the indecisive (turned into cowardly under the chronicler's pen) actions of the Grand Duke.

At the same time, the very fact of Ivan III's departure to Moscow is recorded in almost all sources; the difference in chronicle stories refers only to the duration of this trip. The grand ducal chroniclers reduced this trip to only three days (September 30 - October 3, 1480). The fact of fluctuations in the grand ducal environment is also obvious; the grand-ducal code of the first half of the 1490s mentions a certain Mamon as an opponent of the resistance to the Tatars; hostile to Ivan III, an independent code of the 1480s, in addition to G.V. Mamon, also mentions I.V. Oshchera, and the Rostov chronicle - V.B. Tuchko. Meanwhile, in Moscow, the Grand Duke held a meeting with his boyars, and ordered about the preparation of the capital for a possible siege. Through the mediation of the mother, active negotiations were held with the rebellious brothers, which ended in the restoration of relations. On October 3, the Grand Duke left Moscow to join the troops, however, before reaching them, he settled in the town of Kremenets, 60 versts from the mouth of the Ugra, where he waited for the troops of the brothers who stopped the rebellion, Andrei Bolshoi and Boris Volotsky, to approach. Meanwhile, fierce clashes began on the Ugra. The attempts of the Horde to cross the river were successfully repulsed by Russian troops. Soon Ivan III sent the ambassador Ivan Tovarkov to the khan with rich gifts, asking him to retreat away and not to ruin the "ulus". Khan demanded the personal presence of the prince, but he refused to go to him; the prince also refused the khan's offer to send him his son, brother, or Nikifor Basenkov, an ambassador known for his generosity (who had previously often traveled to the Horde).

On October 26, 1480, the Ugra River froze over. The Russian army, gathered together, withdrew to the city of Kremenets, then to Borovsk. On November 11, Khan Akhmat gave the order to retreat. A small Tatar detachment managed to destroy a number of Russian volosts near Aleksin, but after Russian troops were sent in its direction, they also retreated to the steppe. Akhmat's refusal to pursue the Russian troops is explained by the unpreparedness of the khan's army to wage war in the conditions of a harsh winter - as the chronicle says, "because the Tatars were naked and barefoot, they were skinned." In addition, it became quite clear that King Casimir was not going to fulfill his allied obligations towards Akhmat. In addition to repulsing the attack of the Crimean troops allied to Ivan III, Lithuania was busy solving internal problems. "Standing on the Ugra" ended with the actual victory of the Russian state, which received the desired independence.

Confrontation with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Border War of 1487-1494

Significant changes took place during the reign of Ivan III in the relations of the Muscovite state with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Initially friendly (the Lithuanian Grand Duke Casimir was even appointed, according to the will of Vasily II, the guardian of the children of the Grand Duke of Moscow), they gradually deteriorated. Moscow's desire to unite the Russian lands constantly ran into opposition from Lithuania. The attempt of the Novgorodians to pass under the rule of Casimir did not contribute to the friendship of the two states, and the union of Lithuania and the Horde in 1480, during the "standing on the Ugra", heated relations to the limit. It was to this time that the formation of the union of the Russian state and the Crimean Khanate dates back.

Beginning in the 1480s, the aggravation of the situation brought the matter to border skirmishes. In 1481, a conspiracy of princes Ivan Yuryevich Golshansky, Mikhail Olelkovich and Fedor Ivanovich Belsky, who wanted to transfer their possessions to the Grand Duke of Moscow, was uncovered in Lithuania; Ivan Golshansky and Mikhail Olelkovich were executed, Prince Belsky managed to escape to Moscow, where he received control of a number of regions on the Lithuanian border. In 1482, Prince I. Glinsky fled to Moscow. In the same year, the Lithuanian ambassador B. A. Sakovich demanded that the Moscow prince recognize the rights of Lithuania to Rzhev and Velikiye Luki and their volosts.

In the context of the confrontation with Lithuania, the alliance with the Crimea acquired particular importance. Following the agreements reached, in the fall of 1482, the Crimean Khan made a devastating raid on Lithuanian Ukraine. As the Nikon Chronicle reported, “September 1, according to the word of the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan Vasilyevich of All Russia, Mengli-Girey, the king of the Crimean Perekop Horde, came with all his might to the queen power and the city of Kyiv, taking it and burning it with fire, and seized the governor of the Kiev pan Ivashka Khotkovich , and it is full of countless taking; and the land of Kiev is empty." According to the Pskov Chronicle, 11 cities fell as a result of the campaign, the entire district was devastated. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was seriously weakened.

Border disputes between the two states did not subside throughout the 1480s. A number of volosts, which were originally in joint Moscow-Lithuanian (or Novgorod-Lithuanian) possession, were actually occupied by the troops of Ivan III (first of all, this concerns Rzheva, Toropets and Velikie Luki). From time to time, skirmishes arose between the Vyazma princes who served Casimir and the Russian specific princes, as well as between the Mezetsky princes (supporters of Lithuania) and the princes Odoevsky and Vorotynsky who had gone over to the side of Moscow. In the spring of 1489, things came to open armed clashes between the Lithuanian and Russian troops, and in December 1489, a number of border princes went over to the side of Ivan III. Protests and a mutual exchange of embassies produced no result, and the undeclared war continued.

On June 7, 1492, Casimir, Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland, died. After him, his son, Alexander, was elected to the throne of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Another son of Casimir, Jan Olbracht, became king of Poland. The inevitable confusion associated with the change of the Lithuanian Grand Duke weakened the principality, which Ivan III did not fail to take advantage of. In August 1492 troops were sent against Lithuania. They were headed by Prince Fyodor Telepnya Obolensky. The cities of Mtsensk, Lubutsk, Mosalsk, Serpeisk, Khlepen, Rogachev, Odoev, Kozelsk, Przemysl and Serensk were taken. A number of local princes went over to the side of Moscow, which strengthened the positions of the Russian troops. Such rapid successes of the troops of Ivan III forced the new Grand Duke of Lithuania Alexander to begin peace negotiations. One of the means of settling the conflict proposed by the Lithuanians was Alexander's marriage to Ivan's daughter; the Grand Duke of Moscow reacted to this proposal with interest, but demanded that all disputed issues be resolved first, which led to the failure of the negotiations.

At the end of 1492, the Lithuanian army entered the theater of military operations with Prince Semyon Ivanovich Mozhaisky. At the beginning of 1493, the Lithuanians managed to briefly capture the cities of Serpeisk and Mezetsk, but during the retaliatory counterattack of the Moscow troops, they were repulsed; in addition, the Moscow army managed to take Vyazma and a number of other cities. In June-July 1493, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Alexander sent an embassy with a proposal to make peace. As a result of lengthy negotiations, on February 5, 1494, a peace treaty was finally concluded. According to him, most of the lands conquered by Russian troops were part of the Russian state. Among other cities, the strategically important fortress of Vyazma, located not far from Moscow, became Russian. The cities of Lubutsk, Mezetsk and Mtsensk, and some others, were returned to the Grand Duke of Lithuania. Also, the consent of the Moscow sovereign was obtained for the marriage of his daughter Elena with the Lithuanian Grand Duke Alexander.

Union with the Crimean Khanate

Diplomatic relations between the Moscow State and the Crimean Khanate remained friendly during the reign of Ivan III. The first exchange of letters between countries took place in 1462, and in 1472 an agreement on mutual friendship was concluded. In 1474, a union treaty was concluded between Khan Mengli-Girey and Ivan III, which, however, remained on paper, since the Crimean Khan soon had no time for joint actions: during the war with the Ottoman Empire, Crimea lost its independence, and Mengli- Girey was captured, and only in 1478 he again ascended the throne (now as a Turkish vassal). However, in 1480, the union treaty between Moscow and Crimea was concluded again, while the treaty directly named the enemies against whom the parties had to act together - Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and the Grand Duke of Lithuania. In the same year, the Crimeans made a trip to Podolia, which did not allow King Casimir to help Akhmat during his “standing on the Ugra”.

In March 1482, in connection with the deteriorating relations with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Moscow embassy again went to Khan Mengli Giray. In the autumn of 1482, the troops of the Crimean Khanate made a devastating raid on Lithuanian Ukraine. Among other cities, Kyiv was taken, all southern Russia was devastated. From his booty, the khan sent Ivan a chalice and diskos from the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, robbed by the Crimeans. The devastation of the lands seriously affected the combat capability of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

In subsequent years, the Russian-Crimean alliance showed its effectiveness. In 1485, Russian troops already made a trip to the Horde lands at the request of the Crimean Khanate, which was attacked by the Horde. In 1491, in connection with new Crimean-Horde skirmishes, these campaigns were repeated again. Russian support played an important role in the victory of the Crimean troops over the Great Horde. An attempt by Lithuania in 1492 to lure the Crimea to its side failed: from 1492, Mengli Giray began annual campaigns on the lands belonging to Lithuania and Poland. During the Russo-Lithuanian War of 1500-1503, Crimea remained an ally of Russia. In 1500, Mengli Giray twice devastated the lands of southern Russia belonging to Lithuania, reaching Brest. The actions of the allied Lithuania of the Great Horde were again neutralized by the actions of both the Crimean and Russian troops. In 1502, having finally defeated the Khan of the Great Horde, the Crimean Khan made a new raid, devastating part of the Right-Bank Ukraine and Poland. However, after the end of the war, which was successful for the Moscow state, there was a deterioration in relations. Firstly, the common enemy disappeared - the Great Horde, against which the Russian-Crimean alliance was directed to a large extent. Secondly, now Russia is becoming a direct neighbor of the Crimean Khanate, which means that now the Crimean raids could be made not only on Lithuanian, but also on Russian territory. And finally, thirdly, Russian-Crimean relations deteriorated due to the Kazan problem; the fact is that Khan Mengli-Girey did not approve of the imprisonment of the deposed Kazan Khan Abdul-Latif in Vologda. Nevertheless, during the reign of Ivan III, the Crimean Khanate remained an ally of the Muscovite state, waging joint wars against common enemies - the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Great Horde, and only after the death of the Grand Duke did the Crimeans begin constant raids on the lands belonging to the Russian state.

Relations with the Kazan Khanate

Relations with the Kazan Khanate remained an extremely important area of ​​Russia's foreign policy. The first years of the reign of Ivan III, they remained peaceful. After the death of the active Khan Mahmud, his son Khalil ascended the throne, and soon the deceased Khalil, in turn, was succeeded in 1467 by another son of Mahmud, Ibrahim. However, the brother of Khan Mahmud was still alive - the elderly Kasim, who ruled the Kasimov Khanate, which depended on Moscow; a group of conspirators led by Prince Abdul-Mumin tried to invite him to the Kazan throne. These intentions were supported by Ivan III, and in September 1467, the soldiers of the Kasimov Khan, together with the Moscow troops under the command of I.V. Striga-Obolensky, launched an attack on Kazan. However, the campaign was unsuccessful: having met a strong army of Ibrahim, the Moscow troops did not dare to cross the Volga, and retreated. In the winter of the same year, Kazan detachments made a trip to the Russian border lands, devastating the environs of Galich Mersky. In response, Russian troops launched a punitive raid on the Cheremis lands that were part of the Kazan Khanate. In 1468, border skirmishes continued; a major success of Kazan was the capture of the capital of the Vyatka land - Khlynov.

The spring of 1469 was marked by a new campaign of Moscow troops against Kazan. In May, Russian troops began to lay siege to the city. Nevertheless, the active actions of the Kazanians made it possible to first stop the offensive of the two Moscow armies, and then to defeat them one by one; Russian troops were forced to retreat. In August 1469, having received replenishment, the troops of the Grand Duke began a new campaign against Kazan, however, due to the deterioration of relations with Lithuania and the Horde, Ivan III agreed to make peace with Khan Ibrahim; according to its terms, Kazanians handed over all previously captured prisoners. For eight years after that, relations between the parties remained peaceful. However, in early 1478, relations again heated up. The reason for this time was the campaign of Kazan against Khlynov. Russian troops marched on Kazan, but did not achieve any significant results, and a new peace treaty was concluded on the same terms as in 1469.

Khan Ibrahim died in 1479. The new ruler of Kazan was Ilham (Alegam), the son of Ibragim, a protege of a party oriented towards the East (primarily the Nogai Horde). The candidate from the pro-Russian party, another son of Ibrahim, 10-year-old Tsarevich Mohammed-Emin, was sent to the Muscovite state. This gave Russia a pretext for interfering in Kazan affairs. In 1482, Ivan III began preparations for a new campaign; an army was assembled, which also included artillery under the leadership of Aristotle Fioravanti, but the active diplomatic opposition of the Kazanians and their willingness to make concessions made it possible to maintain peace. In 1484, the Moscow army, approaching Kazan, contributed to the overthrow of Khan Ilham. The protege of the pro-Moscow party, 16-year-old Mohammed-Emin, ascended the throne. In late 1485 - early 1486, Ilkham again ascended the Kazan throne (also not without the support of Moscow), and soon the Russian troops made another campaign against Kazan. On July 9, 1487, the city surrendered. Prominent figures of the anti-Moscow party were executed, Muhammad-Emin was again placed on the throne, and Khan Ilham and his family were sent to prison in Russia. As a result of this victory, Ivan III took the title of "Prince of Bulgaria"; Russia's influence on the Kazan Khanate increased significantly.

The next aggravation of relations occurred in the mid-1490s. Among the Kazan nobility, dissatisfied with the policy of Khan Mohammed-Emin, an opposition was formed with the princes Kel-Akhmet (Kalimet), Urak, Sadyr and Agish at the head. She invited the Siberian prince Mamuk to the throne, who in the middle of 1495 arrived in Kazan with an army. Mohammed-Emin and his family fled to Russia. However, after some time, Mamuk came into conflict with some princes who invited him. While Mamuk was on the campaign, a coup took place in the city under the leadership of Prince Kel-Ahmet. Abdul-Latif, the brother of Mohammed-Emin, who lived in the Russian state, was invited to the throne, who became the next Khan of Kazan. An attempt by Kazan emigrants led by Prince Urak in 1499 to place Agalak, the brother of the deposed Khan Mamuk, on the throne was unsuccessful. With the help of Russian troops, Abdul-Latif managed to repulse the attack.

In 1502, Abdul-Latif, who began to pursue an independent policy, was deposed with the participation of the Russian embassy and Prince Kel-Ahmet. Muhammad-Amin was again (for the third time) elevated to the Kazan throne. But now he began to pursue a much more independent policy aimed at ending dependence on Moscow. The leader of the pro-Russian party, Prince Kel-Ahmet, was arrested; opponents of the influence of the Russian state came to power. On June 24, 1505, on the day of the fair, a pogrom took place in Kazan; Russian subjects who were in the city were killed or enslaved, and their property was plundered. The war has begun. However, on October 27, 1505, Ivan III died, and Ivan's heir, Vasily III, had to lead it.

Northwest direction: wars with Livonia and Sweden

The annexation of Novgorod shifted the borders of the Muscovite state to the northwest, as a result of which Livonia became a direct neighbor in this direction. The continued deterioration of Pskov-Livonian relations eventually resulted in an open clash, and in August 1480 the Livonians laid siege to Pskov - however, to no avail. In February of the next year, 1481, the initiative passed to the Russian troops: the grand-ducal forces sent to help the Pskovites made a campaign in the Livonian lands that was crowned with a number of victories. On September 1, 1481, the parties signed a truce for a period of 10 years. In the next few years, relations with Livonia, primarily trade, developed quite peacefully. Nevertheless, the government of Ivan III took a number of measures to strengthen the defensive structures of the north-west of the country. The most significant event of this plan was the construction in 1492 of the Ivangorod stone fortress on the Narova River, opposite the Livonian Narva.

In addition to Livonia, Sweden was another rival of Russia in the northwestern direction. According to the Orekhovets Treaty of 1323, the Novgorodians ceded a number of territories to the Swedes; now, according to Ivan III, the moment has come to return them. On November 8, 1493, Russia concluded an allied treaty with the Danish king Hans (Johann), a rival of the Swedish ruler Sten Sture. Open conflict broke out in 1495; in August, the Russian army began the siege of Vyborg. However, this siege was unsuccessful, Vyborg withstood, and the grand ducal troops were forced to return home. In the winter and spring of 1496, Russian troops made a number of raids on the territory of Swedish Finland. In August 1496, the Swedes struck back: an army on 70 ships, descending near Narova, landed near Ivangorod. The viceroy of the Grand Duke, Prince Yuri Babich, fled, and on August 26 the Swedes took the fortress by storm and burned it down. however, after some time, the Swedish troops left Ivangorod, and it was restored and even expanded in a short time. In March 1497, a truce was concluded in Novgorod for 6 years, which ended the Russian-Swedish war.

Meanwhile, relations with Livonia deteriorated significantly. Given the inevitability of a new Russian-Lithuanian war, in 1500 an embassy was sent to the Grand Master of the Livonian Order Plettenberg from the Lithuanian Grand Duke Alexander, with a proposal for an alliance. Mindful of Lithuania's previous attempts to subdue the Teutonic Order, Plettenberg did not give his consent immediately, but only in 1501, when the issue of war with Russia was finally resolved. The treaty, signed at Wenden on June 21, 1501, completed the formalization of the union.

The reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the arrest in Dorpat of about 150 Russian merchants. In August, both sides sent significant military forces against each other, and on August 27, 1501, Russian and Livonian troops met in a battle on the Seritsa River (10 km from Izborsk). The battle ended with the victory of the Livonians; they failed to take Izborsk, but on September 7 the Pskov fortress Ostrov fell. In October, Russian troops (including units of serving Tatars) made a retaliatory raid into Livonia.

In the campaign of 1502, the initiative was on the side of the Livonians. It began with an invasion from Narva; in March, Moscow governor Ivan Loban-Kolychev died near Ivangorod; Livonian troops struck in the direction of Pskov, trying to take the Red Town. In September, Plettenberg's troops struck again, again besieging Izborsk and Pskov. In the battle near Lake Smolina, the Livonians managed to defeat the Russian army, but they could not achieve greater success, and peace negotiations were held the following year. On April 2, 1503, the Livonian Order and the Russian state signed a truce for a period of six years, which restored relations on the terms of the status quo.

War with Lithuania 1500-1503

Despite the settlement of border disputes that led to the undeclared war of 1487-1494, relations with Lithuania continued to be tense. The border between the states continued to be very indistinct, which in the future was fraught with a new aggravation of relations. A religious problem has been added to the traditional border disputes. In May 1499, Moscow received information from the governor of Vyazma about the oppression of Orthodoxy in Smolensk. In addition, the Grand Duke learned about an attempt to impose the Catholic faith on his daughter Elena, wife of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Alexander. All this did not contribute to the preservation of peace between countries.

At the end of 1499-beginning of 1500, Prince S.I. Belsky moved to the Moscow state with his estates; the cities of Serpeisk and Mtsensk also went over to the side of Moscow. In April 1500, princes Semyon Ivanovich Starodubsky and Vasily Ivanovich Shemyachich Novgorod-Seversky came to the service of Ivan III, and an embassy was sent to Lithuania with a declaration of war. Fighting broke out along the entire border. As a result of the first blow of the Russian troops, Bryansk was taken, the cities of Radogoshch, Gomel, Novgorod-Seversky surrendered, Dorogobuzh fell; the princes Trubetskoy and Mosalsky passed to the service of Ivan III. The main efforts of the Moscow troops were concentrated on the Smolensk direction, where the Lithuanian Grand Duke Alexander sent an army under the command of the Grand Lithuanian Hetman Konstantin Ostrozhsky. Having received the news that Moscow troops were standing on the Vedrosha River, the hetman went there as well. On July 14, 1500, during the battle of Vedrosha, the Lithuanian troops suffered a crushing defeat; more than 8,000 Lithuanian soldiers died; Hetman Ostrozhsky was taken prisoner. On August 6, 1500, Putivl fell under the blow of Russian troops, and on August 9, Pskov troops allied with Ivan III took Toropets. The defeat at Vedrosha dealt a severe blow to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The situation was aggravated by the raids of the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray, who was allied with Moscow.

The campaign of 1501 did not bring decisive success to either side. The fighting between Moscow and Lithuanian troops was limited to small skirmishes; In the fall of 1501, Moscow troops conducted an unsuccessful siege of Mstislavl. A major success of Lithuanian diplomacy was the neutralization of the Crimean threat with the help of the Great Horde. Another factor that acted against the Muscovite state was a serious deterioration in relations with Livonia, which led to a full-scale war in August 1501. In addition, after the death of the Polish king Jan Olbracht (June 17, 1501), the Grand Duke of Lithuania Alexander also became the Polish king.

In the spring of 1502, the fighting was inactive. The situation changed in June, after the Crimean Khan finally managed to defeat the Khan of the Great Horde, Shikh-Ahmed, which made it possible to make a new devastating raid already in August. The Moscow troops also struck their blow: on July 14, 1502, the army under the command of Dmitry Zhilka, the son of Ivan III, set out near Smolensk. However, a number of miscalculations (lack of artillery and low discipline of the assembled troops), as well as the stubborn defense of the defenders, did not allow them to take the city. In addition, the Lithuanian Grand Duke Alexander managed to form a mercenary army, which also marched in the direction of Smolensk. As a result, on October 23, 1502, the Russian army lifted the siege of Smolensk and retreated.

At the beginning of 1503, peace negotiations began between the states. However, both the Lithuanian and Moscow ambassadors put forward deliberately unacceptable peace conditions; as a result of the compromise, it was decided to sign not a peace treaty, but a truce for a period of 6 years. According to it, in the possession of the Russian state remained (formally - for the period of the truce) 19 cities with volosts, which before the war accounted for about a third of the lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania; so, in particular, the Russian state included: Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Starodub, Gomel, Bryansk, Toropets, Mtsensk, Dorogobuzh. The truce, known as the Annunciation (on the feast of the Annunciation), was signed on March 25, 1503.

Continuation of the "gathering of lands" and "Tver capture"

After the annexation of Novgorod, the policy of "gathering lands" was continued. At the same time, the actions of the Grand Duke were more active. In 1481, after the death of the childless brother of Ivan III, the specific Vologda prince Andrei the Less, all of his allotment passed to the Grand Duke. On April 4, 1482, the Vereisk prince Mikhail Andreevich concluded an agreement with Ivan, according to which, after his death, Beloozero passed to the Grand Duke, which clearly violated the rights of Mikhail's heir, his son Vasily. After the flight of Vasily Mikhailovich to Lithuania, on December 12, 1483, Mikhail concluded a new agreement with Ivan III, according to which, after the death of the Vereya prince, the entire inheritance of Mikhail Andreevich was already departed to the Grand Duke (Prince Mikhail died on April 9, 1486). On June 4, 1485, after the death of the mother of the Grand Duke, Princess Maria (in monasticism Martha), her inheritance, including half of Rostov, became part of the Grand Duke's possessions.

Relations with Tver remained a serious problem. Sandwiched between Moscow and Lithuania, the Grand Duchy of Tver was going through hard times. It also included specific principalities; from the 60s of the XV century, the transition of the Tver nobility to the Moscow service began. Sources also preserved references to the spread of various heresies in Tver. The relations between the Muscovites-patrimonials, who owned land in the Tver Principality, and the Tverites did not improve relations either. In 1483, the hostility turned into an armed confrontation. The formal reason for it was an attempt by Prince Mikhail Borisovich of Tver to strengthen his ties with Lithuania through a dynastic marriage and a union treaty. Moscow reacted to this by breaking off relations and sending troops to the Tver lands; Prince of Tver admitted his defeat and in October-December 1484 concluded a peace treaty with Ivan III. According to him, Mikhail recognized himself as the "little brother" of the Grand Duke of Moscow, which in the political terminology of that time meant the actual transformation of Tver into a specific principality; the treaty of alliance with Lithuania, of course, was broken.

In 1485, using as an excuse the capture of a messenger from Mikhail of Tver to the Lithuanian Grand Duke Casimir, Moscow again severed relations with the Tver principality and began hostilities. In September 1485, Russian troops began the siege of Tver. A significant part of the Tver boyars and specific princes transferred to the Moscow service, and Prince Mikhail Borisovich himself, having seized the treasury, fled to Lithuania. On September 15, 1485, Ivan III, together with the heir to the throne, Prince Ivan the Young, entered Tver. The Tver principality was transferred to the heir to the throne; in addition, a Moscow governor was appointed here.

In 1486, Ivan III concluded new agreements with his brothers, appanage princes - Boris and Andrei. In addition to recognizing the Grand Duke as the "eldest" brother, the new treaties also recognized him as "master", and used the title "Grand Duke of All Russia". Nevertheless, the position of the brothers of the Grand Duke remained extremely precarious. In 1488, Prince Andrei was informed that the Grand Duke was ready to arrest him. An attempt to explain himself led to the fact that Ivan III swore "by God and the earth and the mighty God, the creator of all creatures" that he was not going to persecute his brother. As noted by R. G. Skrynnikov and A. A. Zimin, the form of this oath was very unusual for an Orthodox sovereign.

In 1491, a denouement came in the relationship between Ivan and Andrei the Great. On September 20, the Uglich prince was arrested and thrown into prison; his children, princes Ivan and Dmitry, also went to prison. Two years later, Prince Andrei Vasilievich Bolshoy died, and four years later, the Grand Duke, having gathered the highest clergy, publicly repented that “he had killed him with his sin, carelessness.” Nevertheless, Ivan's repentance did not change anything in the fate of Andrey's children: the Grand Duke's nephews spent the rest of their lives in captivity.

During the arrest of Andrei the Great, another brother of Prince Ivan, Boris, Prince Volotsky, also turned out to be under suspicion. However, he managed to justify himself before the Grand Duke and remain at large. After his death in 1494, the principality was divided among the children of Boris: Ivan Borisovich received Ruza, and Fedor - Volokolamsk; in 1503, Prince Ivan Borisovich died childless, leaving possessions to Ivan III.

A serious struggle between supporters of independence and adherents of Moscow unfolded in the early 1480s in Vyatka, which retained significant autonomy. Initially, success accompanied the anti-Moscow party; in 1485, the Vyatchans refused to participate in the campaign against Kazan. The return campaign of the Moscow troops was not crowned with success, moreover, the Moscow governor was expelled from Vyatka; the most prominent supporters of the grand princely power were forced to flee. Only in 1489 did the Moscow troops under the command of Daniil Schenya achieve the capitulation of the city and finally annexed Vyatka to the Russian state.

Practically lost its independence and the Ryazan principality. After the death of Prince Vasily in 1483, his son, Ivan Vasilyevich, ascended the throne of Ryazan. Another son of Vasily, Fedor, received Perevitesk (he died in 1503 childless, leaving possessions to Ivan III). The widow of Vasily, Anna, the sister of Ivan III, became the actual ruler of the principality. In 1500, the Ryazan prince Ivan Vasilyevich died; the guardian of the young prince Ivan Ivanovich was first his grandmother Anna, and after her death in 1501, his mother Agrafena. In 1520, with the capture by Muscovites of the Ryazan prince Ivan Ivanovich, in fact, the Ryazan principality finally turns into a specific principality within the Russian state.

Relations with the Pskov land, which at the end of the reign of Ivan III remained practically the only Russian principality independent of Moscow, also took place in line with the gradual restriction of statehood. Thus, the people of Pskov are losing their last opportunity to influence the choice of princes-grand-princely governors. In 1483-1486, a conflict broke out in the city between, on the one hand, the Pskov posadniks and the "black people", and, on the other hand, the Grand Duke's governor Prince Yaroslav Obolensky and the peasants ("smerds"). In this conflict, Ivan III supported his governor; in the end, the Pskov elite capitulated, having fulfilled the requirements of the Grand Duke.

The next conflict between the Grand Duke and Pskov broke out at the beginning of 1499. The fact is that Ivan III decided to welcome his son, Vasily Ivanovich, Novgorod and Pskov reign. The people of Pskov regarded the decision of the Grand Duke as a violation of "old times"; the attempts of the posadniks during the negotiations in Moscow to change the situation only led to their arrest. Only by September of the same year, after Ivan's promise to observe the "old days", the conflict was resolved.

However, despite these disagreements, Pskov remained a true ally of Moscow. Pskov aid played an important role in the campaign against Novgorod in 1477-1478; Pskovians made a significant contribution to the victory of Russian troops over the forces of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In turn, the Moscow regiments took a feasible part in repelling the blows of the Livonians and the Swedes.

Trips to Perm and Yugra

While developing the Northern Pomorye, the Muscovite state, on the one hand, faced opposition from Novgorod, which considered these lands to be its own, and, on the other hand, with the opportunity to start moving north and northeast, beyond the Ural Mountains, to the Ob River, in the lower reaches of which Ugra, known to Novgorodians, was located. In 1465, on the orders of Ivan III, the inhabitants of Ustyug made a campaign against Yugra under the leadership of the grand-ducal governor Timofey (Vasily) Skryaba. The campaign was quite successful: having subjugated a number of small Ugra princes, the army returned with a victory. In 1467, a not very successful campaign against the independent Vogulis (Mansi) was carried out by the Vyatchans and Komi-Permyaks.

Having received part of the Dvina land under an agreement of 1471 with Novgorod (moreover, Zavolochye, Pechora and Yugra continued to be considered Novgorod), the Muscovite kingdom continued to move north. In 1472, using insults to Moscow merchants as a pretext, Ivan III sent Prince Fyodor Pyostroy, who subjugated the region to the Moscow state, to the recently baptized Great Perm with an army. Prince Mikhail of Perm remained the nominal ruler of the region, while the real rulers of the country, both spiritually and civilly, were the bishops of Perm.

In 1481, Perm the Great had to defend itself against the Vogulichi, who were led by Prince Asyka. With the help of the Ustyugians, Perm managed to fight back, and already in 1483 a campaign was made against the recalcitrant Vogulians. The expedition was organized on a grand scale: under the command of the grand-ducal voivode Prince Fyodor Kurbsky Cherny and Ivan Saltyk-Travin, forces were gathered from all the northern districts of the country. The campaign turned out to be successful, as a result of which the princes of a vast region, populated mainly by Tatars, Vogulichs (Mansi) and Ostyaks (Khanty), submitted to the authorities of the Moscow State.

The next, which became the most ambitious, campaign of Russian troops to Yugra was undertaken in 1499-1500. In total, according to archival data, 4041 people, divided into three detachments, took part in this expedition. They were commanded by Moscow governors: Prince Semyon Kurbsky (commanding one of the detachments, he was also the head of the entire campaign), Prince Peter Ushaty and Vasily Gavrilov Brazhnik. During this campaign, various local tribes were conquered, and the Pechora and upper Vychegda basins became part of the Muscovy. Interestingly, information about this campaign, received by S. Herberstein from Prince Semyon Kurbsky, was included by him in his Notes on Muscovy. Fur tribute was imposed on the lands subjugated during these expeditions.

Domestic politics

Integration of newly annexed lands

After the annexation of the Yaroslavl Principality in 1471, a rather strict unification with the general Moscow order began on its territory. A specially appointed envoy of the Grand Duke put the Yaroslavl princes and boyars into the Moscow service, taking away part of their lands. In one of the critical chronicles of that time, these events are described as follows: “He took away from whom the village is good, and from whom the village is good, he took it away and wrote it down on the Grand Duke, and whoever the boyar himself or the son of the boyar will be good, he himself wrote down ". Similar processes took place in Rostov, which came under the control of Moscow. Here, too, the process of entrusting the local elite (both princes and boyars) to the service of the Grand Duke was observed, and the Rostov princes retained in their hands much smaller estates compared to the Yaroslavl princes. A number of possessions were acquired by both the Grand Duke and the Moscow nobility.

The annexation of the Principality of Tver in 1485 and its integration into the Russian state happened quite gently. It was actually turned into one of the specific principalities; Ivan Ivanovich was placed "on the great reign in Tfersky". Under Prince Ivan, the Moscow governor VF Obrazets-Dobrynsky was left. Tver retained many attributes of independence: the princely lands were ruled by a special Tver Palace; although some Tver boyars and princes were transferred to Moscow, the new Tver prince ruled the principality with the help of the Tver boyar duma; the specific princes who supported Ivan III even received new estates (however, not for long; they were soon taken away from them again). In 1490, after the death of Ivan Ivanovich, Tver for some time passed to Prince Vasily, and in 1497 it was taken from him. By the beginning of the 16th century, the Tver court finally merged with the Moscow one, and some Tver boyars moved to the Moscow Duma.

Of interest is also the integration into the national structure of the Belozersky Principality. After its transfer in 1486 under the authority of Moscow, in March 1488, the Belozersky statutory charter was promulgated. Among other things, it established the norms for feeding representatives of the authorities, and also regulated the legal proceedings.

The most profound were the changes that befell the Novgorod land. The differences between the social system of the Novgorod state and the Moscow order were much deeper than in other newly annexed lands. The wealth of the Novgorod boyar-merchant aristocracy, which owned vast estates, lay at the heart of the veche order; The Novgorod church also had huge lands. In the course of negotiations on the surrender of the city to the Grand Duke, the Moscow side gave a number of guarantees, in particular, it was promised not to evict the Novgorodians “to the Niz” (outside Novgorod land, to Moscow proper territory) and not to confiscate property.

Immediately after the fall of the city, arrests were made. The implacable opponent of the Moscow state, Marfa Boretskaya, was taken into custody, the vast possessions of the Boretsky family passed into the hands of the treasury; a similar fate befell a number of other leaders of the pro-Lithuanian party. In addition, a number of lands belonging to the Novgorod church were confiscated. In subsequent years, the arrests were continued: for example, in January 1480, Archbishop Theophilus was taken into custody; in 1481, the boyars Vasily Kazimir, his brother Yakov Korobov, Mikhail Berdenev and Luka Fedorov, who had recently been accepted into the state service, fell into disgrace. In 1483-1484, a new wave of arrests of boyars followed on charges of treason; in 1486, fifty families were evicted from the city. And finally, in 1487, a decision was made to evict the entire landowning and trading aristocracy from the city and confiscate its estates. In the winter of 1487-1488, about 7,000 people were evicted from the city - the boyars and "living people". The following year, more than a thousand merchants and "living people" were evicted from Novgorod. Their estates were confiscated to the treasury, from where they were partially distributed to the estates of the Moscow boyar children, partially transferred to the ownership of the Moscow boyars, and partially constituted the possessions of the Grand Duke. Thus, the place of noble Novgorod votchinniki was taken by Moscow settlers, who owned the land already on the basis of the local system; the common people were not affected by the resettlement of the nobility. In parallel with the confiscation of estates, a land census was carried out, summing up the land reform. In 1489, part of the population of Khlynov (Vyatka) was evicted in the same way.

The elimination of the dominance of the old landowning and commercial aristocracy of Novgorod went hand in hand with the breaking up of the old state administration. Power passed into the hands of the governors, who were appointed by the Grand Duke, and were in charge of both military and judicial-administrative affairs. The archbishop of Novgorod also lost a significant part of his power. After the death in 1483 of Archbishop Theophilus (who was arrested in 1480), he became the Trinity monk Sergius, who immediately turned the local clergy against himself. In 1484 he was replaced by Gennady Gonzov, Archimandrite of the Chudov Monastery, appointed from Moscow, a supporter of the Grand Duke's policy. In the future, Archbishop Gennady became one of the central figures in the fight against the heresy of the "Judaizers".

Introduction to the Law Code

The unification of the previously fragmented Russian lands into a single state urgently required, in addition to political unity, to create also the unity of the legal system. In September 1497, the Sudebnik, a unified legislative code, was put into effect.

As to who could be the compiler of the Sudebnik, there is no exact data. The opinion that prevailed for a long time that Vladimir Gusev (dating back to Karamzin) was its author is considered in modern historiography as a consequence of an erroneous interpretation of the corrupted chronicle text. According to Ya. S. Lurie and L. V. Cherepnin, here we are dealing with a mixture in the text of two different news - about the introduction of the Sudebnik and the execution of Gusev.

The sources of the norms of law reflected in the Code of Laws known to us are usually referred to as the following monuments of ancient Russian legislation:

• Russian Truth
• Statutory letters (Dvina and Belozerskaya)
• Pskov Judicial Charter
• A number of decrees and orders of the Moscow princes.

At the same time, part of the text of the Code of Laws consists of norms that have no analogues in previous legislation.

The range of issues reflected in this first generalizing legislative act for a long time is very wide: this is the establishment of uniform norms of legal proceedings for the whole country, and the norms of criminal law, and the establishment of civil law. One of the most important articles of the Sudebnik was Article 57 - "On Christian Refusal", which introduced a single period for the entire Russian state for the transition of peasants from one landowner to another - a week before and a week after St. George's Day (autumn) (November 26). A number of articles dealt with issues of land ownership. A significant part of the text of the monument was occupied by articles on the legal status of serfs.

The creation in 1497 of the all-Russian Sudebnik was an important event in the history of Russian legislation. It should be noted that such a unified code did not exist even in some European countries (in particular, in England and France). The translation of a number of articles was included by S. Herberstein in his work Notes on Muscovy. The publication of the Sudebnik was an important measure to strengthen the political unity of the country through the unification of legislation.

Cultural and ideological politics

The unification of the country could not but have a beneficial effect on the culture of Russia. Large-scale fortress construction, the construction of temples, the flourishing of chronicles in the era of Ivan III are visible evidence of the spiritual upsurge of the country; at the same time, an important fact that testifies to the intensity of cultural life is the emergence of new ideas. It was at this time that concepts appeared that in the future formed a significant part of the state ideology of Russia.

Architecture

A big step forward under Ivan III was made by Russian architecture; a significant role in this was played by the fact that, at the invitation of the Grand Duke, a number of Italian masters arrived in the country, who introduced Russia to the architectural techniques of the rapidly developing Renaissance.

Already in 1462, construction began in the Kremlin: repairs were begun on the walls that needed to be repaired. In the future, large-scale construction in the Grand Duke's residence continued: in 1472, at the direction of Ivan III, on the site of a dilapidated cathedral built in 1326-1327 under Ivan Kalita, it was decided to build a new Assumption Cathedral. The construction was entrusted to Moscow craftsmen; however, when there was very little left before the completion of the work, the cathedral collapsed. In 1475, Aristotle Fioravanti was invited to Russia, who immediately set to work. The remains of the walls were demolished, and a temple was built in their place, which invariably aroused the admiration of contemporaries. On August 12, 1479, the new cathedral was consecrated by Metropolitan Gerontius.

From 1485, intensive construction began in the Kremlin, which did not stop throughout the life of the Grand Duke. Instead of the old wooden and white stone fortifications, brick ones were built; By 1515, the Italian architects Pietro Antonio Solari, Marco Ruffo, and a number of others had turned the Kremlin into one of the strongest fortresses of that time. Construction also continued inside the walls: in 1489, the Annunciation Cathedral was built by Pskov masters, a new grand ducal palace was erected, one of the parts of which was the Faceted Chamber erected by Italian architects in 1491. In total, according to chronicles, about 25 churches were built in the capital in 1479-1505.

Large-scale construction (primarily of a defensive orientation) was also carried out in other parts of the country: for example, in 1490-1500, the Novgorod Kremlin was rebuilt; in 1492, on the border with Livonia, opposite Narva, the Ivangorod fortress was erected. The fortifications of Pskov, Staraya Ladoga, Pit, Orekhov, Nizhny Novgorod were also updated (since 1500); in 1485 and 1492 large-scale works were carried out to strengthen Vladimir. By order of the Grand Duke, fortresses were also built on the outskirts of the country: in Beloozero (1486), in Velikiye Luki (1493).

Literature

The reign of Ivan III was also the time of the appearance of a number of original literary works; so, in particular, in the 1470s, the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin wrote his "Journey Beyond Three Seas". An interesting monument of the era is the Tale of Dracula, compiled by Fyodor Kuritsyn on the basis of the legends he heard during his stay in Wallachia, which tells about the Wallachian ruler Vlad Tepesh, who became famous for his cruelty.

A significant impetus to the development of religious literature was given by the struggle against the heresy of the "Judaizers"; also in the works of this era, disputes about church wealth were reflected. One can note a number of works by Joseph Volotsky, in which he acts as an ardent exposer of heresy; This denunciation takes on its most complete form in The Illuminator (the first edition of which, however, was compiled no earlier than 1502).

Chronicle in this period is experiencing its heyday; at the Grand Duke's court, chronicles were intensively compiled and processed. However, at the same time, it was during this period, as a result of the unification of the country, that independent chronicle writing, which was a characteristic feature of the previous era, completely disappears. Starting from the 1490s, chronicles created in Russian cities - Novgorod, Pskov, Vologda, Tver, Rostov, Ustyug and in a number of places - are either a modified grand ducal code, or a chronicle of a local nature that does not claim to be of all-Russian significance. Church (in particular, metropolitan) chronicle in this period also merges with the Grand Duke. At the same time, the editing of chronicle news is being actively carried out, their processing both in the interests of the grand-ducal policy and in the interests of specific groups that have the greatest influence at the time of writing the code (primarily this was due to the dynastic struggle between the party of Vasily Ivanovich and Dmitry the grandson).

Ideology of power, title and coat of arms

The most notable incarnations of the emerging ideology of a united country in historical literature are considered to be the new coat of arms - the double-headed eagle, and the new title of Grand Duke. In addition, it is noted that it was in the era of Ivan III that those ideas were born that a little later would form the official ideology of the Moscow state.

Changes in the position of the great Moscow prince, who had turned from the ruler of one of the Russian principalities into the ruler of a vast state, could not but lead to changes in the title. Already in June 1485, Ivan III uses the title of "Grand Duke of All Russia", which also meant claims to the lands that were under the rule of the Grand Duke of Lithuania (who was also called, among other things, also the "Grand Duke of Russia"). In 1494, the Grand Duke of Lithuania expressed his readiness to recognize this title. The full title of Ivan III also included the names of the lands that became part of Russia; now he sounded like "the sovereign of all Russia and the Grand Duke of Vladimir, and Moscow, and Novgorod, and Pskov, and Tver, and Perm, and Yugra, and Bulgarian, and others." Another innovation in the title was the appearance of the title "autocrat", which was a copy of the Byzantine title "autocrat". The era of Ivan III also includes the first cases of the Grand Duke using the title “Tsar” (or “Caesar”) in diplomatic correspondence, so far only in relations with petty German princes and the Livonian Order; the royal title begins to be widely used in literary works. This fact is extremely indicative: from the time of the beginning of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the “king” was called the Khan of the Horde; to Russian princes who do not have state independence, such a title was almost never applied. The transformation of the country from a tributary of the Horde into a powerful independent state did not go unnoticed abroad: in 1489, the ambassador of the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Nikolai Poppel, on behalf of his overlord, offered Ivan III the royal title. The Grand Duke refused, pointing out that “by the grace of God, we are sovereigns on our land from the beginning, from our first forefathers, and we have the appointment from God, like our forefathers, and we ... and we didn’t want the appointment from anyone before, and now we don’t want."

The appearance of the double-headed eagle as the state symbol of the Moscow state was recorded at the end of the 15th century: it is depicted on the seal of one of the letters issued in 1497 by Ivan III. Somewhat earlier, a similar symbol appeared on the coins of the Tver principality (even before joining Moscow); a number of Novgorod coins minted already under the rule of the Grand Duke also bear this sign. There are different opinions regarding the origin of the double-headed eagle in the historical literature: for example, the most traditional view of its appearance as a state symbol is that the eagle was borrowed from Byzantium, and the niece of the last Byzantine emperor and wife of Ivan III, Sophia Palaiologos, brought it with her. ; This opinion goes back to Karamzin. As noted in modern studies, in addition to obvious strengths, this version also has drawbacks: in particular, Sophia came from the Morea - from the outskirts of the Byzantine Empire; the eagle appeared in state practice almost two decades after the marriage of the Grand Duke with the Byzantine princess; and, finally, it is not known about any claims of Ivan III to the Byzantine throne. As a modification of the Byzantine theory of the origin of the eagle, the South Slavic theory associated with the significant use of double-headed eagles on the outskirts of the Byzantine world gained some fame. At the same time, traces of such interaction have not yet been found, and the very appearance of the double-headed eagle of Ivan III differs from its supposed South Slavic prototypes. Another theory of the origin of the eagle can be considered an opinion about the borrowing of the eagle from the Holy Roman Empire, which has used this symbol since 1442 - and in this case the emblem symbolizes the equality of the ranks of the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and the Grand Duke of Moscow. It is also noted that one of the symbols depicted on the coins of the Novgorod Republic was a single-headed eagle; in this version, the appearance of a double-headed eagle on the seal of the Grand Duke looks like a development of local traditions. It is worth noting that at the moment there is no unambiguous opinion about which of the theories describes reality more accurately.

In addition to the adoption of new titles and symbols, the ideas that appeared during the reign of Ivan III, which formed the ideology of state power, also deserve attention. First of all, it is worth noting the idea of ​​the succession of grand ducal power from the Byzantine emperors; for the first time this concept appears in 1492, in the work of Metropolitan Zosima "Exposition of Paschalia". According to the author of this work, God placed Ivan III, as well as "the new Tsar Constantine, to the new city of Konstantin - Moscow and the whole Russian land and many other lands of the sovereign." A little later, such a comparison will acquire harmony in the concept of "Moscow - the third Rome", finally formulated by the monk of the Pskov Elizarov Monastery Philotheus already under Vasily III. Another idea that ideologically substantiated the grand ducal power was the legend of Monomakh's regalia and the origin of Russian princes from the Roman emperor Augustus. Reflected in the somewhat later "Tale of the Princes of Vladimir", it will become an important element of the state ideology under Vasily III and Ivan IV. It is curious that, as researchers note, the original text of the legend put forward not Moscow, but Tver grand dukes as descendants of Augustus.

At the same time, it is worth noting that such ideas during the reign of Ivan III did not receive any wide circulation; for example, it is significant that the newly built Assumption Cathedral was compared not with the Constantinople Hagia Sophia, but with the Vladimir Assumption Cathedral; the idea of ​​the origin of the Moscow princes from Augustus up to the middle of the 16th century is reflected only in non-annalistic sources. In general, although the era of Ivan III is the period of the birth of a significant part of the state ideology of the 16th century, one cannot speak of any state support for these ideas. Chronicles of this time are scarce in ideological content; they do not trace any single ideological concept; the emergence of such ideas is a matter of the next era.

Church politics

An extremely important part of Ivan III's domestic policy was his relationship with the church. The main events characterizing church affairs during his reign can be called, firstly, the emergence of two church-political trends that had different attitudes to the practice of church life that existed at that time, and, secondly, the emergence, development and defeat of called "the heresy of the Judaizers". At the same time, it should be noted that the intra-church struggle was repeatedly influenced by both contradictions within the grand-ducal family and external factors. In addition, the Union of Florence held in 1439 and the attempts of the Catholic Church to force the Orthodox Church to recognize it made a certain difficulty in the affairs of the church.

First conflicts

For the first time, the Grand Duke came into conflict with the church authorities in 1478, when the rector of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery, Nifont, decided to transfer from the Rostov Bishop Vassian to direct subordination to the appanage prince Mikhail Vereisky. At the same time, Metropolitan Gerontius supported the rector, and the Grand Duke - Bishop Vassian; under pressure, the metropolitan yielded. In the same year, having conquered Novgorod, the Grand Duke carried out extensive confiscations of the lands of the richest Novgorod diocese. In 1479 the conflict escalated again; the occasion was the procedure for the consecration by Metropolitan Gerontius of the newly built Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin. Until the dispute was resolved, the metropolitan was forbidden to consecrate churches. However, soon the Grand Duke was not up to theological subtleties: in 1480, Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat moved to Russia, Ivan III was busy defending the country, and the dispute had to be postponed until 1482. By this time, the issue had become very acute also because, due to the Grand Duke's ban, many newly built churches remained unconsecrated. Having lost his patience, the metropolitan, leaving the pulpit, left for the Simonov Monastery, and only a trip to him by Ivan III himself with apologies allowed him to temporarily extinguish the conflict.

The years 1483-1484 were marked by a new attempt by the Grand Duke to subdue the obstinate Gerontius. In November 1483, the metropolitan, citing illness, again departed for the Simonov Monastery. However, this time Ivan III did not go to Gerontius, but tried to remove him, detaining him by force at the monastery. Only a few months later the metropolitan returned to the throne.

In the meantime, two currents were born in the Russian church and gained some distribution, with different attitudes towards the question of church property. The followers of Nil Sorsky, who received the name "non-possessors", advocated the voluntary rejection of wealth by the church and the transition to a poorer and ascetic life. Their opponents, who received the name "Josiflyan" ("Osiflyan", named after Joseph Volotsky), on the contrary, defended the church's right to wealth (in particular, to land). At the same time, the Josephites advocated the observance of the monastic charters, poverty and diligence of each monk individually.

Heresy of the "Judaizers" and the Council of 1490

In 1484, Ivan III appointed his longtime supporter Gennady Gonzov as bishop of Novgorod. Soon the newly appointed bishop sounded the alarm: in his opinion, a heresy appeared and spread widely in Novgorod (which received the name “the heresy of the Judaizers” in the historical literature). Gennady began an active struggle against her, even drawing on the experience of the Catholic Inquisition, but here he ran into unforeseen circumstances: some of the alleged heretics enjoyed the patronage of the Grand Duke. So, in particular, Fyodor Kuritsyn had considerable influence on state affairs; the places of priests in the Assumption and Archangel Cathedrals were occupied by two more heretics - Denis and Alexei; the wife of the heir to the throne, Ivan Ivanovich, Elena Voloshanka, was connected with heretics. Gennady's attempts, on the basis of the testimony of the heretics arrested in Novgorod, to achieve the arrest of Moscow supporters of heresy did not produce results; Ivan III was not inclined to attach great importance to the case of heresy. Nevertheless, Gennady managed to win over a number of church hierarchs; among others, he was actively supported by Joseph Volotsky.

In May 1489, Metropolitan Gerontius died. Archbishop Gennady became the senior hierarch of the church, which immediately strengthened the position of supporters of the eradication of heresy. In addition, on March 7, 1490, the heir to the throne, Prince Ivan Ivanovich, died, whose wife was the patroness of heretics Elena Stefanovna, as a result of which the influence of adherents of the zealot of orthodox Orthodoxy Sophia Paleolog and Prince Vasily grew. Nevertheless, on September 26, 1490, the enemy of Archbishop Gennady, Zosima, became the new metropolitan (Joseph Volotsky, not embarrassed by strong expressions, reproached Zosima for heresy), and on October 17 a church council was assembled.

The result of the council was the condemnation of heresy. A number of prominent heretics were arrested; some were imprisoned (they were kept in very harsh conditions, which became fatal for many), some were extradited to Gennady, and demonstratively taken around Novgorod. One of the Novgorod chronicles also mentions more cruel reprisals: the burning of heretics "on the Dukhovskoye field." At the same time, some supporters of heresy were not arrested: for example, Fyodor Kuritsyn was not punished.

Discussion about church property and the final defeat of heresy

The Council of 1490 did not lead to the complete destruction of heresy, however, it seriously weakened the positions of its supporters. In subsequent years, the opponents of the heretics carried out significant educational work: for example, between 1492 and 1504, Joseph Volotsky's "The Tale of the Newly Appeared Heresy of the Novgorod Heretics" was completed. To a certain extent, this revival of church thought was associated with the advent of the year 7000 "from the creation of the world" (1492 from the birth of Christ) and the widespread expectation of the end of the world. It is known that such sentiments evoked ridicule from supporters of heresy, which, in turn, led to the appearance of explanatory writings by church leaders. So, Metropolitan Zosima wrote the "Outline of Paschalia" with calculations of church holidays for 20 years in advance. Another type of such work was the translation by deacon Dmitry Gerasimov into Russian of a number of Catholic anti-Jewish treatises. In addition to anti-heretical ideas, in particular, thoughts about the inadmissibility of confiscation of church lands were widely known: for example, around 1497 in Novgorod, on behalf of Archbishop Gennady, a treatise was compiled by the Catholic Dominican monk Benjamin on this topic. It should be noted that the appearance of such a work in Novgorod was dictated primarily by the Novgorod reality - the confiscations of the archiepiscopal lands by the Grand Duke.

In August-early September 1503, a new church council was convened. In its course, important decisions were made that significantly changed everyday church practice: in particular, fees for appointment to church positions were completely abolished. This decision, apparently, found support among nonpossessors. In addition, this practice was repeatedly criticized by heretics. However, a number of measures were also taken, proposed and actively supported by the Josephites. After signing the conciliar verdict (Ivan III sealed it with his own seal, which emphasized the importance of innovations), the cathedral went to its logical conclusion; Iosif Volotsky, summoned by urgent business, even managed to leave the capital. However, unexpectedly, Nil Sorsky raised the question of whether it was worthy for monasteries to own estates. In the course of the heated discussion, the non-possessors and the Josephites failed to come to a consensus. Ultimately, the attempt of the nonpossessors to convince the hierarchs of the church that they were right failed, despite the Grand Duke's obvious sympathy for the idea of ​​land secularization.

The Council of 1503, occupied primarily with internal church problems, did not finally decide the question of heresy; at the same time, by this time the position of heretics in the princely court was more precarious than ever. After the arrest in 1502 of their patroness Elena Voloshanka and the proclamation of Vasily Ivanovich, the son of the champion of Orthodoxy Sophia Paleolog, as heir, the supporters of heresy largely lost influence at court. Moreover, Ivan himself finally listened to the opinion of the clergy; Joseph Volotsky, in a message that has come down to us to the confessor of Ivan III, even mentions the repentance of the Grand Duke and the promise to punish heretics. In 1504, a new church council was convened in Moscow, condemning prominent figures of heresy to death. On December 27, 1504, the main heretics were burned in Moscow; executions also took place in Novgorod. Such a brutal reprisal caused a mixed reaction, including among the clergy; Joseph Volotsky was forced to deliver a special message emphasizing the legality of the executions that had taken place.

Family and the question of succession

The first wife of Grand Duke Ivan was Maria Borisovna, daughter of Prince Boris Alexandrovich of Tver. On February 15, 1458, the son Ivan was born in the family of the Grand Duke. The Grand Duchess, who had a meek character, died on April 22, 1467, before reaching the age of thirty. According to rumors that appeared in the capital, Maria Borisovna was poisoned; clerk Alexei Poluektov, whose wife Natalya, again according to rumors, was somehow involved in the story of the poisoning and turned to fortune-tellers, fell into disgrace. The Grand Duchess was buried in the Kremlin, in the Ascension Convent. Ivan, who was at that time in Kolomna, did not come to his wife's funeral.

Two years after the death of his first wife, the Grand Duke decided to marry again. After a consultation with his mother, as well as with the boyars and the metropolitan, he decided to give his consent to the proposal recently received from the Pope of Rome to marry the Byzantine princess Sophia (Zoya), the niece of the last emperor of Byzantium, Constantine XI, who died in 1453 during the capture of Constantinople by the Turks . Sophia's father, Thomas Palaiologos, the last ruler of the Despotate of Morea, fled from the advancing Turks to Italy with his family; his children enjoyed papal protection. The negotiations, which lasted for three years, eventually ended with the arrival of Sophia. On November 12, 1472, the Grand Duke married her in the Kremlin Assumption Cathedral. It is worth noting that the attempts of the papal court to influence Ivan through Sophia, and to convince him of the need to recognize the union, completely failed.

Struggle of heirs

Over time, the second marriage of the Grand Duke became one of the sources of tension at court. Soon enough, two groups of court nobility formed, one of which supported the heir to the throne, Ivan Ivanovich the Young, and the second, the new Grand Duchess Sophia Paleolog. In 1476, the Venetian A. Contarini noted that the heir "is in disfavor with his father, because he behaves badly with Despina" (Sofya), but since 1477 Ivan Ivanovich has been mentioned as a co-ruler of his father; in 1480 he played an important role during the clash with the Horde and "standing on the Ugra". In subsequent years, the grand ducal family increased significantly: Sophia gave birth to a total of nine children to the grand duke - five sons and four daughters.
Meanwhile, in January 1483, the heir to the throne, Ivan Ivanovich Molodoy, also married. His wife was the daughter of the sovereign of Moldavia, Stephen the Great, Elena. On October 10, 1483, their son Dmitry was born. After the annexation of Tver in 1485, Ivan Molodoy was appointed prince of Tver as his father; in one of the sources of this period, Ivan III and Ivan Molodoy are called "autocrats of the Russian land." Thus, during all the 1480s, the position of Ivan Ivanovich as the legitimate heir was quite strong. The position of the supporters of Sophia Palaiologos was much less advantageous. So, in particular, the Grand Duchess failed to get government posts for her relatives; her brother Andrei left Moscow with nothing, and her niece Maria, the wife of Prince Vasily Vereisky (the heir to the Vereisko-Belozersky principality), was forced to flee to Lithuania with her husband, which also affected Sophia's position.

By 1490, however, new circumstances came into play. The son of the Grand Duke, heir to the throne, Ivan Ivanovich, fell ill with "kamchugo in the legs" (gout). Sophia ordered a doctor from Venice - "Mistro Leon", who presumptuously promised Ivan III to cure the heir to the throne; nevertheless, all the efforts of the doctor were powerless, and on March 7, 1490, Ivan the Young died. The doctor was executed, and rumors spread around Moscow about the poisoning of the heir; a hundred years later, these rumors, already as indisputable facts, were recorded by Andrei Kurbsky. Modern historians regard the hypothesis of the poisoning of Ivan the Young as unverifiable due to a lack of sources.

The conspiracy of Vladimir Gusev and the coronation of Dmitry the grandson

After the death of Ivan the Young, his son, the grandson of Ivan III, Dmitry, became the heir to the throne. Over the next few years, the struggle continued between his supporters and followers of Vasily Ivanovich; by 1497 this struggle had seriously escalated. This aggravation was facilitated by the decision of the Grand Duke to crown his grandson, giving him the title of Grand Duke and thus resolving the issue of succession to the throne. Of course, the actions of Ivan III categorically did not suit Vasily's supporters. In December 1497, a serious conspiracy was uncovered, aiming at the rebellion of Prince Vasily against his father. In addition to the "departure" of Vasily and the reprisals against Dmitry, the conspirators also intended to seize the grand ducal treasury (located on Beloozero). It is worth noting that the conspiracy did not find support among the higher boyars; the conspirators, although they came from fairly noble families, nevertheless, were not included in the immediate circle of the Grand Duke. The result of the conspiracy was Sophia's disgrace, which, as the investigation found out, was visited by sorceresses and soothsayers; Prince Vasily was placed under house arrest. The main conspirators from among the boyar children (Afanasy Eropkin, Shchavei Skryabin, Vladimir Gusev), as well as the “dashing women” associated with Sophia, were executed, some conspirators were imprisoned.

On February 4, 1498, the coronation of Prince Dmitry took place in the Assumption Cathedral in an atmosphere of great splendor. In the presence of the metropolitan and the highest hierarchs of the church, the boyars and members of the grand-ducal family (with the exception of Sophia and Vasily Ivanovich, who were not invited to the ceremony), Ivan III “blessed and granted” his grandson a great reign. Barmas and the Hat of Monomakh were assigned to Dmitry, and after the coronation, a “great feast” was given in his honor. Already in the second half of 1498, the new title of Dmitry ("Grand Duke") was used in official documents. The coronation of Dmitry the grandson left a noticeable mark in the ceremonial of the Moscow court (thus, in particular, “The wedding ceremony of Dmitry the grandson”, describing the ceremony, influenced the wedding ceremony, developed in 1547 for the coronation of Ivan IV), and was also reflected in a number of non-annalistic monuments (primarily in the "Tale of the princes of Vladimir", which ideologically substantiated the rights of Moscow sovereigns to Russian lands).

Transfer of power to Vasily Ivanovich

The coronation of Dmitry the grandson did not bring him victory in the struggle for power, although it strengthened his position. However, the struggle between the parties of the two heirs continued; Dmitry received neither inheritance nor real power. Meanwhile, the internal political situation in the country worsened: in January 1499, on the orders of Ivan III, a number of boyars were arrested and sentenced to death - Prince Ivan Yuryevich Patrikeev, his children, Princes Vasily and Ivan, and his son-in-law, Prince Semyon Ryapolovsky. All of the above were part of the boyar elite; I.Yu.Patrikeev was a cousin of the Grand Duke, he held the boyar rank for 40 years and at the time of his arrest he headed the Boyar Duma. The arrest was followed by the execution of Ryapolovsky; the life of the Patrikeyevs was saved by the intercession of Metropolitan Simon - Semyon Ivanovich and Vasily were allowed to take the veil as monks, and Ivan was imprisoned "for bailiffs" (under house arrest). A month later, Prince Vasily Romodanovsky was arrested and executed. The sources do not indicate the reasons for the disgrace of the boyars; it is also not entirely clear whether it was associated with any disagreements on foreign or domestic policy, or with dynastic struggles in the grand ducal family; in historiography there are also very different opinions on this matter.

By 1499, Vasily Ivanovich apparently managed to partially regain his father’s trust: at the beginning of this year, Ivan III announced to the Pskov posadniks that “I, the great prince Ivan, granted my son to the Grand Duke Vasily, gave him Novgorod and Pskov.” However, these actions did not find understanding among the people of Pskov; the conflict was resolved only by September.

In 1500 another Russian-Lithuanian war began. On July 14, 1500, at Vedrosha, Russian troops inflicted a serious defeat on the forces of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It is to this period that the annalistic news about the departure of Vasily Ivanovich to Vyazma and about serious changes in the attitude of the Grand Duke to the heirs belongs. There is no consensus in historiography on how to interpret this message; in particular, both assumptions are made about Vasily's "departure" from his father and an attempt by the Lithuanians to capture him, and opinions about Vasily's readiness to go over to the side of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In any case, the year 1500 was a period of growing Basil's influence; in September, he was already called the Grand Duke of "All Russia", and by March 1501, the leadership of the court on Beloozero was transferred to him.

Finally, on April 11, 1502, the dynastic struggle came to its logical conclusion. According to the chronicle, Ivan III “placed disgrace on the grandson of his Grand Duke Dmitry and on his mother, the Grand Duchess Elena, and from that day on he did not order them to be remembered in litanies and litias, nor called the Grand Duke, and plant them for bailiffs.” A few days later, Vasily Ivanovich was granted a great reign; soon Dmitry the grandson and his mother Elena Voloshanka were transferred from house arrest to imprisonment. Thus, the struggle within the grand-ducal family ended in the victory of Prince Vasily; he became the co-ruler of his father and the rightful heir to a huge power. The fall of Dmitry the grandson and his mother also predetermined the fate of the Moscow-Novgorod heresy: the Church Council of 1503 finally defeated it; a number of heretics were executed. As for the fate of those who lost the dynastic struggle, it was sad: on January 18, 1505, Elena Stefanovna died in captivity, and in 1509 Dmitry himself died “in need, in prison”. “Some believe that he died from hunger and cold, others that he suffocated from smoke,” Herberstein reported about his death.

The death of the Grand Duke

In the summer of 1503, Ivan III fell seriously ill. Shortly before this (April 7, 1503), his wife, Sophia Palaiologos, died. Leaving business, the Grand Duke went on a trip to the monasteries, starting with the Trinity-Sergius. However, his condition continued to deteriorate: he became blind in one eye; partial paralysis of one arm and one leg. On October 27, 1505, Grand Duke Ivan III died. According to V. N. Tatishchev (however, it is unclear how reliable), the Grand Duke, having called before his death to his bedside confessor and metropolitan, nevertheless, refused to be tonsured as a monk. As the chronicle noted, “the sovereign of all Russia was in the state of the Grand Duchess ... 43 years and 7 months, and all the years of his stomach 65 and 9 months.” After the death of Ivan III, a traditional amnesty was held. The Grand Duke was buried in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

According to the spiritual charter, the grand prince's throne passed to Vasily Ivanovich, the other sons of Ivan received specific cities. However, although the specific system was actually restored, it differed significantly from the previous period: the new Grand Duke received much more land, rights and advantages than his brothers; the contrast with what Ivan himself received at one time is especially noticeable. V. O. Klyuchevsky noted the following advantages of the Grand Duke's share:

• The Grand Duke now owned the capital alone, giving the brothers 100 rubles each from his income (previously, the heirs owned the capital jointly)
• The right of court in Moscow and the Moscow region now belonged only to the Grand Duke (previously, each of the princes had such a right in his part of the villages near Moscow)
• Now only the Grand Duke had the right to mint a coin
• Now the possessions of the specific prince who died childless passed directly to the Grand Duke (previously such lands were divided among the remaining brothers at the discretion of the mother).

Thus, the restored appanage system differed markedly from the appanage system of former times: in addition to increasing the grand duke's share during the partition of the country (Vasily received more than 60 cities, and four of his brothers got no more than 30), the grand duke also concentrated political advantages in his hands.

Character and appearance

The description of the appearance of Ivan III, made by the Venetian A. Contarini, who visited Moscow in 1476 and was awarded a meeting with the Grand Duke, has come down to our time. According to him, Ivan was “tall, but thin; In general, he is a very nice person.” The Kholmogory chronicler mentioned Ivan's nickname - Humpbacked, which, perhaps, indicates that Ivan was stooping - and this, in principle, is all that we know about the appearance of the Grand Duke. One nickname given by contemporaries - "The Great" - is currently used most often. In addition to these two nicknames, two more nicknames of the Grand Duke have come down to us: “Terrible” and “Justice”.
Little is known about the character and habits of Ivan Vasilievich. S. Herberstein, who had already visited Moscow under Vasily III, wrote about Ivan: “... For women, he was so formidable that if any of them accidentally came across him, then from his gaze she just did not lose her life.” He did not ignore the traditional vice of the Russian princes - drunkenness: “during dinner, for the most part, he indulged in intoxication to such an extent that he was overcome by sleep, and all those invited were, meanwhile, stricken with fear and were silent; upon awakening, he usually rubbed his eyes, and then only began to joke and show cheerfulness towards the guests. The author of one Lithuanian chronicle wrote about Ivan that he was “a man of a bold heart and a knight of the roll” - which was probably some exaggeration, since the Grand Duke himself preferred not to go on campaigns himself, but to send his generals. S. Herberstein wrote on the same occasion that “the great Stefan, the famous palatine of Moldavia, often remembered him at feasts, saying that he, sitting at home and indulging in sleep, multiplies his power, and he himself, fighting daily, is barely able to protect the borders.

It is known that Ivan III listened to the advice of the boyar duma; nobleman I. N. Bersen-Beklemishev (executed under Vasily III) wrote that the Grand Duke “loved the strech (objections) against himself and complained of those who spoke against him.” Andrei Kurbsky also noted the monarch's love for the boyar councils; however, judging by the words of Kurbsky's correspondence opponent, Ivan IV, Ivan III's relationship with the boyars was by no means idyllic.

The characterization of Ivan's religious views also runs into a lack of data. It is known that heretics-freethinkers enjoyed his support for a long time: two Novgorod heretics (Denis and Alexei) were appointed to the Kremlin cathedrals; Fyodor Kuritsyn enjoyed considerable influence at court; in 1490, Zosima was elected metropolitan, whom some church leaders considered a supporter of heresy. Judging by one of the letters of Joseph Volotsky, Ivan knew about the connections of his daughter-in-law, Elena Voloshanka, with heretics.

Board results

The main result of the reign of Ivan III was the unification around Moscow of most of the Russian lands. Russia included: Novgorod land, the Tver principality, which was a rival of the Moscow state for a long time, as well as Yaroslavl, Rostov, and partially Ryazan principalities. Only the Pskov and Ryazan principalities remained independent, however, they were not completely independent either. After successful wars with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Novgorod-Seversky, Chernigov, Bryansk and a number of other cities became part of the Moscow state (which before the war accounted for about a third of the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania); dying, Ivan III transferred to his successor several times more land than he himself accepted. In addition, it was under Grand Duke Ivan III that the Russian state became completely independent: as a result of “standing on the Ugra”, the power of the Horde Khan over Russia, which had lasted since 1243, completely ceased. Russia is turning into a strong state capable of pursuing an independent policy in its own interests.

The reign of Ivan III was also marked by success in domestic politics. In the course of the reforms, a code of laws of the country was adopted - the "Sudebnik" of 1497. At the same time, the foundations of the command system of government were laid, and the local system also appeared. The centralization of the country and the elimination of fragmentation were continued; the government waged a fairly tough fight against the separatism of the specific princes. The era of the reign of Ivan III became a time of cultural upsurge. The erection of new buildings (in particular, the Moscow Assumption Cathedral), the flourishing of chronicle writing, the emergence of new ideas - all this testifies to significant success in the field of culture.

In general, it can be said that the reign of Ivan III Vasilyevich was extremely successful, and the nickname of the Grand Duke, “The Great”, widespread in science and journalism, characterizes the scale of the deeds of this outstanding political figure in the era of the formation of a unified Russian state.

Years of life: January 22, 1440 - October 27, 1505
Reign: 1462-1505

From the Rurik dynasty.

The son of the Moscow prince and Maria Yaroslavna, daughter of Prince Yaroslav Borovsky, granddaughter of the hero of the Battle of Kulikovo V.A. Serpukhov.
Also known as Ivan the Great Ivan Saint.

Grand Duke of Moscow from 1462 to 1505.

Biography of Ivan the Great

He was born on the day of memory of the apostle Timothy, so in his honor he received a name at baptism - Timothy. But thanks to the next church holiday - the transfer of the relics of St. John Chrysostom, the prince received the name by which he is best known.

From a young age, the prince became an assistant to his blind father. He took an active part in the fight against Dmitry Shemyaka, went on campaigns. In order to legitimize the new order of succession to the throne, Vasily II, during his lifetime, called the heir the Grand Duke. All letters were written on behalf of 2 Grand Dukes. In 1446, at the age of 7, the prince became engaged to Maria, the daughter of Prince Boris Alexandrovich of Tver. This future marriage was to become a symbol of the reconciliation of eternal rivals - Tver and Moscow.

Military campaigns play an important role in the upbringing of the heir to the throne. In 1452, the young prince was already sent as the nominal head of the army on a campaign against the Ustyug fortress of Kokshenga, which was successfully completed. Returning from a campaign with a victory, he married his bride, Maria Borisovna (June 4, 1452). Soon Dmitry Shemyaka was poisoned, and the bloody civil strife that had lasted for a quarter of a century began to wane.

In 1455, young Ivan Vasilyevich made a victorious campaign against the Tatars, who had invaded Russia. In August 1460, he became the head of the Russian army, which blocked the way to Moscow for the advancing Tatars of Khan Akhmat.

Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III Vasilyevich

By 1462, when the Dark One died, the 22-year-old heir was already a man who had seen a lot, ready to solve various state issues. He was distinguished by prudence, lust for power and the ability to steadily go towards the goal. Ivan Vasilyevich marked the beginning of his reign by issuing gold coins with the minted names of Ivan III and his son, heir to the throne. Having received the right to a great reign according to his father’s spiritual diploma, for the first time since the invasion of Batu, the Moscow prince did not go to the Horde to receive a label, and became the ruler of a territory of about 430 thousand square meters. km.
During the entire reign, the main goal of the country's foreign policy was the unification of northeastern Russia into a single Muscovite state.

So, by diplomatic agreements, cunning maneuvers and force, he annexed Yaroslavl (1463), Dimitrov (1472), Rostov (1474) principalities, Novgorod land, Tver principality (1485), Belozersky principality (1486), Vyatka (1489), part of Ryazan, Chernigov, Seversk, Bryansk and Gomel lands.

The ruler of Moscow mercilessly fought against the princely-boyar opposition, setting the rates of taxes that were collected from the population in favor of the governors. The noble army and the nobility began to play an important role. In the interests of the noble landlords, a restriction was introduced on the transfer of peasants from one master to another. The peasants received the right to move only once a year - a week before the autumn St. George's Day (November 26) and a week after St. George's Day. Under him, artillery appeared as an integral part of the army.

Victory of Ivan III Vasilyevich the Great

In 1467 - 1469. military operations against Kazan were successfully carried out, as a result, they achieved its vassal dependence. In 1471, he made a trip to Novgorod and, thanks to a blow to the city in several directions, carried out by professional soldiers, during the battle on Shelon on July 14, 1471, he won the last feudal war in Russia, including the Novgorod lands in the Russian state.

After the wars with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1487 - 1494; 1500 - 1503), many Western Russian cities and lands went to Russia. According to the Annunciation Truce of 1503, the Russian state included: Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Starodub, Gomel, Bryansk, Toropets, Mtsensk, Dorogobuzh.

Successes in the expansion of the country also contributed to the growth of international relations with European countries. In particular, an alliance was concluded with the Crimean Khanate, with Khan Mengli-Girey, while the agreement directly named the enemies against whom the parties had to act together - Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat and the Grand Duke of Lithuania. In subsequent years, the Russian-Crimean alliance showed its effectiveness. During the Russian-Lithuanian war of 1500-1503. Crimea remained an ally of Russia.

In 1476, the ruler of Moscow stopped paying tribute to the Khan of the Great Horde, which should have led to a clash between two old opponents. October 26, 1480 "standing on the river Ugra" ended with the actual victory of the Russian state, having received the desired independence from the Horde. For the overthrow of the Golden Horde yoke in 1480, Ivan Vasilyevich received the nickname Saint among the people.

The unification of the previously fragmented Russian lands into a single state urgently demanded the unity of the legal system. In September 1497, the Sudebnik was put into effect - a single legislative code, which reflected the norms of such documents as: Russian Pravda, Statutory letters (Dvina and Belozerskaya), Pskov judicial letter, a number of decrees and orders.

The reign of Ivan Vasilyevich was also characterized by large-scale construction, the construction of temples, the development of architecture, and the flourishing of chronicles. So, the Assumption Cathedral (1479), the Faceted Chamber (1491), the Annunciation Cathedral (1489) were erected, 25 churches were built, the intensive construction of the Moscow and Novgorod Kremlin. The fortresses Ivangorod (1492), in Beloozero (1486), in Velikiye Luki (1493) were built.

The appearance of the double-headed eagle as the state symbol of the Moscow state on the seal of one of the letters issued in 1497 Ivan III Vasilyevich symbolized the equality of the ranks of the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and the Grand Duke of Moscow.

Was married twice:
1) from 1452 on Maria Borisovna, daughter of the Tver prince Boris Alexandrovich (she died at the age of 30, according to rumors - she was poisoned): son Ivan Molodoy
2) from 1472 on the Byzantine princess Sofya Fominichna Paleolog, niece of the last emperor of Byzantium, Constantine XI

sons: Vasily, Yuri, Dmitry, Semyon, Andrey
daughters: Elena, Feodosia, Elena and Evdokia

Marriages of Ivan Vasilyevich

The marriage of the Moscow sovereign with the Greek princess was an important event in Russian history. He opened the way for the relations of Muscovite Rus with the West. Shortly after that, he was the first to receive the nickname Terrible, because he was a monarch for the princes of the squad, demanding unquestioning obedience and severely punishing disobedience. At the first instruction of the Terrible, the heads of objectionable princes and boyars lay on the chopping block. After his marriage, he took the title "Sovereign of All Russia".

Over time, the 2nd marriage of Ivan Vasilyevich became one of the sources of tension at court. There were 2 groups of court nobility, one of which supported the heir to the throne - Young (son from the 1st marriage), and the second - the new Grand Duchess Sophia Paleolog and Vasily (son from the second marriage). This family strife, during which hostile political parties clashed, was also intertwined with the church question - about measures against the Judaizers.

Death of Tsar Ivan III Vasilyevich

At first, Grozny, after the death of his son Young (he died of gout), crowned his son, and his grandson, Dmitry, on February 4, 1498 in the Assumption Cathedral. But soon, thanks to skillful intrigue on the part of Sophia and Vasily, he took their side. On January 18, 1505, Elena Stefanovna, Dmitry's mother, died in prison, and in 1509 Dmitry himself died in prison.

In the summer of 1503, the Moscow ruler became seriously ill, he was blind in one eye; partial paralysis of one arm and one leg. Leaving business, he went on a trip to the monasteries.

On October 27, 1505, Ivan the Great died. Before his death, he named his son Vasily as his heir.
The sovereign of all Russia was buried in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

Historians agree that this reign was extremely successful, it was under him that the Russian state, by the beginning of the 16th century, occupied an honorable international position, standing out with new ideas, cultural and political growth.

Grand Duke of Moscow (1462-1505).

It is rightfully considered one of the most prominent politicians in Europe of the Middle Ages. He was distinguished by outstanding abilities in the art of public administration. The era of Ivan III is the most important part of the final stage of the unification of Russian lands. It is to him that the merits of overcoming specific fragmentation and dependence on the Horde in Russia, the entry of the young Russian state into the international arena, and the creation of new mechanisms for governing the country belong.

Childhood, youth

Ivan III was born on January 22, 1440. He was the eldest son in the family of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily II Vasilyevich, nicknamed "Dark" and his wife, Grand Duchess Maria Yaroslavna, nee Princess Serpukhov (the first-born of the couple, Yuri, having lived a little more than two years, died in the same month when Ivan was born). The chronicler wrote about the birth of the future heir to the throne: "Born to the Grand Duchess ... the son of Timothy, they gave him the name John." On the twenty-second day of January, the Orthodox Church celebrates the memory of the Apostle Timothy, and the apostle became the heavenly patron of the future sovereign, whom he will especially honor all his life. However, the boy is baptized with the traditional name for the Moscow Danilovich dynasty Ivan - in honor of St. John Chrysostom, one of the most revered teachers of the Church. The memory of the saint was celebrated just a few days after the birth of the heir to the throne, on January 27. The names of Ivan III will reflect the duality traditional for the princes-descendants of Rurik, when the heir had an official public name and an intra-family name used in the home circle. The baptism of the boy was performed by the abbots of the monasteries revered in the Moscow ruling family - hegumen of the Trinity-Sergius monastery Zinovy ​​​​and the archimandrite of the Moscow Miracle Monastery in the Kremlin Pitirim.

The young years of Ivan III fell on the period of intensification of the intra-dynastic struggle for the Moscow grand prince's throne, which in Soviet historical science was often called "the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century." In February 1446, when Vasily II Vasilyevich was captured by his opponent Dmitry Yuryevich Shemyaka, the Ryapolovsky boyars loyal to Vasily II took his sons to Murom. Due to the intervention of the Bishop of Ryazan, Jonah, the boyars handed them over to Dmitry Shemyaka, after which the children were imprisoned with their father in Uglich, and later in exile in Vologda. At the end of 1446 - the beginning of 1447, Ivan III was betrothed to Maria, the daughter of the Grand Duke of Tverskoy Boris Alexandrovich, who supported the aspirations of Vasily II to regain the throne. The wedding took place in 1452, when the children grew up, and in 1458 the only known child, son Ivan, was born to the couple.

Co-ruler of Basil II

Some time after Vasily II managed to retake the grand prince's throne, Ivan III becomes co-ruler of his father and begins to be called the "grand prince". This takes place in the late 1440s. It should be noted that Vasily II was blinded by Dmitry Shemyaka and for him, a disabled head of state, the assertion of the rights of the heir, and subsequently real assistance in the burden of government, became a matter of particular importance. However, for a long time, the participation of Ivan III in public life was rather nominal and was limited to the presence at official and unofficial events, as well as complicity in military campaigns. The first military campaign, which Ivan III led alone, took place in 1459 - under the leadership of a nineteen-year-old co-ruler on the Oka River, Moscow troops successfully resisted the Horde of Khan Seid-Akhmet. Nevertheless, it was these years that brought up the character of Ivan III, laid the foundations for his outstanding political instinct.

Governing body

March 27, 1462 Vasily II passed away, Ivan III becomes the sole ruler. By the beginning of his reign in North-Eastern Russia and adjacent lands, in addition to the Grand Duchy of Moscow, there were the Grand Duchy of Tver and Ryazan, as well as the Principality of Yaroslavl and Rostov. In the northwest, the Novgorod and Pskov "boyar republics" retained their independence, and in the northeast - the Vyatka land. A huge part of the territories in the west, where from time immemorial they spoke Russian and professed Orthodoxy, was dependent on the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Some Western Russian lands were included in Poland. The specific system was preserved in the country, according to which, within the principalities, there were possessions of relatives who were younger in status - appanages, independent of the central government, into which the ruling princes did not have the right to “join”. Despite the fact that the majority of all these political entities, with the exception of those dependent on Lithuania and Poland, either formally recognized the Grand Duke of Moscow as the supreme ruler, or tacitly conceded primacy to him, being weaker, there was no real unity of the Russian lands. The situation was aggravated by the continued dependence on the Horde, which had to pay a grueling tribute, called "exit" or sometimes quite sadly "imminent tribute."

Starting from the first years of his reign, Ivan III tried with all certainty to declare himself the sole ruler of the Russian land, the Grand Duke of "All Russia" (the prefix "All Russia" itself would be established in his title as a permanent one in the mid-1480s), in whose will was solution of most political issues. He continued and deepened the political line of the Moscow princes, which even before they began to realize as a special mission. The main goal of the mission was to gather all Russian Orthodox lands under the scepter of a powerful Christian ruler. The image of a pious Orthodox ruler and at the same time a warrior prince was one of the most important ways to establish Ivan III, starting from the first years of his independent reign. Specific measures to create a unified Russian state under him took two forms: 1) establishing the maximum possible control over the lands while maintaining apparent independence (with further complete absorption) and 2) direct inclusion of the territories into the Grand Duchy of Moscow.

Under Ivan III, great changes took place in the foreign policy of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, which equally reflected both the level of his claims and serious changes on the geopolitical map of Eastern Europe, starting from the middle of the 15th century (the fall of Byzantium, the rapid strengthening of the Ottoman Empire, the collapse into several state formations of the Golden Horde, etc.). The most dangerous neighbor of the Moscow principality in the first years after the accession of Ivan III to the throne was the Kazan Khanate - a state formed in the 1440s on the lands of ancient Volga Bulgaria, a fragment of the Golden Horde. The Great Horde, the successor of the Golden Horde, whose khan Mahmud organized a military campaign in 1464/65, also behaved very aggressively. This was the first action against Moscow by the ruling Horde Khan after the campaign of Tokhtamysh in 1382. Moreover, since the end of the 1460s, the Arabic inscription “this is Moscow money” appeared on Moscow coins, which, apparently, was associated with the strengthening of tributary relations. Thus, the difficult situation required the concentration of foreign policy precisely in the eastern direction, and it is no coincidence that the first campaign of the Moscow troops during the reign of Ivan III, which took place already in 1462, was aimed at the Cheremis (Mari), Kazan tributaries, as well as Great Perm. However, large-scale military operations against Kazan, which required lengthy preparations and significant effort, began only in 1467. The Kazan war of 1467-1469 ended victoriously and became a significant foreign policy success for Moscow. It allowed not only to achieve calm on the Moscow-Kazan border over the next ten years, but also to free up forces for a decisive attack on Novgorod in the 1470s.

The 1460s can be considered preparations for the conquest of the Novgorod state - the most significant success of Ivan III in the "gathering" of Russian lands. It is significant that in the 1460s, Ivan III used the title of Grand Duke of "All Russia" only in relations with Novgorod. He persistently put into practice the idea of ​​Novgorod's vassalage in relation to Moscow. A year after accession to the throne, Ivan III began to actively interfere in the traditional system of relations in North-Western Russia, sending Moscow troops to help Pskov in its military clash with the Livonian Order. Since the end of the 1460s, the ancient city on the Velikaya River has been completely in the orbit of Moscow influence. A little earlier, in 1465, the governors of Ivan III made a trip to Yugra (the land between the Pechora River and the Northern Urals), the former tributary of Novgorod. By the beginning of the 1470s, the days of the independent existence of the Novgorod "republic" were numbered.

The accession of Novgorod can be reduced to three episodes, during which the powers of Ivan III expanded. These are the campaign of 1471, which ended with the defeat of the Novgorod army on the Shelon River, the trip of Ivan III to Novgorod in 1475 with the aim of administering a trial of objectionable boyars, and the military campaign of 1477-1478.

The 1470s became a time of exacerbation of Moscow's relations with the Great Horde. In 1472, Khan Akhmat went against Ivan III on a military campaign. The attack was repulsed by Russian troops on the river. Oka near Aleksin. In Moscow, the results of the fleeting war were regarded as a success and, apparently, they soon stopped paying tribute. The very attitude towards the legal successor of the Golden Horde heritage changed: in internal political documents, the Great Horde began to be equated with other Tatar khanates. Akhmat decided to regain control of Russia after eight years. The events that took place in 1480 were called "Standing on the Ugra". Unable to achieve success, Akhmat retreated. "Standing" is considered to be the end of the Horde yoke.

The 1480s were important for the strengthening of Ivan III's power and its representation. In 1485 Tver was subordinated, in 1489 - Vyatka. On July 9, 1487, Moscow troops managed to capture Kazan. The result of this military campaign was the conclusion of a peace treaty "at the will of the Grand Duke of Moscow" and the establishment of a protectorate over the khanate, headed by the Moscow protege Mohammed-Emin. This victory was of exceptional importance for Ivan III, who used it to improve his political status: it was from 1487 that the grand ducal title expanded, in which both an indication of dominance over Kazan (“Grand Duke of Bulgaria”) and Western European elements (the phrase “ by God's grace"). A new coat of arms symbolism is also beginning to be introduced - the double-headed eagle. Modern science has moved away from the understanding that the double-headed eagle was accepted by Ivan III as a symbol of the acceptance of power from Byzantium. In fact, the two-headed was not her coat of arms. Rather, the decision of Ivan III was influenced by numerous examples of the use of this sign in various contemporary political systems. Among them, first of all, it is necessary to single out the German Empire, with which contacts were established just in the 1480s.

In the early 1490s, Ivan III went on the offensive on the Lithuanian border. After decades of defensive policy towards Lithuania, Moscow begins the struggle for the Russian lands that were part of this state. By the beginning of the 16th century, a significant part of the Orthodox lands had been conquered from Lithuania.

Personal life. power struggle

In 1467, the wife of Ivan III, Grand Duchess Maria Borisovna, died. Two years later, negotiations began on a new marriage between Ivan III and the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia (Zoya) Paleolog, who became the wife of the Grand Duke in 1472. Several daughters and sons were born from this marriage, the eldest of which is Vasily.

At the end of the reign of Ivan III, a sharp struggle of aristocratic clans for the right to inherit the throne began at the court. One of them was headed by the second wife of the sovereign Sophia Paleolog and her son, the future Grand Duke Vasily III (1505-1533). The other was headed by Ivan III's daughter-in-law Elena Voloshanka and his grandson Dmitry, son of Ivan Ivanovich Molodoy. Passions began to flare up after the death of Ivan the Young in 1490. Ivan III, having lost his heir and co-ruler, hesitated for a long time in transferring the right to inherit the throne. At the beginning of 1498, Dmitry the grandson was declared co-ruler. The ceremony of passing the inheritance was so solemn that it is called the first crowning of the kingdom in Russian history. This was followed by several years of behind-the-scenes struggle, as a result of which Vasily Ivanovich, who fell into disfavor, not only again found himself close to the court, but, like Dmitry the grandson, received the status of co-ruler. In April 1502, Dmitry the grandson was stripped of all regalia and thrown into prison with his mother. His uncle Vasily Ivan III “blessed and placed him in the Grand Duchy of Volodimersk and Moscow and all Russia.”

On January 22, 1440, a son was born to Grand Duke Vasily II and his wife Maria Yaroslavna in Moscow. The future heir to the throne was named Ivan in honor of St. John Chrysostom. The boy's happy and carefree childhood was overshadowed by an event that occurred in 1445 near Suzdal. The army of Vasily II was defeated by the Tatars. The prince was taken prisoner. The inhabitants of Moscow, led by the interim ruler Dmitry Yuryevich Shemyaka, were in despair at the thought that the enemy might attack their city. But soon Vasily II returns from captivity. For this, the Muscovites had to transfer to the Horde an unbearable amount for them. The discontent of the people played into the hands of Shemyaka and his supporters. They organized a conspiracy against the Grand Duke.

On the way to the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, Vasily II was captured and blinded. It was after this that he began to be called the Dark One. Fearing reprisals, Ivan, with his younger brothers and boyars loyal to his father, hid in Murom. Shemyaka lured Ivan to Uglich, where his father was imprisoned. But, for some unknown reason, Prince Vasily and his son were released. Once free, they, with the Tver prince Boris and a large army, appeared in Moscow. Shemyaka's power fell. In 1452, Ivan leads the army sent by his father to take the Kokshengu fortress. Upon his return to Moscow, Ivan was married to Princess Maria, the daughter of Boris of Tver. Ivan's second wife was Sofia Paleolog. Dmitry Shemyaka was poisoned. His claims to the throne and bloody internecine wars are a thing of the past. In 1460, after the death of Vasily II, the throne passes to Ivan III.

He went down in history as Ivan the Great. First of all, the new sovereign carried out work to strengthen and expand the principality that belonged to him. The structure of the Moscow principality now included Yaroslavl, Rostov, Dmitrov, Novgorod. Historians call this process "gathering the Russian land." The famous standing on Uglich ended the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. The last months of his life, Ivan III visits holy places. He died on October 22, 1505. He was buried in the Archangel Cathedral on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin.

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Biography of Ivan III

The future Ivan the Great was born on January 22, 1440. Father was Vasily II, mother Maria Yaroslavna. Early childhood passed quite standardly for grand-ducal children, education at court.

Ivan's late childhood befell many great troubles. Father, as a result of the defeat near Suzdal, was captured by the Tatars. Russia was threatened by a Tatar raid. There was a big fire in Moscow. With the return of his father, the internal political situation became even more complicated. While Vasily was in captivity, the eldest of the descendants of Kalita, Dmitry Shemyaka, was in power. However, upon his return, Basil brought with him a great debt. Shemyaka was forced to leave Moscow. Trouble was ripening in the capital, and as soon as the sovereign left the city, a riot broke out. Dmitry Shemyaka and his supporters seized Vasily and transported him to Moscow. There, the Grand Duke forcibly lost his sight, for, according to the rebels, he fraternized with the Tatars and distributed land to them. After being blinded, the Grand Duke was sent to prison in Uglich, where Shemyaka himself had previously been.

Ivan was saved and transported to a city loyal to his father. However, succumbing to the promises of the rebel Shemyaka, they returned to Moscow. The promises were false and the son, with other children, was exiled to his father. Some time later, Dmitry nevertheless decided to fulfill the promise, and allocated a whole lot for Vasily - Vologda. But the former Grand Duke did not resign himself to defeat, and the internecine war flared up with renewed vigor.

Ivan grew up and became a full participant in the internal war. It wasn't until about twenty-five years later that the war finally began to subside. By this time, Ivan was already married to Maria Borisovna, the daughter of the Tver prince. Their engagement was the result of an alliance between Grand Duke Vasily II and Prince Boris of Tver.

The war was over and the prince was expected by a measured life, burdened with princely duties. So, being a specific prince, Ivan pays much more attention to military campaigns. For 5 years he has been participating in several major campaigns against the Tatars. If in the first battles he was only nominally a commander, and experienced commanders led the army, then later, having gained experience, he actually commands. After the death of his father, he generously divided the lands between the brothers according to the will of his father. Ivan himself was appointed heir and ascended the throne on March 27, 1462. The transfer of the title took place without any problems, for the new sovereign was not greedy for power.

Having risen in power, Ivan first of all shows that the agreements concluded by his father will continue to operate, and thus everyone wins. Further, the Grand Duke sets a course for the unification of the Russian lands. Without any problems, it was possible to annex the principalities: Yaroslavl, Dmitrov, Rostov. Novgorod lands were next in line, however, for their annexation, an army had to be equipped. The campaign was successful, and Novgorod independence was lost.

One of the main merits of Ivan the Great is the liberation of Russia from the long-term Tatar yoke. The Golden Horde was divided into more and more new khanates and, in fact, no longer represented a single state. Thanks to this, as well as the unification of the Russian state, Ivan was able to enter into open confrontation with the Horde. Standing on the river Ugra confirmed that henceforth Russia is independent and free.

Further, Ivan had to face a new threat. Relations with the neighboring Grand Duchy of Lithuania gradually deteriorated. Having reached a critical point, they escalated into open war. After 7 years, a peace treaty was concluded, according to which the majority of the lands seized during the conflict were part of the Russian state.

An important achievement of the foreign policy of Ivan III is also the conclusion of an alliance with the Crimean Khanate. Russia acquired a valuable ally, albeit not for long.

In general, Ivan's foreign policy greatly strengthened Russia.

On October 27, 1505, Ivan III died due to illness. By this time, he was married twice, Sophia Paleolog became his second wife, and managed to acquire nine children.

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