The Cretaceous period is a geological period, the last period of the Mesozoic era. Started 145 million years ago and ended 65 million years ago. The Cretaceous period lasted about 80 million years. In the Cretaceous period, the first angiosperms appeared - flowering plants. This entailed an increase in the diversity of insects that became pollinators of flowers. The evolution of the plant world gave impetus to the rapid development of the animal world, including dinosaurs. The diversity of dinosaur species in the Cretaceous period reached its peak. Cretaceous tectonics: During the Cretaceous period, the movement of the continents continued. Laurasia and Gondwana fell apart. Africa, India and Australia also began to move apart, and giant islands eventually formed south of the equator. South America and Africa were moving away from each other, and the Atlantic Ocean was getting wider and wider. There were no obvious catastrophes in the Cretaceous period, so the process of evolution proceeded naturally. The earth acquired outlines very close to those known to us. Climate of the Cretaceous Period: The climate, compared to the Jurassic period, has changed. Due to the changing position of the continents, the change of seasons became more and more noticeable. Snow began to fall near the poles, although there were no such ice caps as now on Earth. The climate varied on different continents. This caused differences in the development of flora and fauna in different parts of the world. Cretaceous flora: The flora of the Cretaceous period was rich and varied. In addition to the plant species transferred from the Jurassic period, a new, revolutionary branch of flowering plants appears. Flowering plants, having concluded an "alliance" with insects, had advantages over their predecessors. Through this partnership, flowering plants spread much faster. Gradually populating the land, new groups of plants began to form vast forests. There, at the service of land animals, there were a wide variety of leaves and other edible vegetation. Due to the emergence of flowering plants during the Cretaceous period, the amount of plant biomass increased. The reverse process took place at sea. This was again facilitated by the development of flowering plants. Dense roots prevented soil erosion and therefore fewer minerals entered the sea. The amount of phytoplankton has decreased. Cretaceous fauna: Insects: The growth of flowering plants during the Cretaceous period contributed to the growth of insect species that feed on nectar and carry pollen. It was during the Cretaceous period. Insects appeared, the life of which is completely dependent on flowering plants. These are bees and butterflies. Insects collected pollen and delivered it to its destination. The brightly colored petals and the attractive fragrance of the flowers became bait for insects. In turn, the sweet sugary nectar and the pollen itself provided the insects with all the nutrients they needed. The Cretaceous period marked the beginning of an era of close interaction between plants and insects.

Dinosaurs: A variety of dinosaurs reigned among the land animals. During the Cretaceous period, the diversity of dinosaur species was especially great. The development of the plant world and the increase in plant biomass gave impetus to the emergence of new species of herbivorous dinosaurs. Of the lizard dinosaurs, the most famous of which was the tyrannosaurus, the tarbosaurus, spinosaurus, deinonychus and others were common. The variety of ornithischian dinosaurs was especially great in the Cretaceous period. Widely known in the Jurassic period, stegosaurs will disappear from the face of the planet. Their place will be taken by such famous herbivorous dinosaurs as iguanodons, triceratops, ankylosaurs, pachycephalosaurs and many other species.

All Cretaceous Dinosaurs...

Dinosaurs - the end of an era Flora and fauna are constantly evolving. One kind replaces another. Some species are destined to dominate, while others modestly survive in the backyards of the universe. But periodically, events occur that give evolution a chance to experiment on species and bring new ones into the arena that have shown themselves from the best side. In order to talk about how the time of the dinosaurs ended, we will consider the end of the Cretaceous period. At the end of the Cretaceous period, another great extinction occurred. 65 million years ago, evolution got another opportunity for its experiments. For reasons we do not yet know for sure, the dinosaurs plesiosaurs and pterosaurs became extinct. Dinosaurs were just part of another great extinction. Dinosaurs became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous, about 65 million years ago. The process of extinction was not fast. It took about 5 million years to complete, as the 70-million-year-old layers contain many dinosaur remains. By geological standards, this period is small, but still the extinction was not instantaneous. The extinction of the dinosaurs was only part of the extinction that took place at the end of the Cretaceous: together with the dinosaurs, marine reptiles (mosasaurs and plesiosaurs) and flying pangolins, many mollusks, including ammonites, belemnites and many small algae, died out. . However, most of the plants and animals survived this period. For example, land reptiles such as snakes, turtles, lizards, and aquatic reptiles such as crocodiles have not died out. The closest relatives of the ammonites, the nautilus, also survived, not to mention birds, the first mammals, corals and land plants. In addition, some dinosaurs (Triceratops, theropods, etc.) remained in the west of North America and in India for several million years at the beginning of the Paleogene, after their extinction in other places.

The most popular versions of the extinction of dinosaurs are as follows. Astrophysical: 1. The fall of an asteroid The most common version at the moment. It is assumed that the Chicxulub crater on the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico may be a trace of the fall of this asteroid. The version is very popular, perhaps because of its spectacle. 2. Supernova explosion or close gamma-ray burst. 3. Collision of the Earth with a comet. Geophysical and climatic: 1. Changes in average annual and seasonal temperatures, despite the fact that the dependence on the external temperature of large dinosaurs, requires a stable warm climate. 2. A sharp jump in the Earth's magnetic field. 3. An excess of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere. 4. Sharp cooling of the ocean. 5. Changes in the composition of sea water. 6. Increased volcanic activity. 7. Change in the gravitational attraction of the Earth. Evolutionary-biological: 1. Widespread spread of an infectious disease among one or more species of dinosaurs in a certain area, significantly exceeding the incidence rate usually recorded in this area. In other words, an epidemic. 2. Dinosaurs could not adapt to the change in the type of vegetation and were poisoned by the alkaloids contained in the emerging flowering plants. 3. Dinosaurs were exterminated by the first predatory mammals, destroying the clutches of eggs and cubs. All of these hypotheses are popular, mainly among non-specialists. Most likely because of its beauty. Professional paleontologists have a sharply negative attitude towards such hypotheses. None of them can fully explain the whole complex of phenomena associated with the extinction of dinosaurs and other species at the end of the Cretaceous period. As a result of the described, the main problems of the listed versions are as follows: - Some of the hypotheses are unacceptable simply because they do not correspond to the facts or do not have actual evidence. So, no traces of a rapid change in the magnetic field were found (the drift of the magnetic poles is rather slow and it is just tracked by geological traces), jumps in ocean temperature or widespread catastrophic volcanism. - All hypotheses of the impact, including astronomical ones, do not explain the selectivity of extinction and do not correspond to the duration of its period. In addition, the degree of danger of the consequences of the collapse of cosmic bodies for the biosphere is exaggerated: traces of repeated collisions of the Earth with large asteroids have been reliably recorded, but no significant changes in the biosphere have been recorded during the periods when they occurred. There were local catastrophes in the places of falls, which the rest of the living world practically did not notice. Opinion of paleontologists: When studying the causes of the extinction of dinosaurs, it is necessary to note some important features: - Extinction can only be called "fast" by geological standards, in fact it took several million years. - Talking about the rapid extinction of dinosaurs is not entirely correct. In any group of living beings, an evolutionary process is constantly going on - the formation of new species and the extinction of previously existing ones. These processes go on simultaneously, and if the rates of extinction and the formation of new species are equal, the group exists. And there is no reason to talk about extinction. From this point of view, during the period of the "great extinction", the rate of the actual extinction of dinosaurs, that is, the extinction of pre-existing species, does not exceed the rate of extinction in previous periods. But, at the end of the Cretaceous period, something went wrong and new species of dinosaurs did not replace the extinct species of dinosaurs, as a result of which the dinosaurs completely died out. Modern paleontology is dominated by the biospheric version of the "great extinction", including the extinction of the dinosaurs. According to her, the main initial factors that predetermined the extinction of dinosaurs were: 1. The appearance of flowering plants; 2. Gradual climate change caused by continental drift. The sequence of events that led to extinction is as follows: - Flowering plants, having a more developed root system and better use of soil fertility, quickly replaced other types of vegetation everywhere. At the same time, insects specialized in feeding on flowering plants appeared, and insects “attached” to pre-existing types of vegetation began to die out. - Flowering plants form turf, which is the best of natural erosion suppressors. As a result of their spread, the erosion of the land surface and, accordingly, the flow of nutrients into the oceans has decreased. "Impoverishment" of the ocean with food led to the death of a significant part of the algae, which were the main primary producer of biomass in the ocean. Along the chain, this led to the complete disruption of the entire marine ecosystem and caused mass extinctions in the sea. The same extinction also affected the large flying lizards, which, according to existing ideas, were closely related to the sea. After the extinction at sea, the food resources of pterosaurs became scarce. Some of the large marine reptiles, in addition, could not withstand competition with the sharks of the modern type that appeared at that particular time. - On land, animals actively adapted to feeding on green mass (by the way, herbivorous dinosaurs too). In the small size class, small mammals like rats appeared. Their appearance led to the appearance of the corresponding predators, which also became mammals. Small-sized mammalian predators were not dangerous for adult dinosaurs, but fed on their eggs and cubs, creating additional difficulties for dinosaurs in reproduction. At the same time, the protection of offspring for a dinosaur is practically impossible due to the too large difference in the size of adults and cubs. As a result of the movement of the continents at the end of the Cretaceous period, the Earth acquired an almost familiar outline. The system of air and sea currents has changed, which led to some cooling on a significant part of the land and increased temperature drops. At the poles, the change of seasons began to be felt. And although the temperature did not fall as it is now to -70 ° C, it fell to 0 ° C, and maybe a little lower. Inertial homoiothermy, which provided dinosaurs with an evolutionary advantage in previous periods, no longer had an effect under such conditions. As a result of all these reasons, unfavorable conditions were created for dinosaurs, which led to the cessation of the emergence of new species. The developed species of dinosaurs existed for some time, but gradually died out completely. Apparently, there was no fierce direct competition between dinosaurs and mammals; they occupied different size classes, existing in parallel. Only after the extinction of the dinosaurs did mammals capture the vacated ecological niche, and even then not immediately. Curiously, the appearance of the first dinosaurs - archosaurs, at one time was marked by a massive (but not complete) extinction of therapsids (animal-like reptiles), the highest forms of which were essentially primitive egg-laying mammals ...

Billions of years ago, our Earth was a bare, lifeless planet. And now life appeared on its surface - those first, most primitive forms of living beings, the development of which led to the endless diversity of the nature around us. How did this development take place? How did animals and plants appear on Earth, how did they change? This book will answer some of these questions. Its author, the outstanding Soviet scientist Academician V. L. Komarov, described in it the history of the flora of the Earth - from the simplest unicellular bacteria to the highly developed flowering plants of our time. The author draws this long path of development in close connection with the general history of the Earth, with changes in its natural conditions, relief, and climate. The book is written in a popular way, is easy to read and will be of great benefit to the widest range of readers who have elementary information from the field of biology in the volume of a school course.

So far, only geological and climatic forces have acted in nature. As we have seen, they have always strongly influenced the vegetation and contributed to its greater and greater diversity. Now a completely new factor has appeared: man.

Born in the Tertiary period, according to various estimates, 600,000 - 1,000,000 years before our time, in ape-like forms, he met the ice age still unarmed. But in many places it was impossible to escape from the glacier; cold drove man into the caves, which became his first dwelling, and forced him to invent devices for maintaining fire. From that moment on, man becomes an industrial being and, increasing his activity, begins to influence nature more strongly than any living being. He cuts down forests, raises virgin soil, breaks through canals, blows up and digs up entire mountains, and generally changes the face of the Earth at his own discretion.

In relation to vegetation, man destroys the forest flora, destroys steppe plants and many others, and creates in their place his own special world, the world of cultivated plants, which would never exist if not for man. The modern period of the development of terrestrial vegetation is precisely characterized by the replacement by man of the flora inherited from former times by cultivated vegetation.

We have seen that the conditions of plant life on Earth first put forward, as the pioneers of the primary colonization of the earth's crust, a group of bacteria known under the general name of chemotrophic, i.e., those whose nutrition is reduced to a small number of clearly expressed chemical reactions and does not need to be previously formed organic matter.

The age of bacteria was later replaced by the age of algae, which in the waters of the ancient oceans reached a significant variety of shapes and colors.

The age of algae was replaced on the primary continents by the age of psilophytes, which gave vegetation reminiscent in its general appearance and size of modern thickets of large mosses.

The age of psilophytes gave way to the age of fern-like plants, which already formed extensive forests on swampy soils. This vegetation contributed a lot to the fact that both the composition of the air and the accumulation of a mass of nutrients made possible the emergence of the first land vertebrates. At the same time, the main masses of coal were accumulated.

The age of ferns gave way to the age of cone-bearing plants. For the first time, the surface of the continents took on a modern appearance in some places, and the possibility of the existence of higher animals was even closer.

The age of the cone-bearing plants was gradually replaced by the age of flowering plants, when all the plants that exist today were formed one after the other.

It must be said that the onset of a new century or period never completely destroyed the former plant world. Always a part of the past population of the Earth was preserved and continued to exist along with the new world. Thus, not only did bacteria not disappear with the appearance of higher vegetation, but they also found new sources of existence for themselves in the soil and in organic matter, so generously created by higher plants. Algae, once developed, continue to grow and improve along with higher plants. Moreover, they are not competitors to them, since some inhabit the coastal sea areas, while others mainly land.

Finally, the coniferous forests of our time continue to exist along with the deciduous ones, and their shade gives shelter to fern-like plants, since this heritage of the foggy and humid Carboniferous period is afraid of open habitats where it is harmed by the sun's rays, and seeks shade.

Thus the history of the earth's crust led to the creation of a rich and varied plant world, starting from the materials provided by the inorganic world and ending with the creation of what surrounds us and provides us with everything we need for life.

“Zoology and botany are still fact-gathering sciences until paleontology, Cuvier, joins here, and soon after the discovery of the cell and the development of organic chemistry. Thanks to this, comparative morphology and comparative physiology became possible, and since then both have become genuine sciences.

F. Engels

Each of us sometimes worries about such questions that are difficult to find answers. These include understanding the meaning of one's existence, the structure of the world, and much more. We believe that everyone once thought about the development of life on Earth. The eras that we know are very different from each other. In this article, we will analyze in detail, and how exactly its evolution took place.

catarchean

Katarchaeus - when the earth was lifeless. There were volcanic eruptions everywhere, ultraviolet radiation and no oxygen. The evolution of life on Earth began its countdown precisely from this period. Due to the interaction of chemicals that have enveloped the earth, properties characteristic of life on Earth begin to form. However, there is another opinion. Some historians believe that the Earth has never been empty. In their opinion, the planet exists as long as life on it.

The katarchean era lasted from 5 to 3 billion years ago. Studies have shown that during this period the planet did not have a core and the earth's crust. An interesting fact is that at that time the day lasted only 6 hours.

archaeus

The next era after the Catarchean is the Archean (3.5-2.6 billion years BC). It is divided into four periods:

• neoarchean;
• mesoarchean;
• paleoarchaean;
• eoarchean.

It was during the Archean that the first simple microorganisms arose. Few people know, but the deposits of sulfur and iron that we mine today appeared during this period. Archaeologists have found the remains of filamentous algae, the age of which allows them to be attributed to the Archean period. At this time, the evolution of life on Earth continued. heterotrophic organisms appear. Soil is formed.

Proterozoic

The Proterozoic is one of the longest periods of the Earth's development. It is divided into the following steps:

• mesoproterozoic;
• neoproterozoic.

This period is characterized by the appearance of the ozone layer. Also, it was at this time, according to historians, that the volume of the world ocean was fully formed. The Paleoproterozoic era included the Siderian period. It was in it that the formation of anaerobic algae occurred.

Scientists note that it was in the Proterozoic that global glaciation occurred. It lasted for 300 million years. A similar situation is characterized by the ice age, which was much later. During the Proterozoic, sponges and fungi appeared among them. It was during this period that deposits of ore and gold were formed. The Neoproterozoic era is characterized by the formation of new continents. Scientists note that all the flora and fauna that existed during this period is not the ancestor of modern animals and plants.

Paleozoic

Scientists have been studying the geological eras of the Earth and the development of the organic world for a long time. In their opinion, the Paleozoic is one of the most significant periods for our modern life. It lasted about 200 million years and is divided into 6 time periods. It was during this era of the development of the Earth that land plants began to form. It is worth noting that during the Paleozoic period, animals came to land.

The Paleozoic era was studied by many famous scientists. Among them are A. Sedgwick and E. D. Phillips. It was they who divided the era into certain periods.

Paleozoic climate

Many scientists have done research to find out the Era, as we said earlier, could last long enough. It is for this reason that during one chronology on a certain part of the Earth at different times there can be an absolutely opposite climate. So it was in the Paleozoic. At the beginning of the era, the climate was milder and warmer. There was no zoning as such. The percentage of oxygen constantly increased. The water temperature was between 20 degrees Celsius. Over time, zonation began to appear. The climate became hotter and more humid.

By the end of the Paleozoic, as a result of the formation of vegetation, active photosynthesis began. A more pronounced zoning appeared. Climatic zones formed. This stage has become one of the most important for the development of life on Earth. The Paleozoic era gave impetus to the enrichment of the planet with flora and fauna.

Flora and fauna of the Paleozoic era

At the beginning of the Paleosian period, life was concentrated in water bodies. In the middle of the era, when the amount of oxygen reached a high level, land development began. Its very first inhabitants were plants, which first performed their vital activity in shallow water, and then moved to the shore. The first representatives of the flora that mastered the land are psilophytes. It is worth noting that they did not have roots. The process of formation of gymnosperms is also referred to the Paleozoic era. Tree-like plants also appeared. In connection with the appearance of flora on earth, animals gradually began to appear. Scientists suggest that herbivorous forms were the first to arise. The process of development of life on Earth lasted for quite a long time. Era and living organisms are constantly changing. The first representatives of the fauna are invertebrates and spiders. Over time, insects with wings, ticks, mollusks, dinosaurs, reptiles appeared. In the late period of the Paleozoic, significant climatic changes occurred. This led to the extinction of some animal species. According to preliminary estimates, about 96% of the inhabitants of the water and 70% of the land died.

Minerals of the Paleozoic era

It is with the Paleozoic period that the formation of many minerals is associated. Rock salt deposits began to form. It is also worth emphasizing that some oil basins originate precisely from the beginning of the formation of coal strata, which account for 30% of the total. Also, the formation of mercury is associated with the Paleozoic period.

Mesozoic

The next after the Paleozoic was the Mesozoic. It lasted about 186 million years. The geological history of the Earth began much earlier. However, it was the Mesozoic that became the era of activity, both climatic and evolutionary. The main boundaries of the continents were formed. Mountain building has begun. There was a division of Eurasia and America. It is believed that it was in the climate that was the warmest. However, at the end of the era, the ice age began, which significantly changed the flora and fauna of the earth. Natural selection has taken place.

Flora and fauna in the Mesozoic era

The Mesozoic era is characterized by the extinction of ferns. Gymnosperms and conifers predominate. Angiosperms are formed. It was in the Mesozoic period that the fauna flourished. The most developed are reptiles. In this period, there were a large number of their subspecies. Flying reptiles appear. Their growth continues. By the end, some representatives weigh about 50 kilograms.

In the Mesozoic, the development of flowering plants gradually begins. By the end of the period, a cold snap sets in. The number of subspecies of near-aquatic plants is decreasing. Gradually, invertebrates also die out. It is for this reason that birds and mammals appear.

According to scientists, birds originated from dinosaurs. They associate the emergence of mammals with one of the subclasses of reptiles.

Cenozoic

Cenozoic is exactly the era in which we live today. It began about 66 million years ago. At the beginning of the era, the division of the continents was still taking place. Each of them was dominated by its own flora, fauna and climate.

Cenozoic is distinguished by a large number of insects, flying and marine animals. Mammals and angiosperms predominate. It was at this time that all living organisms evolve strongly and are distinguished by a large number of subspecies. Grains appear. The most important transformation is the emergence of Homo sapiens.

Human evolution. Initial stages of development

The exact age of the planet cannot be determined. Scientists have been arguing about this topic for a long time. Some believe that the age of the Earth is 6,000 thousand years, others that it is more than 6 million. Guess we'll never know the truth. The most important achievement of the Cenozoic era is the appearance of Homo sapiens. Let's take a closer look at exactly how this happened.

There are a large number of opinions regarding the formation of mankind. Scientists have repeatedly compared a wide variety of sets of DNA. They came to the conclusion that monkeys have the most similar organism to humans. It is impossible to prove this theory to the end. Some scientists argue that the human and pig bodies are also quite similar.

Human evolution is visible to the naked eye. At first, biological factors were important for the population, and today social factors are important. Neanderthal, Cro-Magnon, Australopithecus and others - all of which our ancestors went through.

Parapithecus is the first stage in the development of modern man. At this stage, our ancestors existed - monkeys, namely chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans.

Australopithecus was the next stage of development. The first found remains were in Africa. According to preliminary data, their age is about 3 million years. Scientists examined the find and came to the conclusion that australopithecines are quite similar to modern humans. The growth of representatives was quite small, about 130 centimeters. The mass of Australopithecus was 25-40 kilograms. The guns, most likely, they did not use, since they were never found.

A skilled man was similar to Australopithecus, but, unlike them, he used a primitive tool. His hands and knuckles were more developed. It is believed that a skilled person is our direct ancestor.

Pithecanthropus

The next stage of evolution was Pithecanthropus - Homo erectus. Its first remains were found on the island of Java. According to scientists, pithecanthropes lived on the Earth about a million years ago. Later, the remains of Homo erectus were found in all corners of the planet. Based on this, we can conclude that Pithecanthropes inhabited all continents. The body of a erect human was not much different from the modern one. However, there were minor differences. Pithecanthropus had a low forehead and well-defined brow ridges. Scientists have found that an upright person led an active lifestyle. Pithecanthropes hunted and made simple tools. They lived in groups. So it was easier for Pithecanthropes to hunt and defend themselves from the enemy. Finds in China allow us to conclude that they also knew how to use fire. Pithecanthropes developed abstract thinking and speech.

Neanderthal

Neanderthals lived about 350 thousand years ago. Found about 100 remains of their life. The Neanderthal skull was domed. Their height was about 170 centimeters. They had a fairly large physique, well-developed muscles and good physical strength. They had to live in the Ice Age. It is thanks to this that Neanderthals learned to sew clothes from leather and constantly keep fire. There is an opinion that Neanderthals lived only on the territory of Eurasia. It is also worth noting that they carefully processed the stone for the future tool. The Neanderthals often used wood. From it they created a tool of labor and elements for dwellings. However, it is worth noting that they were quite primitive.

Cro-Magnon

Cro-Magnons were tall, which was about 180 centimeters. They had all the signs of modern man. Over the past 40 thousand years, their appearance has not changed at all. After analyzing the remains of a person, scientists concluded that the average age of the Cro-Magnons was about 30-50 years. It is worth noting that they created more complex types of weapons. Among them are knives and harpoons. The Cro-Magnons fished, and therefore, in addition to the standard set of weapons, they also created new ones for comfortable fishing. Among them are needles and much more. From this we can conclude that the Cro-Magnons had a well-developed brain and logic.

A reasonable man built his dwelling out of stone or dug it out of the ground. The nomadic population created temporary huts for greater convenience. It is also worth noting that the Cro-Magnons tamed the wolf, turning it over time into a watchdog.

Cro-Magnons and art

Few people know that it was the Cro-Magnons who formed the concept that we now know as the concept of creativity. On the walls of a large number of caves, rock paintings made by the Cro-Magnons were found. It is worth emphasizing that the Cro-Magnons always left their drawings in hard-to-reach places. Perhaps they performed some kind of magical role.

The Cro-Magnon people had a variety of drawing techniques. Some clearly traced the images, while others scratched them. Cro-Magnons used colored paints. Predominantly red, yellow, brown and black. Over time, they even began to carve human figures. You can easily find all the exhibits found in almost any archaeological museum. Scientists note that the Cro-Magnons were quite developed and educated. They liked to wear jewelry made from the bones of the animals they had killed.

There is quite an interesting opinion. Previously, it was believed that the Cro-Magnons ousted the Neanderthals in an unequal struggle. Scientists today think differently. They believe that for a certain amount of time, Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons lived side by side, but the weaker ones died from a sharp cold snap.

Summing up

The geological history of the Earth began many millions of years ago. Each era has contributed to our modern life. We often do not think about how our planet has evolved. Studying the information about how our Earth was formed, it is impossible to stop. The history of the evolution of the planet can bewitch everyone. We strongly recommend that we take care of our Earth, if only so that after millions of years the history of our existence will have someone to study.

To understand what era it is, you need to look at the decision of the II session of the International Geological Congress, held in 1881. Then scientists argued about our planet. There were several points of view, which brought confusion to science. By a general vote of experts, it was decided that the modern geological era is Cenozoic. It began 66 million years ago and continues to this day.

Features of the Cenozoic

Of course, the modern geological era is not something monolithic and monotonous. It is divided into three Neogene and Quaternary. During this time, the world has changed dramatically. In the early stages of the Cenozoic, the Earth looked completely different from what it is today, including in terms of flora and fauna. However, it was then that several events took place, as a result of which the planet became what we know it to be.

The restructuring of the worldwide system of interconnected sea currents began. It was caused by unprecedented continental drift. Its consequence was the complication of heat exchange between the equatorial and polar basins.

continental drift

In the Paleogene, the Gondwana supercontinent broke apart. An important event that marked the modern geological era was the collision of India and Asia. Africa from the southwest "stuck" into Eurasia. This is how the southern mountains of the Old World and Iran appeared. Geological periods passed slowly, but the map of the Earth inexorably became similar to today's.

The ancient Tethys Ocean, which separated northern Laurasia and southern Gondwana, disappeared over time. Today, only the seas (Mediterranean, Black and Caspian) remained from it. Important events also took place in the Southern Hemisphere. Antarctica broke away from Australia and headed towards the pole, turning into a glacial desert. The Isthmus of Panama appeared, which connected South and North America, finally dividing the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.

Paleogene

The first period that opened the modern geological era is the Paleogene (66-23 million years ago). A new stage in the development of the organic world began. The boundary of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic was marked by the mass extinction of a huge number of species. Most people know this disaster from the extinction of the dinosaurs.

The Mesozoic inhabitants of the Earth were replaced by new mollusks, bony fish and angiosperms. In previous geological periods, reptiles dominated the land. Now they have lost their leading positions to mammals. Of the reptiles, only crocodiles, turtles, snakes, lizards and some other species have survived. The modern appearance of amphibians was formed. Birds dominated the air.

Neogene

The generally accepted sequence of geological eras says that the second period of the Cenozoic era was the Neogene, which replaced the Paleogene and preceded the Quaternary period. It began 23 million years ago and ended 1.65 million years ago.

At the end of the Neogene, the organic world finally took on modern features. Discocyclines, assilins and nummulites became extinct in the sea. The composition of the organic world on land has changed greatly. Mammals have adapted to life in the steppes, dense forests, semi-steppes and semi-deserts, thus colonizing vast territories. It was in the Neogene that proboscis, ungulates, and other representatives of the fauna common today (hyenas, bears, martens, badgers, dogs, rhinos, sheep, bulls, etc.) appeared. Primates emerged from the forests and populated the open spaces. 5 million years ago, the first ancestors of modern man from the genus hominids appeared. In the northern latitudes, heat-loving forms of flora (myrtle, laurel, palm trees) began to disappear.

Formation of modern mountains and seas

In the Neogene, the process of mountain building continued, which determined the modern landscape of the planet. In America, the Cordillera and Appalachians were formed, in Africa, the Atlas. Mountains appeared in the east of Australia and in Hindustan. Marginal seas (the Sea of ​​Japan and the Sea of ​​Okhotsk) arose in the western Pacific Ocean. Volcanoes were active, volcanic arcs rose from the water.

For some time the level of the World Ocean exceeded the present level, but by the end of the Neogene it fell again. Glaciation swept not only Antarctica, but also the Arctic. The climate became more and more unstable and contrasting, which was especially characteristic of the next Quaternary period.

fauna migration

In the Neogene period, the territories finally united into an integral space. There was a Mediterranean route between Africa and Europe. The Turgai Sea disappeared from the West Siberian Lowland. It separated Europe from Asia. After it dried, migration between different parts of the world was facilitated. Herbivorous horses came from America, and antelopes and bulls came from Asia. Proboscis spread outside of Africa. Cats, which at first were saber-toothed and lived only in America, flooded Eurasia.

The Isthmus of Panama formed 4 million years ago. There was a land connection between the two Americas, which led to an unprecedented migration of animals. The southern fauna throughout the entire Cenozoic was in a state of isolation, actually living on a huge island. Now, species unfamiliar to each other have come into contact. The fauna is mixed. Armadillos, sloths and marsupials showed up in the north. Horses, tapirs, hamsters, pigs, deer and camelids (llamas) colonized South America. The northern animal world has been enriched. But in South America there was a real disaster. Due to new competitors in the face of ungulates and predators, many rodents and marsupials died out. These controversial events became known as the Great American Exchange.

Quaternary period

It took several billion years for numerous geological eras and periods to succeed each other and finally come to the point when the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic began one and a half million years ago. It continues to this day, so it can be considered modern.

All periods and eras differ from each other in unique features. The Quaternary is also called the anthropogen, since it was during this period of time that the development and formation of man took place. His first ancestors appeared in East Africa. Then they settled in Eurasia, and from modern Chukotka they came to America. People have gone through several stages of development. The last one (homo sapiens) came 40 thousand years ago.

At the same time, it is unique in its climatic jumps. Over the past million years, several ice ages have passed, changing to warming. Climatic troubles have led to the extinction of many heat-loving species of flora and fauna. Animals that adapted to life in the conditions of the ice age (mammoths, saber-toothed tigers) also disappeared.

Holocene

The answer to the question of what era is now has already been found (Cenozoic). At the same time, within its framework, the Quaternary period continues today. It is also divided into parts. The modern division of the Quaternary period is the Holocene epoch. It began 12 thousand years ago. Scientists call it interglacial. That is, this is the period that has come after a significant warming.

At the same time, modern mankind managed to catch several small ice ages. Climatic changes, characteristic of the entire Quaternary period, have been cyclically repeated several times over the past 12 thousand years. At the same time, in terms of its scale, remaining miniature and not so much cardinal. Climatologists note the Little Ice Age, which occurred in 1450-1850. Winter temperatures in Europe have dropped, leading to frequent crop failures and turmoil in the agricultural economy. The Little Ice Age was preceded by the Atlantic Optimum (900-1300). During this period, the climate was noticeably milder, and the glaciers were significantly reduced. Here it should be remembered that the Vikings, who discovered Greenland in the Middle Ages, called it a "green country", although today it is not at all "green".

The emergence of the Earth and the early stages of its formation

One of the important tasks of modern natural science in the field of Earth sciences is the restoration of the history of its development. According to modern cosmogonic concepts, the Earth was formed from the gas and dust matter scattered in the protosolar system. One of the most probable variants of the origin of the Earth is as follows. First, the Sun and a flattened rotating near-solar nebula were formed from an interstellar gas and dust cloud under the influence of, for example, the explosion of a nearby supernova. Next, the evolution of the Sun and the near-solar nebula took place with the transfer of the moment of momentum from the Sun to the planets by electromagnetic or turbulent-convective methods. Subsequently, the "dusty plasma" condensed into rings around the Sun, and the material of the rings formed the so-called planetesimals, which condensed to planets. After that, a similar process was repeated around the planets, which led to the formation of satellites. This process is believed to have taken about 100 million years.

It is assumed that further, as a result of the differentiation of the Earth's substance under the influence of its gravitational field and radioactive heating, different in chemical composition, state of aggregation and physical properties of the shell - the Earth's geosphere - arose and developed. The heavier material formed a core, probably composed of iron mixed with nickel and sulfur. Somewhat lighter elements remained in the mantle. According to one of the hypotheses, the mantle is composed of simple oxides of aluminum, iron, titanium, silicon, etc. The composition of the earth's crust has already been discussed in sufficient detail in § 8.2. It is composed of lighter silicates. Even lighter gases and moisture formed the primary atmosphere.

As already mentioned, it is assumed that the Earth was born from a cluster of cold solid particles that fell out of a gas and dust nebula and stuck together under the influence of mutual attraction. As the planet grew, it warmed up due to the collision of these particles, which reached several hundred kilometers, like modern asteroids, and the release of heat not only by naturally radioactive elements now known to us in the crust, but also by more than 10 radioactive isotopes Al, Be, which have since died out. Cl, etc. As a result, complete (in the core) or partial (in the mantle) melting of the substance could occur. In the initial period of its existence, up to about 3.8 billion years, the Earth and other terrestrial planets, as well as the Moon, were subjected to increased bombardment by small and large meteorites. The result of this bombardment and an earlier collision of planetesimals could be the release of volatiles and the beginning of the formation of a secondary atmosphere, since the primary, consisting of gases captured during the formation of the Earth, most likely quickly dissipated into outer space. A little later, the hydrosphere began to form. The atmosphere and hydrosphere formed in this way were replenished in the process of degassing of the mantle during volcanic activity.

The fall of large meteorites created vast and deep craters, similar to those currently observed on the Moon, Mars, Mercury, where their traces have not been erased by subsequent changes. Cratering could provoke magma outpourings with the formation of basalt fields similar to those covering the lunar "seas". Thus, the primary crust of the Earth was probably formed, which, however, has not been preserved on its modern surface, with the exception of relatively small fragments in the “younger” crust of the continental type.

This crust, containing in its composition already granites and gneisses, however, with a lower content of silica and potassium than in "normal" granites, appeared at the turn of about 3.8 billion years and is known to us from outcrops within the crystalline shields of almost all continents. The method of formation of the oldest continental crust is still largely unclear. This crust, metamorphosed everywhere under conditions of high temperatures and pressures, contains rocks whose textural features indicate accumulation in the aquatic environment, i.e. in this distant epoch the hydrosphere already existed. The appearance of the first crust, similar to the modern one, required the supply of large amounts of silica, aluminum, and alkalis from the mantle, while now mantle magmatism creates a very limited volume of rocks enriched in these elements. It is believed that 3.5 billion years ago, gray-gneiss crust, named after the predominant type of its constituent rocks, was widespread on the area of ​​modern continents. In our country, for example, it is known on the Kola Peninsula and in Siberia, in particular in the basin of the river. Aldan.

Principles of periodization of the geological history of the Earth

Further events in geologic time are often determined according to relative geochronology, categories "old", "younger". For example, some era is older than some other. Separate segments of geological history are called (in decreasing order of their duration) zones, eras, periods, epochs, centuries. Their identification is based on the fact that geological events are imprinted in rocks, and sedimentary and volcanogenic rocks are located in layers in the earth's crust. In 1669, N. Stenoy established the law of stratification sequence, according to which the underlying layers of sedimentary rocks are older than the overlying ones, i.e. formed before them. Thanks to this, it became possible to determine the relative sequence of the formation of layers, and hence the geological events associated with them.

The main method in relative geochronology is the biostratigraphic, or paleontological, method of establishing the relative age and sequence of the occurrence of rocks. This method was proposed by W. Smith at the beginning of the 19th century, and then developed by J. Cuvier and A. Brongniard. The fact is that in most sedimentary rocks one can find the remains of animal or plant organisms. J.B. Lamarck and C. Darwin established that animals and plant organisms in the course of geological history gradually improved in the struggle for existence, adapting to changing living conditions. Some animal and plant organisms died out at certain stages of the development of the Earth, they were replaced by others, more perfect ones. Thus, according to the remains of earlier living more primitive ancestors found in some layer, one can judge the relatively older age of this layer.

Another method of geochronological separation of rocks, especially important for the separation of igneous formations of the ocean floor, is based on the property of the magnetic susceptibility of rocks and minerals formed in the Earth's magnetic field. With a change in the orientation of the rock relative to the magnetic field or the field itself, part of the "inherent" magnetization is retained, and the change in polarity is imprinted in a change in the orientation of the remanent magnetization of the rocks. Currently, a scale for the change of such epochs has been established.

Absolute geochronology - the doctrine of the measurement of geological time, expressed in ordinary absolute astronomical units(years), - determines the time of occurrence, completion and duration of all geological events, primarily the time of formation or transformation (metamorphism) of rocks and minerals, since the age of geological events is determined by their age. The main method here is the analysis of the ratio of radioactive substances and their decay products in rocks formed in different eras.

The oldest rocks are currently established in West Greenland (3.8 billion years). The oldest age (4.1 - 4.2 Ga) was obtained from zircons from Western Australia, but the zircon here occurs in a redeposited state in Mesozoic sandstones. Taking into account the concept of the simultaneity of the formation of all the planets of the solar system and the moon and the age of the most ancient meteorites (4.5-4.6 billion years) and ancient lunar rocks (4.0-4.5 billion years), the age of the Earth is assumed to be 4.6 billion years.

In 1881, at the II International Geological Congress in Bologna (Italy), the main divisions of the combined stratigraphic (for separating layered sedimentary rocks) and geochronological scales were approved. According to this scale, the history of the Earth was divided into four eras in accordance with the stages of development of the organic world: 1) Archean, or Archeozoic - the era of ancient life; 2) Paleozoic - the era of ancient life; 3) Mesozoic - the era of middle life; 4) Cenozoic - the era of new life. In 1887, the Proterozoic, the era of primary life, was singled out from the Archean era. Later the scale was improved. One of the variants of the modern geochronological scale is presented in Table. 8.1. The Archean era is divided into two parts: early (older than 3500 Ma) and late Archean; Proterozoic - also into two: early and late Proterozoic; in the latter, the Riphean (the name comes from the ancient name of the Ural Mountains) and Vendian periods are distinguished. The Phanerozoic zone is subdivided into the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras and consists of 12 periods.

Table 8.1. Geological scale

The main stages of the evolution of the earth's crust

Let us briefly consider the main stages in the evolution of the earth's crust as an inert substrate, on which the diversity of the surrounding nature has developed.

ATapxee The still rather thin and plastic crust, under the influence of extension, experienced numerous discontinuities, through which basaltic magma again rushed to the surface, filling troughs hundreds of kilometers long and many tens of kilometers wide, known as greenstone belts (they owe this name to the prevailing greenschist low-temperature metamorphism of basalt breeds). Along with basalts, among the lavas of the lower, most thick part of the section of these belts, there are high-magnesian lavas, indicating a very high degree of partial melting of the mantle substance, which indicates a high heat flow, much higher than the modern one. The development of greenstone belts consisted in a change in the type of volcanism towards an increase in the content of silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) in it, in compressional deformations and metamorphism of sedimentary-volcanogenic fulfillment, and, finally, in the accumulation of clastic sediments, indicating the formation of a mountainous relief.

After the change of several generations of greenstone belts, the Archean stage of the evolution of the earth's crust ended 3.0 -2.5 billion years ago with the massive formation of normal granites with a predominance of K 2 O over Na 2 O. Granitization, as well as regional metamorphism, which in some places reached the highest stage, led to the formation of a mature continental crust over most of the area of ​​modern continents. However, this crust turned out to be insufficiently stable: at the beginning of the Proterozoic era, it experienced crushing. At this time, a planetary network of faults and cracks arose, filled with dikes (plate-like geological bodies). One of them, the Great Dike in Zimbabwe, is over 500 km long and up to 10 km wide. In addition, rifting appeared for the first time, giving rise to zones of subsidence, powerful sedimentation and volcanism. Their evolution led to the creation at the end early Proterozoic(2.0-1.7 billion years ago) of folded systems that re-soldered the fragments of the Archean continental crust, which was facilitated by a new era of powerful granite formation.

As a result, by the end of the Early Proterozoic (by the turn of 1.7 billion years ago), a mature continental crust already existed on 60-80% of the area of ​​its modern distribution. Moreover, some scientists believe that at this boundary the entire continental crust formed a single massif - the supercontinent Megagea (large land), which on the other side of the globe was opposed by the ocean - the predecessor of the modern Pacific Ocean - Megathalassa (large sea). This ocean was less deep than modern oceans, because the growth of the volume of the hydrosphere due to degassing of the mantle in the process of volcanic activity continues throughout the subsequent history of the Earth, although more slowly. It is possible that the prototype of Megathalassa appeared even earlier, at the end of the Archean.

In the Catarchean and the beginning of the Archean, the first traces of life appeared - bacteria and algae, and in the Late Archean, algal calcareous structures - stromatolites - spread. In the Late Archean, a radical change in the composition of the atmosphere began, and in the Early Proterozoic, a radical change in the composition of the atmosphere began: under the influence of plant life, free oxygen appeared in it, while the Catharchean and Early Archean atmosphere consisted of water vapor, CO 2 , CO, CH 4 , N, NH 3 and H 2 S with an admixture of HC1, HF and inert gases.

In the Late Proterozoic(1.7-0.6 billion years ago) Megagea began to gradually split, and this process sharply intensified at the end of the Proterozoic. Its traces are extended continental rift systems buried at the base of the sedimentary cover of ancient platforms. Its most important result was the formation of vast intercontinental mobile belts - the North Atlantic, Mediterranean, Ural-Okhotsk, which divided the continents of North America, Eastern Europe, East Asia and the largest fragment of Megagea - the southern supercontinent Gondwana. The central parts of these belts developed on the oceanic crust newly formed during rifting, i.e. the belts were ocean basins. Their depth gradually increased as the hydrosphere grew. At the same time, mobile belts developed along the periphery of the Pacific Ocean, the depth of which also increased. Climatic conditions became more contrasting, as evidenced by the appearance, especially at the end of the Proterozoic, of glacial deposits (tillites, ancient moraines and water-glacial sediments).

Paleozoic stage The evolution of the earth's crust was characterized by the intensive development of mobile belts - intercontinental and marginal continental (the latter on the periphery of the Pacific Ocean). These belts were divided into marginal seas and island arcs, their sedimentary-volcanogenic strata experienced complex fold-thrust, and then normal-shear deformations, granites were introduced into them and on this basis folded mountain systems were formed. This process proceeded unevenly. It distinguishes a number of intense tectonic epochs and granitic magmatism: Baikal - at the very end of the Proterozoic, Salair (from the Salair ridge in Central Siberia) - at the end of the Cambrian, Takov (from the Takov mountains in the east of the USA) - at the end of the Ordovician, Caledonian ( from the ancient Roman name of Scotland) - at the end of the Silurian, Acadian (Acadia - the ancient name of the northeastern states of the USA) - in the middle of the Devonian, Sudeten - at the end of the Early Carboniferous, Saal (from the Saale River in Germany) - in the middle of the early Permian. The first three tectonic epochs of the Paleozoic are often combined into the Caledonian era of tectogenesis, the last three into the Hercynian or Varisian. In each of the listed tectonic epochs, certain parts of the mobile belts turned into folded mountain structures, and after destruction (denudation) they were part of the foundation of young platforms. But some of them partially experienced activation in subsequent epochs of mountain building.

By the end of the Paleozoic, the intercontinental mobile belts were completely closed and filled with folded systems. As a result of the withering away of the North Atlantic belt, the North American continent closed with the East European, and the latter (after the completion of the development of the Ural-Okhotsk belt) - with the Siberian, Siberian - with the Chinese-Korean. As a result, the supercontinent Laurasia was formed, and the dying off of the western part of the Mediterranean belt led to its unification with the southern supercontinent - Gondwana - into one continental block - Pangea. The eastern part of the Mediterranean belt at the end of the Paleozoic - the beginning of the Mesozoic turned into a huge bay of the Pacific Ocean, along the periphery of which folded mountain structures also rose.

Against the background of these changes in the structure and relief of the Earth, the development of life continued. The first animals appeared as early as the late Proterozoic, and at the very dawn of the Phanerozoic, almost all types of invertebrates existed, but they still lacked the shells or shells that have been known since the Cambrian. In the Silurian (or already in the Ordovician), vegetation began to land on land, and at the end of the Devonian there were forests that became most widespread in the Carboniferous period. Fish appeared in the Silurian, amphibians in the Carboniferous.

Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras - the last major stage in the development of the structure of the earth's crust, which is marked by the formation of modern oceans and the isolation of modern continents. At the beginning of the stage, in the Triassic, Pangea still existed, but already in the early Jurassic, it again split into Laurasia and Gondwana due to the emergence of the latitudinal Tethys ocean, stretching from Central America to Indochina and Indonesia, and in the west and east it merged with the Pacific Ocean (Fig. 8.6); this ocean also included the Central Atlantic. From here, at the end of the Jurassic, the process of moving apart the continents spread to the north, creating the North Atlantic during the Cretaceous period and the early Paleogene, and starting from the Paleogene, the Eurasian basin of the Arctic Ocean (the Amerasian basin arose earlier as part of the Pacific Ocean). As a result, North America separated from Eurasia. In the Late Jurassic, the formation of the Indian Ocean began, and from the beginning of the Cretaceous, the South Atlantic began to open up from the south. This meant the beginning of the disintegration of Gondwana, which existed as a whole throughout the Paleozoic. At the end of the Cretaceous, the North Atlantic joined the South, separating Africa from South America. At the same time, Australia separated from Antarctica, and at the end of the Paleogene, the latter separated from South America.

Thus, by the end of the Paleogene, all modern oceans took shape, all modern continents became isolated, and the appearance of the Earth acquired a form that was basically close to the current one. However, there were no modern mountain systems yet.

From the Late Paleogene (40 million years ago), intensive mountain building began, culminating in the last 5 million years. This stage of the formation of young fold-cover mountain structures, the formation of revived arch-block mountains is distinguished as neotectonic. In fact, the neotectonic stage is a sub-stage of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic stage of the Earth's development, since it was at this stage that the main features of the modern Earth relief took shape, starting with the distribution of oceans and continents.

At this stage, the formation of the main features of modern fauna and flora was completed. The Mesozoic era was the era of reptiles, mammals began to predominate in the Cenozoic, and man appeared in the late Pliocene. At the end of the Early Cretaceous, angiosperms appeared and the land acquired grass cover. At the end of the Neogene and Anthropogene, the high latitudes of both hemispheres were covered by a powerful continental glaciation, the relics of which are the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland. This was the third major glaciation in the Phanerozoic: the first took place in the late Ordovician, the second - at the end of the Carboniferous - the beginning of the Permian; both were common within Gondwana.

QUESTIONS FOR SELF-CHECKING

What are spheroid, ellipsoid and geoid? What are the parameters of the ellipsoid adopted in our country? Why is it needed?

What is the internal structure of the Earth? On the basis of what is the conclusion about its structure made?

What are the main physical parameters of the Earth and how do they change with depth?

What is the chemical and mineralogical composition of the Earth? On what basis is a conclusion made about the chemical composition of the entire Earth and the earth's crust?

What are the main types of the earth's crust are currently distinguished?

What is the hydrosphere? What is the water cycle in nature? What are the main processes occurring in the hydrosphere and its elements?

What is atmosphere? What is its structure? What processes take place within it? What is weather and climate?

Define endogenous processes. What endogenous processes do you know? Briefly describe them.

What is the essence of lithospheric plate tectonics? What are its main provisions?

10. Define exogenous processes. What is the main essence of these processes? What endogenous processes do you know? Briefly describe them.

11. How do endogenous and exogenous processes interact? What are the results of the interaction of these processes? What is the essence of the theories of V. Davis and V. Penk?

What are the current ideas about the origin of the Earth? How was its early formation as a planet?

On the basis of what is the periodization of the geological history of the Earth?

14. How did the earth's crust develop in the geological past of the Earth? What are the main stages in the development of the earth's crust?

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