Briefly about the liberation movement: it originates during the period of transition from feudalism to capitalism and is associated with the growth of national consciousness, the emergence of progressive and patriotic ideas aimed at reforming the country

DECABRIST MOVEMENT

(radical wing of the noble opposition)

causes, conditions and initial ideas of Decembrism.

1. The specifics of the international situation (a wave of revolutionary uprisings in Europe).

2. European philosophy of Enlightenment (the teachings of Locke, Montesquieu, Diderot, etc.)

3. Ideas of Russian enlighteners of the late 18th - early 19th centuries (N. Novikov, A. Radishchev)

4. The Patriotic War of 1812, acquaintance with Western Europe during the foreign campaigns of the Russian army in 1813-1814.

5. Patriotic upsurge and growth of national consciousness

6. Indecisiveness of Alexander 1 in carrying out reforms

The Decembrist movement is a complex socio-cultural and political phenomenon, which combined:

• reformist and revolutionary tendencies;
• the germs of the future Westernism and Slavophilism;
• national-patriotic and international tendencies;
• dogmas of orthodoxy religious indifference

Secret society tactics

	Name organizations	Founders	Organization goals	Outcome
1.	Union salvation (1816 1817 years)	Brothers Muravyov-Apostol M.I. and S.I., Muravievs I.N. and A.N., S.P. Trubetskoy, I.D. Yakushin (total 10-12 people)	- Elimination of the autocratic form of government and the introduction of the Constitution in Russia Abolition of serfdom	1817- self-destruction union in view absence unity in program and means
2.	Welfare Union (1818-1821)	Composition - up to 200 people.	Charter - "Green Book" Program: dissemination of ideas for the socio-political transformation of Russia	1821 - Decision of the organization to formally dissolve itself due to irreconcilable differences.
3.	society	P. Pestel - leader	"Russian Truth" by P. Pestel 1 Establishment of the Republic 1) Land fund of the country: a) private land and public land Public land to those who cultivate it free of charge, without the right to sell Private land is a free commodity (individuals, organizations, treasury)	December 29 1 825 The uprising of the Chernihiv regiment in Ukraine
4.	Northern society	N. Muraviev - leader	Constitution N. Muraviev one . Russia is a constitutional monarchy 2. The abolition of serfdom in Russia a) Retention of land by the landowners b) Allotment of former peasants with small plots of land on lease terms from their landlords 3. Elimination of estates, freedom of speech, press, assembly, immunity personality, equal and public court 4. Liquidation of military settlements in Russia 5. Cancellation of recruiting sets, the introduction of military service	December 14, 1825 - the uprising of the Decembrists in St. Petersburg

Canceled	Serfdom	Canceled
The inviolability of the landed estates	Earth	Common property. Divided into landlord and private
Canceled	Estates	Canceled
Federal	State structure	unitary
13 powers and 2 regions	Administrative division	10 regions and 3 destinies
	Democratic Rights	Wide range of civil rights
A constitutional monarchy	Form of government	Republic. Dictatorship of the Provisional Supreme Board for 10-15 years
Qualification of gender, age, property and education	Suffrage	Qualification of sex and age

State structure in the program projects of the future Decembrists

The historical significance of the Decembrist movement

1. The first open attempt by noble revolutionaries to change the system of government in Russia and abolish serfdom.
2. The speech of the Decembrists showed the society the presence of deep social contradictions and the need for reforms.
3. The Decembrists showed an example of selfless service to the Fatherland and a willingness to endure hardships for the good of the country and its people.

The Decembrists laid the foundation for the liberation movement in Russia. Their ideology, tactics, and struggle experience influenced the further development of social and political thought in Russia.

PUBLIC MOVEMENT 30 - 50s

Revolutionary and educational circles of the 20-40s

Name of the circle, place and years of existence	Leaders	Program and activities
Circle of Cretan brothers 1826 - 1827, Moscow	Cretan brothers Peter, Michael and Vasily, 6 people in total	An attempt to continue the Decembrist ideology and tactics. propaganda of revolutionary ideas among students, officials, officers. Regicide must become a prerequisite for revolutionary transformations. On the day of the coronation of Nicholas 1, the members of the circle scattered proclamations across Red Square calling for the overthrow of the autocracy. The circle was opened by the police, its members were imprisoned in the Solovetsky Monastery, and then given over to the soldiers.
Literary society of the 11th number, 1830 - 1832, Moscow	V.G. Belinsky	Reading and discussion of literary works. Discussion of the problems of Russian reality.
Circle of Stankevich, 1831 - 1839, Moscow	N.V. Stankevich, K.S. Aksakov, T.N. Granovsky, V.G. Belinsky, M.A. Bakunin	The study of the philosophical systems of Kant, Hegel. Condemnation of serfdom. Violent methods were not allowed. With the departure of Stankevich abroad, the circle broke up by itself.
Circle of Herzen and Ogarev, 1831 - 1834, Moscow.	Herzen A.I., Ogarev N.P., Savin N.M., Sazonov M.I. and etc.	Studied the works of the French Enlightenment. Followed the revolutionary events in the West. The circle was opened by the police. Herzen and Ogarev sent into exile. The remaining members of the circle were placed under police supervision.
Circle of Petrashevists, 1845 - 1849, St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, Rostov	Butashevich-Petrashevsky M.V., Saltykov-Shchedrin M.E., Dostoevsky F.M. and etc.	Discussion of topical problems of Russian reality. Criticism of autocracy and serfdom. Propaganda of revolutionary ideas through the press. They considered it necessary to overthrow the autocracy, abolish serfdom, and introduce democratic freedoms. For this, it was proposed to create a revolutionary center and raise a peasant uprising. The circle was opened, its members were sentenced to death, replaced by hard labor, exile and other punishments.
Cyril and Methodius Society, 1845 - 1847, Ukraine	T.G. Shevchenko, N.I. Kostomarov. and etc.	Creation of a Slavic republic, a democratic society. The liquidation of serfdom. The society was exposed, its members were subjected to repression

Liberal opposition movement

Name	Representatives	Key Ideas
Slavophilism (1839 - mid-70s of the XIX century) Ideological and political doctrine of the exclusivity and originality of the historical path of development of Russia, the messianic predestination of the Russian people	A.S. Khomyakov, brothers K.S. and I.S. Aksakov, Kirievsky, .F. Samarin, A.I. Koshelev	1. Condemnation of the reforms of Peter1 for the destruction of the harmonious system of Russia and the introduction of serfdom 2. The power of the king is unlimited. The monarch considers the opinion of the people 3. Preservation of the peasant community and strengthening the role of Orthodoxy in the life of society - the two foundations of the identity of the Russian people 4. Convocation of the Zemsky Sobor in Russia
Westernism - An ideological and political doctrine, according to which the historical development of Russia should follow the European version.	Granovsky T., Solovyov S., Kavelin K. Turgenev I. Nekrasov N.	1. Positive assessment of the activities of Peter the Great 2. Europeanization of Russia is necessary 3. Abolition of serfdom (reform) 4. Russia is a constitutional monarchy. 5. Guarantee of rights and freedoms
Common features. The need for changes in Russian reality. Abolition of serfdom. Hope for the peaceful and evolutionary nature of the transformations under the leadership of the supreme power. Faith in the possibility of Russia moving towards prosperity

Social movement in the 60s of the XIX century

1. Criticism and support for the course of government reforms.

2. Insisting on continuing reforms

The liberal movement in the post-reform period was concentrated in the zemstvos

revolutionary movements

REASONS FOR THE APPEARANCE: dissatisfaction with the reforms of the 60s and 70s of the 19th century among a part of the radical intelligentsia.

Rebellious (anarchist) M.A. Bakunin	Propaganda P.L. Lavrov	Conspiratorial P.N. Tkachev
The peasant is by nature a rebel, he is ready for revolution. The intelligentsia must go among the people and help to merge individual peasant revolts into an all-Russian revolution. The state is a source of exploitation, so it must be destroyed. Instead of a state, there is a union of self-governing communities.	The peasant is not ready for revolution. The intelligentsia must go to the people, carry revolutionary and socialist ideas. For greater effectiveness of propaganda, a revolutionary organization must be created.	The peasant is not ready for revolution, but agitation will not give quick results The autocracy has no support among the people. Therefore, it is necessary to create a revolutionary organization that will prepare and carry out the seizure of power. This will spark a revolution

Narodnik activities

The main ideas of revolutionary populism

1. Capitalism in Russia is an alien phenomenon, implanted "from above"

2. Russia has a special path of historical development

3. The future of Russia is socialism, bypassing capitalism.

4. The leading force of the peasantry is the party of professional revolutionaries

5. The cell of socialism in the country is the peasant community.

6. Autocracy in the country has no social support

The labor movement in the 70s - 80s and the beginning of the spread of Marxism in the 19th century

The first workers' organizations in Russia

Name of the organization	Years and place of existence	Leaders	Program	Activity
"South Russian Union of Workers"	1875 - 1876 Odessa	E.O. Zaslavsky, ca. 60 people	Fight against the existing political system. influence of populist ideology	Advocacy
"Northern Union of Workers"	1878 - 1880 Petersburg	V.P. Obnorsky, S.N. Khalturin, ok. 200 people	Liquidation of the existing building. Fight for political freedom. solidarity of the workers of all countries. Populist influence	Participation in strikes. Publication of proclamations and leaflet “Working Dawn”

In general, the labor movement in Russia at the end of the 19th century was of an economic nature - the struggle to improve their financial situation and working conditions.

Marxist circles in Russia

Circle	year, place	Leaders	Activity
Blagoev's Circle	1883–1885, Petersburg	D Blagoev	The study of Marxism, its propaganda among the workers, the publication of the newspaper "Worker". The circle was opened by the police.
“Association of St. Petersburg Masters”	1885 - 1888, St. Petersburg	P.V. Tochissky	Propaganda of Marxism among the workers
Fedoseev's circle	1888, Kazan	NOT. Fedoseev	Propaganda of Marxism among workers and students. Organization of student unrest at Kazan University. In this circle, V.I. joined Marxism. Ulyanov (Lenin)
Brusnev circle	1889 - 1892, St. Petersburg	M.I. Brusnev.	Propaganda of Marxism, creation of workers' circles. Organization of demonstrations and May Day meetings in 1891.

The formation of political parties in the late XIX - early XX century

REASONS FOR THE SPLIT

1. Support in ideology on different layers of Marxism.
2. Differences in the assessment of the political and socio-economic situation in Russia.
3. Differences on strategic and tactical questions of political behavior of the party.
4. Different approaches to issues of party building
5. Leaders' personal rivalry for power in the party

NEO-POPULAR

SOCIALIST REVOLUTIONARY PARTY

(SRs)

CENTER PARTIES

SOCIAL SUPPORT: commercial and industrial circles

Liberal Opposition Party - Kadets

(Constitutional Democratic Party).

SOCIAL SUPPORT: intelligentsia, liberal nobility, partly peasants and workers.

LEFT PARTIES

Revolutionary Democratic Parties (Far Left)

	AKP - Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) since 1905	RSDLP - Russian Social Democratic Party (since 1903)
		Bolsheviks	Mensheviks
Leaders	M Spiridonova, B. Savinkov, V. Chernov	IN AND. Lenin	G.V. Plekhanov
social support	Peasants	Working class
agrarian question	Land municipalization: Refusal to confiscate landed estates; Alienation of landlords' land by way of redemption for a fee; The transfer of land to public use under the control of self-government bodies - municipalities. Land socialization: Transfer of land to the public domain; the preservation of the peasant community - the cell of the future socialism and its right to dispose of the land fund; Distribution of land for use according to the labor norm.	Program minimum	Program maximum
		- return to the peasants cuts; Cancellation of redemption and quitrent payments; Cancellation of mutual responsibility	- complete confiscation of all landowners, state, appanage, church and monastery lands; The nationalization of land is the transfer of it to the ownership of the state.

THE EXPERIENCE OF RUSSIAN PARLIAMENTARISM AND THE PARTIES' PARTICIPATION IN THE WORK OF THE STATE DUMA

(1906 – 1917)

Working hours	Party and political composition	State Duma leadership	Main questions in the direction of activity
April 24 - July 8, 1906 I State Duma	Cadets - 161; Trudoviks - 97; Peace Renovationists - 25; social democrats - 17; Democratic Reform Party - 14; progressives - 12; non-partisans - 103; party of the Union of Autonomists - 90. Total: 499 deputies	Chairman - S.A. Muromtsev (cadet)	- the problem of creating a “ministry responsible to the State Duma” The central issue is agriculture. Everything was rejected by the supreme power, and the State Duma was dissolved
February 20 - June 2, 907 II State Duma	Trudoviks - 104; cadets - 98; social democrats - 65; Socialist-Revolutionaries - 37; right - 22; popular socialists - 16; moderates and Octobrists - 32; Democratic Reform Party 1; non-partisans - 50; national groups - 76; Cossack group - 17. Total: 518 deputies	Chairman - A.F. Golovin (cadet)	- the central issue is agrarian (projects of the Cadets, Trudoviks, Social Democrats); Refusal to support Stolypin's agrarian reforms; dissolved by decree of the tsar of June 3, 1907, after which a new electoral law was put into effect
November 1, 1907 - June 9, 1912 III State Duma	Octobrists - 136; nationalists - 90; progressives and peace-renovators - 39; social democrats - 19; Trudoviks - 13; non-partisans - 15; national groups - 26. Total: 442 deputies	Chairmen: N.A. Khomyakov - Octobrist (1907 - 1910); A.I. Guchkov - Octobrist (1910 - 1911); M.V. Rodzianko - Octobrist (1911 - 1912)	- approved agrarian legislation on the reform of Stolypin (1910); Labor legislation adopted; Finnish autonomy limited
November 15, 1912 - October 6, 1917 IV State Duma	Octobrists - 98; nationalists and moderate right 88; center group - 33; right - 65; cadets - 52; progressives - 48; social democrats - 14; Trudoviks - 10; non-partisans - 7; national groups - 21. Total: 442 deputies	Chairman - M.V. Rodzianko - Octobrist (1912 - 1917)	- maintaining Russia's participation in the First World War Creation in the Duma of the so-called. "Progressive Bloc" (1915) and its confrontation with the tsar and the government

Political parties of Russia in the February Revolution

Party name	Tactics	Software settings
Conservative-protective parties	The Black Hundred organizations ceased their activities after February 1917
Liberal parties
“Union 17 October	After the February Revolution, it ceased to exist. The expression of the interests of the bourgeoisie finally passed to the Cadets
2. "Party of People's Freedom" (cadets)	1 .Retract holding urgent measures in domestic and foreign policy until the end of the war 2. “War to the bitter end”	1. Prohibition of the seizure of landed estates 2. Cancellation of the 8-hour working day due to the war 3. Indivisibility of Russia 4. Determination of the political structure of Russia after the convocation of the Constituent Assembly
Revolutionary parties
1. Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs)	February - April 1917 Support for the Provisional Government and the Soviets April - October 1917 Struggle for a coalition government and participation in it in order to carry out radical reforms and inadmissibility of the Civil War	1. “Democratic Peace to the World” 2. The final solution of the peasant question through the Constituent Assembly 3. Preparation of agrarian reform in the field
2. RSDLP a) Mensheviks	February - April 1917 Support and maximum pressure on the Provisional Government April - October 1917 Creation and participation in a coalition government	1. Consolidation of the bourgeois-democratic system 2. Building socialism in Russia is utopian 3. Conclusion of a democratic universal peace 4. Defense of the revolution from external enemies
b) Bolsheviks	February - March 1917 Support and pressure on the Provisional Government (before the arrival of V.I. Lenin in Russia) April - October 1917 “No support for the Provisional Government!” The struggle for the transfer of power to the Soviets. Course towards socialist revolution	1. Cessation of the war. Democratic world 2. Immediate transfer of all lands into the hands of the peasantry. 3. Nationalization of the land 4. The right of nations to self-determination

THE PARTY AND POLITICAL COMPOSITION OF THE PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT IN 1917 AND ITS CRISES

Time in office	Prime Minister	Party and political composition	Causes of the crisis
March 2 - May 6, 1917	Prince Lvov G.E.	Cadets, Octobrists, Progressives, Non-Party	Note N.P. Milyukov to the allies about the continuation of Russia's participation in the war.
May 6 - July 24, 1917	Prince Lvov G.E.	Cadets, Socialist-Revolutionaries, Mensheviks	Disagreements in the government. Unsuccessful offensive at the front. July events in Petrograd
July 24 - September 25, 1917 (September 1 - 25, 1917 - directory)	Kerensky A.F.	Cadets, Socialist-Revolutionaries, Mensheviks	Deepening socio-economic and political crisis in the country
September 25 - October 25, 1917	Kerensky A.F.	Cadets, Socialist-Revolutionaries, Mensheviks	Seizure of power by the Bolsheviks

NUMBER OF POLITICAL PARTIES IN RUSSIA BY THE AUTUMN OF 1917 (THOUSAND PEOPLE)

Literature:

1. Kaziev S.Sh., Burdina E.N. History of Russia (in tables and diagrams) for schoolchildren. “List” M. 1997
2. Kirilov V.V. Scheme exam. Domestic history in diagrams and tables. EXMO 2004

After graduating from college, Trotsky moved to Nikolaev to finish the seventh grade of the "real game". The year of study in Nikolaev, 1896, was a turning point for Trotsky. He abandoned his studies (although the knowledge gained at the school allowed him to stay in the position of the first student), he was drawn to public life. He met the gardener Franz Shvigovsky, a Czech by birth, who subscribed to the newspaper, closely followed politics, and read a lot of literature. Trotsky breaks with his parents, who insist on Leo breaking up with his new acquaintance and continuing his "normal" studies, and joins Shvigovsky's "commune". It also included Trotsky's older brother Alexander, here Trotsky meets his future first wife Alexandra Sokolovskaya. The members of the commune lived in a Spartan way, wearing blue blouses, round straw hats and black sticks. In the city they were mistaken for members of a mysterious sect. They read a lot and randomly, argued, distributed books among the people, tried to defend the interests of the workers in court, created a "university on the basis of mutual learning", wrote polemical articles, and even created a revolutionary play.

After Trotsky graduated from the Nikolaev Real School, he again faced the question of choice - what to do next? At the insistence of his parents, he returned to Odessa, where for some time he attended lectures at the mathematical faculty of the university. But soon the university was abandoned. The revolution took over more and more. "I lived in Odessa and was looking for. What? Mainly myself. I made casual acquaintances with workers, got illegal literature, gave lessons, gave secret lectures to senior students of a vocational school, argued with Marxists," at that time Lev was 17 years! He completely switched to semi-legal work in the circles of radical youth and soon became the informal leader of a group of young people who were looking for an outlet for their overwhelming desire to be active for the good of the fatherland.

A very crucial moment is approaching in the formation of Trotsky as a revolutionary. This is due to his entry into a real revolutionary movement. During this period, Trotsky's views were very far from Marxist. He did not even strive to master Marxism, showing indifference to the systematic, purposeful work to form strong theoretical convictions. With the growth of revolutionary sentiment throughout Russia in 1897, Trotsky and his friends began to intensively seek connections with the workers' quarters of Nikolaev. The situation was favorable for this: the south of Russia at the end of the 19th century developed at a rapid pace (in 1897 there were about 10,000 workers in Nikolaev), and the gendarmerie of Nikolaev "did peacefully in the absence of great alarms." Thus, another organization arose in the south of Russia, which, at the suggestion of Trotsky, was called the "South Russian Workers' Union"; he also wrote its charter. The organization developed rapidly: “The workers came to us on their own, as if they had been waiting for us at the factories for a long time ... We weren’t looking for workers, but they were looking for us ... These workers were not interested in strikes (their wages were relatively high), they were looking for the truth of social relations ".

They moved from meetings and political studies to more serious and painstaking work. They got a hectograph, began to print leaflets, and then the newspaper Nashe Delo with a circulation of 200-300 copies. Both the proclamations and the articles were written mainly by Trotsky. Simultaneously with the test of the pen, he also tested himself as a speaker at a May Day meeting. Through the efforts of Trotsky and other "communards" it was possible to establish ties with Odessa and the local social democratic circles. Trotsky often found himself on the right flank (being in fact on the positions of economism). So being in Odessa, he opposed the conduct of work among factory workers, insisting on transferring the center of gravity of agitation and propaganda to the ranks of artisans and other petty-bourgeois elements.

At the beginning of 1898 mass arrests were made. In total, more than 200 people were "snatched out". Trotsky's prison epic began. The court sentenced Trotsky to four years of exile in Eastern Siberia. At this time, he finally got along with A. Sokolova, who sympathized with him. They got married in a Moscow transit prison. By the autumn of 1900, a young family - by this time their daughter Zina had been born - settled in the village of Ust-Kut, Irkutsk province. In the same places, Trotsky met with the young F.E. Dzerzhinsky, M.S. Uritsky.

In the Nikolaev prison, and then in exile, Trotsky does not waste time in vain: he returns to his favorite pastime - reading. Trotsky "swallowed" one book after another, first it was biblical-philosophical literature (there was no other in the old Nikolaev prison), then political books by Western authors, and, finally, books by K. Marx ("I studied Marx, driving cockroaches from his pages"), especially "Capital", works by V.I. Lenin, first of all, "The Development of Capitalism in Russia". Since then, Marxism has become for him the basis of his world outlook and method of thinking.

The further growth of revolutionary events in central Russia was also reflected in distant Siberia. In the townships based along the railway line, the first Social Democratic organizations arose. Trotsky gets in touch with them and writes appeals and leaflets for them. Through them, he establishes contact with foreign countries. In the summer of 1902 he received books from Irkutsk, bound on tissue paper with the latest foreign editions sealed up. From this mail, the exiles got acquainted with the Iskra newspaper, Lenin's book What Is To Be Done?. At this time, Trotsky and his family - they also had a daughter, Nina - moved to Verkholensk. Hence, in August 1902, he decided to escape. Then it was not something supernatural: many "ran". The comrades got him a fake passport in the name of Nikolai Trotsky; and this pseudonym appeared, which "stuck" to him for life. His wife, despite the fact that she was left with two small children, supported him. In the future, Trotsky and Sokolovskaya met sporadically. Life separated them, but they retained their ideological connection and friendship.

Trotsky stayed in Samara, where the Iskra's Russian headquarters were then located. It was headed by G.M. Krzhizhanovsky. It was he who informed the emigration center about Trotsky, giving him the pseudonym "Pero". On behalf of the Samara Bureau, Perot traveled to Kharkov, Poltava, and Kyiv to communicate with local Iskra-ists. In Samara, Trotsky received an invitation from Lenin to come to London. Krzhizhanovsky supplied him with money, and soon he ended up on the Russian-Austrian border, which he illegally crossed. Through Vienna, Zurich and Paris he reached London. The time of youth is over. Trotsky took the path of a professional revolutionary.

LITERARY CIRCLES AND SALONS OF PRE-REVOLUTIONARY RUSSIA. Literary circles, societies, salons have played a big role in the social and cultural life of Russia for many decades.

The first circles arose in the middle of the 18th century. So, in the 30-40s of the 18th century. there was a circle created by pupils of the Land gentry corps - a military educational institution, where classes in the humanities and interest in literature were encouraged in every possible way.

The emergence of the first literary salons, especially the salon of I.I. Shuvalov, also dates back to this time. Shuvalov began his career as a favorite of the aging Empress Elizabeth and became famous for his disinterestedness and honesty, as well as enlightenment. He was the patron of M.V. Lomonosov, the founder of Moscow University and the Academy of Arts. Retiring from public affairs after the death of his patroness in 1761, he devoted most of his time to travel, reading, and art. The flower of the then Russian literature gathered in Shuvalov's house. The regulars of his salon were translators, philologists, poets: G.R. Derzhavin, I. Dmitriev, I. Bogdanovich.

In the 18th century circles did not limit their activities only to literary conversations. In most cases, their members sought to organize one, and sometimes several journals. So, in the 60s of the 18th century. in Moscow, at the initiative of the poet M.M. Kheraskov, a circle of students of Moscow University was created, which, starting from 1760, published the magazine Useful Entertainment, and then Free Hours, and in the 70s - Evenings. Among the members of the circle are D.I. Fonvizin, I.F. Bogdanovich and others.

The 1770s–1780s were a time of active social life associated with the reforms carried out by Catherine II, as a result of which the nobles and townspeople received the right to self-government and various benefits. All this contributed, in particular, to the rise of culture, which manifested itself, in particular, in the emergence of several literary societies: the Free Assembly of Russian Language Lovers (1771), the Assembly of Pupils of the Moscow University Noble Boarding School (1787).

In 1779 at Moscow University, on the initiative of the Masonic organization, to which the outstanding educators N.I. Novikov and I.G. . In 1784, a printing company was organized at the company, which was under the jurisdiction of N.I. Novikov. Thanks to the Friendly Scientific Society and its printing house, many Russian books were published in the second half of the 18th century. in Russia.

Great influence on the literary life of the late 18th century. provided by the salons of G.R. Derzhavin and N.A. Lvov.

At the beginning of the 19th century the role of literary circles and salons is becoming increasingly significant. Early 19th century - the time of sharp and stormy disputes about the development of Russian literature and the Russian language. At this time, the defenders of the old "archaic" language collided: A.S. Shishkov, A.A. Shakhovskoy, and supporters of the renewal of the language, which was associated primarily with the name of N.M. Karamzin. Various literary trends are rapidly developing. In Russian literature of the early 19th century. classicism, sentimentalism and emerging romanticism coexist. The interest of enlightened youth in political issues is growing, there is an awareness of the need for political and socio-economic reforms, primarily the abolition of serfdom. All these problems, both aesthetic and political, were reflected in the activities of the circles of the early 19th century.

One of the first literary circles of the beginning of the century was the Friendly Literary Society, founded in Moscow by a group of friends, graduates of the Moscow University boarding school, young writers brothers Andrei and Alexander Turgenev, V.A. Zhukovsky and others. circle, which in 1801 became a literary society. Its members have been repeatedly published in the journal of the University Boarding House "Morning Dawn". Meetings of the participants usually took place in the house of the poet, translator and journalist A.F. Voeikov. Members of the Friendly Literary Society set themselves the task of strengthening the national principle in literature and, although to some extent they supported Karamzin's innovation in the field of language, they considered it wrong to follow foreign models, which, in their opinion, Karamzin sinned. Subsequently, the positions of the members of the Friendly Literary Society and the Karamzinists drew closer.

Since 1801, the literary association "Friendly Society of Lovers of the Fine" has been operating in St. Petersburg, later renamed the Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts. Its founder was the writer and teacher I.M. Born. The society included writers (V.V. Popugaev, I.P. Pnin, A.Kh. Vostokov, D.I. Yazykov, A.E. Izmailov), sculptors, artists, priests, archaeologists, historians. The literary preferences of the members of the society were extremely diverse. At first they were influenced by the ideas of A.N. Radishchev (two of the writer's sons were part of the society) and gravitated toward classic literature. Later, the views of the members of the Free Society changed greatly, which did not prevent it from existing, albeit with long breaks, until 1825.

At the beginning of the 19th century there were other circles and salons that influenced the development of literature of that time. The most significant associations of the first quarter of the century were the "Conversation of the Lovers of the Russian Word" (1811-1816) and "Arzamas" (1815-1818), societies that represented opposite currents in Russian literature and were constantly in a state of acute rivalry. The creator and soul of the "Conversations" was the philologist and writer A.S. Shishkov, the leader of that literary movement, which was defined by Yu.N. Tynyanov as "archaists". Back in 1803, Shishkov, in his Discourse on the Old and New Syllabaries of the Russian Language, criticized Karamzin's reform of the language and proposed his own, which assumed the preservation of a sharper line between the book and spoken language, the rejection of the use of foreign words and the introduction into the literary language of a large number of archaic and folk vocabulary. Shishkov's views were shared by other members of the "Conversation", writers of the older generation - poets G.R. Derzhavin, I.A. Krylov, playwright A.A. Shakhovskoy, translator Iliad N.I. Gnedich, and later their young followers, to whom A.S. Griboyedov and V.K. Kyuchelbeker belonged.

Supporters of Karamzin, who introduced a light, colloquial language into literature and was not afraid to Russify many foreign words, united in the famous Arzamas literary society. The society arose as a response to the appearance of the comedy of one of the members of the "Conversation" A.A. Shakhovsky Lipetsk waters or a lesson for coquettes. Among the Arzamas were both Karamzin's longtime supporters and his former opponents. Among them were many poets classified by Yu.N. Tynyanov as “innovators”: V.A. Zhukovsky, K.N. Batyushkov, P.A. Vyazemsky, A.S. Each of the members of Arzamas received a playful nickname. So, Zhukovsky was called Svetlana, in honor of his famous ballad, Alexander Turgenev was nicknamed the Aeolian Harp - because of the constant grumbling in his stomach, Pushkin was called Cricket.

Many members of literary circles of the first quarter of the 19th century. brought together not only friendly relations and literary views, but also socio-political views. This was especially evident in the literary associations of the late 10s and early 20s, the most significant of which turned out to be associated with the Decembrist movement. So, the St. Petersburg circle "Green Lamp" (1819-1820) was founded by a member of the Welfare Union S.P. Trubetskoy, Ya.N. Tolstoy, who was close to the Decembrist society, and N.V. Vsevolozhsky, a great connoisseur and lover of theater and literature. Many writers of that time were members of the Green Lamp, including A.S. Pushkin and A.A. Delvig. Discussions of literary works and theatrical premieres at the Green Lamp meetings were interspersed with the reading of journalistic articles and political discussions.

Many Decembrists (F.N. Glinka, K.F. Ryleev, A.A. Bestuzhev, V.K. Kuchelbeker) were members of the Free Society of Lovers of Russian Literature, founded in 1811 at Moscow University.

By the mid-1820s, the social situation in Russia had changed dramatically. Alexander I abandoned the reform ideas that he had cherished for two decades. The domestic policy of the state has become much more rigid. The persecution of liberal professors and journalists began, and the situation at the universities became tougher. As a result, the situation of literary societies that pursued any socio-political goals turned out to be difficult. The largest literary association in the mid-1920s was the Society of Philosophy, founded in 1823 by graduates of Moscow University to study literature and philosophy. At the origins of the circle were the writer and musicologist V.F. Odoevsky, the poet and philosopher D.V. Venevitinov, the future Slavophil, at that time a young graduate of Moscow University I.V. Kireevsky, young scientists who in the future were destined to become university professors - S.P. Shevyrev and M.P. Pogodin. Meetings of wisdom took place in the house of Venevitinov. Members of the society seriously studied Western philosophy, studied the works of Spinoza, Kant, Fichte, but they were especially influenced by the German philosopher F. Schelling, whose ideas made a huge impression on the generation of the 1920s and 1930s, in particular on the ideology of the Slavophils. The fact that the circle was called the "Society of Philosophy", and not philosophy, speaks of the interest of its members in national culture and philosophy. In 1824-1825 V.F. Odoevsky together with V.K.Kyukhelbeker published the almanac "Mnemosyne", where many philosophers of wisdom were published. Since there were many employees of the archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs among the members of the society, they received the nickname "archival youths", which, obviously, should have hinted not only at the nature of their service, but also at their focus on abstract, philosophical problems of being. However, the philosophical interests of members of society still aroused suspicion among the authorities. After the uprising of the Decembrists, V.F. Odoevsky proposed to dissolve the society, fearing persecution, since many wise men were close to the Decembrists.

The era that came after the suppression of the Decembrist uprising was not very conducive to the emergence of large literary societies. But friendly circles or salons became practically the only possible manifestations of social life in a situation where literature and journalism were under the strict control of censorship and the police. In the 30s of the 19th century. there were many interesting literary circles, created mainly by students or graduates of Moscow University, which was far from the more official, bureaucratic Petersburg. Similarly, in the 1830s, an intense literary and artistic life was in full swing in numerous Moscow and St. Petersburg salons, at evenings, “Fridays”, “Saturdays”, etc.

Among the literary circles of the 1930s, Stankevich's circle occupied a prominent place. It was a literary and philosophical association that took shape in 1831 around the personality of Nikolai Vladimirovich Stankevich, a student and then a graduate of Moscow University. Stankevich wrote philosophical and poetic works, but all the members of the circle later agreed that the greatest influence on them was not so much the works of their leader, but his very personality, surprisingly charming and interesting. Stankevich possessed the ability to awaken the work of thought and at the same time appease and bring together the most irreconcilable opponents. His circle also included people who were later destined to follow completely different paths. Future Slavophiles K.S. Aksakov and Yu.F. Samarin, future Westerners V.P. Botkin and T.N. Granovsky, V.G. Belinsky and M.A. Bakunin met here. Here friends studied philosophy, history, literature. The role of the Stankevich circle in spreading the ideas of Schelling and Hegel in Russia was enormous. In 1839, the seriously ill Stankevich went abroad for treatment, from where he never returned, and the circle broke up.

Another well-known association of the 1830s was the circle of Herzen and Ogarev, which, in addition to them, included their friends from Moscow University. Unlike Stankevich's circle, Herzen, Ogarev and their entourage were much more interested in political issues. German classical philosophy seemed to them too abstract and vague, they were more inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution and the socialist teachings of utopian philosophers, especially Saint-Simon. Not surprisingly, Herzen and Ogarev attracted more attention from the authorities. In 1834, on absurd charges, the circle was dispersed, its leaders were arrested and sent into exile.

The circle that arose in the early 1930s at Moscow University was the Society of Number 11, which rallied around the young V. G. Belinsky and got its name from the number of the room that the future critic occupied in the university boarding school. The members of the circle were not limited to discussing literary novelties and theatrical premieres, they studied philosophical works, discussed European political events. The works of its members were often read at meetings of the society. Belinsky introduced his friends here to his drama Dmitry Kalinin. This caused great dissatisfaction with the authorities, which led to his expulsion from the university.

The inability to freely express one's thoughts even in a friendly circle fettered the activities of literary circles and societies, so most of these associations of the 1830s and 1840s turned out to be short-lived.

Literary salons turned out to be more stable - due to the naturalness of salon communication for society in the first half of the 19th century. A secular salon is a meeting place for a wide variety of people. Often the salon was a place of empty talk and not very meaningful pastime. But in the public life of the first half of the 19th century. salons played a significant role, where prominent figures of culture and art gathered and serious and deep conversations were held. Such centers of literary and artistic life were the salons of the president of the Academy of Arts A.N. Olenin, Zinaida Volkonskaya, E.A. Karamzina, the widow of the historian. Contemporaries in their numerous memoirs emphasized not only the hospitality of the hosts, but also their aversion to meaningless secular activities, in particular, the fundamental rejection of the card game, which was then an indispensable component of an aristocratic evening. Here they listened to music, talked about literature and philosophy, poets read their poems (like Pushkin from Zinaida Volkonskaya). It is characteristic that, unlike circles, many literary salons existed for more than a dozen years. The composition of the guests could partially, and sometimes even almost completely change, but the general focus remained unchanged.

In the 1840s and 1850s, the most interesting literary salons were those where Slavophiles met. If most of the Westerners did not accept salon forms of communication, then for the noble intellectuals, who formed the backbone of the Slavophile movement, regular meetings in salons were absolutely natural. The Moscow houses of Aksakov, Khomyakov and other Slavophile leaders were famous for their feasts and hospitality. Any meeting here turned out to be not just a fun feast, but a literary or philosophical meeting. Slavophiles were grouped around several literary journals, and the editors of these publications turned out to be a kind of circles that united like-minded people. The most significant of the Slavophile journals is Moskvityanin. "Moskvityanin" was published by M.P. Pogodin from 1841 to 1856, but it became the spokesman for Slavophile ideas only from 1850, from the moment the so-called "young editorial board" came here, trying to breathe new life into the publication that was losing its popularity. At the center of the young edition were A.N. Ostrovsky - then still a young, novice playwright, famous for his play Our people - let's count and the poet and critic Apollon Grigoriev.

In the middle of the century, literary circles began to acquire an increasingly political character. So, the society, which gathered on Fridays at Butashevich-Petrashevsky, for the most part consisted of writers and journalists (among its members were F.M. Dostoevsky, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin). However, the center of interest of the Petrashevites turned out to be not so much literary as social and political problems - they read and discussed the works of socialist thinkers, primarily Charles Fourier. Thoughts were also expressed here about the need to propagate revolutionary ideas. Literary and social life were strongly intertwined. After the defeat of the Petrashevites, one of the charges brought against members of the society (in particular, F.M. Dostoevsky) was the reading and distribution of Belinsky's letter to Gogol.

The reforms of the 1860s radically changed the situation in the country, increasing the opportunities for free expression of thoughts, and at the same time led to a great upsurge in the social movement - both liberal and revolutionary. The very form of literary circles turns out not to meet the demands of the time, when the meaning of “pure art” was denied by most critics and writers. Numerous student circles most often pursue revolutionary rather than literary goals. To some extent, the editors of magazines take on the role of circles. Thus, the editorial board of Sovremennik was undoubtedly an important factor in social life.

Late 19th and early 20th centuries - time to search for new ways in art. It is no coincidence that many literary circles and associations arose in this era. In the 1980s and 1990s, Ya.P. Polonsky's Fridays became one of the meeting places for St. After the death of Polonsky in 1898, Fridays began to take place at the home of another poet, K.K. Sluchevsky. Despite Sluchevsky's advanced age, not only his peers appeared here, but also poets of the younger generation, who considered the poetic searches of the owner of the house close to their own aesthetic goals. It is known that N.S. Gumilyov visited Sluchevsky Fridays, who treated this writer with great respect.

For the beginning of the 20th century characterized not only by new trends in art, but also by the revival of the tradition of literary circles and associations. This was facilitated by a turbulent era that promised political freedom, and the desire of a new generation of writers to unite for a better understanding of their ideas, and the “decadent” lifestyle of the beginning of the century, in which life itself turned into an exquisite work of art. So, starting from 1901, religious and philosophical meetings were held at the St. Petersburg apartment of Z. Gippius and D. Merezhkovsky, which later took shape as the Religious and Philosophical Society. The purpose of these meetings, as is clear from their name, was to solve not literary, but spiritual issues - first of all, the search for a new Christianity, the dialogue of secular intelligentsia and church leaders, they had a great influence on the writers who visited them, and were reflected in the work of Gippius and Merezhkovsky themselves , especially in the famous trilogy by D. Merezhkovsky Christ and Antichrist.

A huge influence on the literary, philosophical and social life of the beginning of the century was exerted by the "Wednesdays" of the symbolist poet Vyacheslav Ivanov, who settled in 1905 on Tavricheskaya Street in St. Petersburg in a house, part of which was called the "tower". Russian intellectuals gathered here for several years - A. Blok, Andrey Bely, Fyodor Sollogub, Mikhail Kuzmin and many others. Ivanov's Wednesdays were not just literary evenings - here they read poetry, and discussed philosophical and historical works, and arranged seances. It was assumed that evenings at the "tower" should create new relationships between people, form a special way of life for writers, artists and musicians.

Peculiar literary associations, where meetings of writers, artists, critics were held, were the editorial offices of the magazines of the beginning of the century "Balance" and "Apollo". However, other literary movements also needed their associations. So, in 1911, N.S. Gumilyov, who had previously visited both Ivanov’s environment and the meetings of the editors of Libra, created the “Poets Workshop”, which included authors who were constrained by the framework of symbolist aesthetics. Thus, a new literary direction took shape - acmeism.

In 1914, in Moscow, at the apartment of the literary critic E.F. Nikitina, a circle began to gather, called the “Nikitinsky Subbotniks” and existed until 1933. The circle met writers, philologists, artists belonging to the most diverse areas, professors and graduates of Moscow University.

The Revolution of 1917, the Civil War, the emigration of many cultural figures put an end to the existence of most literary circles.

Tamara Eidelman

In the early 1930s, the reactionary Minister of Education, S. S. Uvarov, formulated the so-called "theory of official nationality." “The last anchor of our salvation,” he argued, “are the “truly Russian protective principles of Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality.” The three principles of this theory meant the following. The Russian people, Uvarov wrote, are a religious people devoted to the Orthodox Church. The Church is that age-old foundation that has always helped to keep the people in oppression and obedience, so the government must support it in every possible way. Autocracy, in his opinion, is the only creative force in the history of Russia - the people owe it all their development and well-being. The strengthening of tsarist power is the key to the future greatness of Russia. The unity of the tsar and the people, the absence of disagreements between them, allegedly characteristic of Russian history, was propagated under “nationality”: the Russian people believe that the tsar is the natural protector and intercessor of the people, therefore this belief must be strengthened in every possible way.

The theory of “official nationality” propagated darkness and ignorance. The government obliged the church, school, writers, scientists to approve and develop this theory in order to support the tottering edifice of the feudal monarchy.

However, this “theory” has not received wide recognition in society.

Mugs of the late 20s - 30s. Forces were found in the country which, even under conditions of triumphant reaction, were able to rise up to fight against oppression and violence. The banner of the Decembrists was picked up and carried forward by a new generation of fighters, awakened by the thunder of cannons on Senate Square. Freedom-loving poems by A. S. Pushkin, K. F. Ryleev, A. I. Polezhaev, which aroused hatred for tsarism, were distributed among young people in many lists. Young unknown poets sang in their poems the heroic deed of the Decembrists. Epigrams appeared on the king and nobles.

The following signature is known under the portrait of Nicholas 1 “From head to toe - a kid, and from head to toe - cattle. He reigned a little, but did a lot of miracles: 125 he exiled to Siberia and hanged five.

In a number of cities - in Moscow, Vladimir, Orenburg, Kursk - revolutionary circles arose. These were small groups that included close comrades and friends. They got together, heatedly discussed the situation of the people and made plans for the introduction of a constitutional order in Russia. Some circles tried to propagate revolutionary ideas among students and soldiers. In contrast to the Decembrist organizations, people from the non-noble strata of the population - the lower clergy, petty bureaucracy, and the bourgeoisie - began to play a significant role in these circles. They were called raznochintsy.

None of these circles formed into a secret organization. The government crushed them. Members of the circles were subjected to the most severe punishments - indefinite hard labor, imprisonment, deportation under police supervision. Many were given to the soldiers.

Circle of Belinsky. In the early 1930s, a small Belinsky circle formed at Moscow University. Vissarion Grigorievich Belinsky(1811 - 1848) was born in the family of a military doctor. At the age of eighteen he entered Moscow University. There, around Belinsky, a student circle was formed, which, by the number of the room where the members of the circle gathered, was called the "Literary Society of the 11th Number." The students discussed the fate of the Russian people, European events, the works of A. S. Pushkin, A. S. Griboyedov and other leading writers. This circle was the first real school of the future great critic and revolutionary. Here Belinsky read his drama "Dmitry Kalinin", which depicted the fate of a serf youth who died in the struggle against feudal arbitrariness. For this essay, Belinsky was expelled from the university.

A hard life began without funds, without work, without support. Belinsky somehow managed to survive by private rock, correspondence of papers and other odd jobs.

Circle of Herzen and Ogarev. In the same years, the famous writer, thinker and revolutionary later came out to fight against the autocracy. Alexander Ivanovich Herzen(1812 - 1870).

AI Herzen grew up in a wealthy noble family and received an excellent upbringing and education, first at home, and then at Moscow University. Even in his early youth, he, along with his friend Nikolai Ogarev, swore to avenge the death and suffering of the Decembrists.

AI Herzen and NP Ogarev remained faithful to this oath until the end of their days. They devoted their entire lives to the revolutionary struggle.

At the university, Herzen and Ogarev became the soul of the revolutionary student circle. The members of the circle sharply condemned autocracy and serfdom, dreamed o r republican system in Russia. There was still no clear program, but the moods and views were of a revolutionary nature. “Ideas were vague,” Herzen recalled, “you preached the Decembrists and the French Revolution, the republic, reading political books and concentrating forces in one society. But most of all they preached hatred for any violence, for any governmental arbitrariness. Our propaganda has taken deep roots in all faculties and has far crossed the university walls.”

Tsarism brutally cracked down on the members of this circle.) were arrested for singing revolutionary anti-government songs and, after a long prison term, were sent under police supervision: Ogarev-Penza, Herzen - to Perm, and then to Vyatka, and Vladimir. Upon his return, he was sent again, this time to Novgorod.

Forms of leisure activities and entertainment for representatives of various classes of Russian society in the 18th - early 20th centuries.

Leisure sphere of life of Russian society in the XVIII. early 20th century was a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, reflecting all the originality of the country's historical development. The isolation of estates, their clear placement on the steps of the hierarchical social ladder, the definition of their rights and privileges led to the formation of rather closed leisure communities, within which their own ideas, views on leisure, norms and rules of behavior were developed. The autocratic regime, established in Russia, ensured stability for the established forms and methods of leisure pastime for many years. From the second half of the XIX century. after the reforms associated with the abolition of serfdom, the situation began to change. Socio-political and economic changes that have taken place in society have led to the blurring of class boundaries, which was not long in affecting the leisure sector.

Leisure of the peasants.

In the XVIII - first half of the XIX centuries. the leisure of the Russian peasantry largely retained its traditional features. Over the centuries, it has evolved under the influence of the communal mode of production and, accordingly, the communal way of life. Within the framework of communal existence, the forms of leisure activities were predominantly family-communal, that is, essentially public. They remained so throughout the period under review, since the presence of serfdom and the weak development of commodity-money relations contributed to the preservation of the community as the primary cell of the economic and social life of the peasants. Peasant Leisure in the 18th – First Half of the 19th Centuries performed the same role as in previous times: it was not only aimed at restoring the strength of the peasant, but also contributed to the consolidation of kindred communities, was one of the forms for realizing the function of the community as the bearer of public opinion, the guardian of cultural and labor traditions. As before, the time of leisure activities depended primarily on agricultural work. The largest number of communal holidays, gatherings, games fell on the autumn-winter period and early spring. In the peasant environment, the tradition of holding joint festive "entertainments", feasts at a common table has been preserved. These are "brothers" who have come down from ancient times. Later, they became known as "skladchiny" and "spypchiny", since each peasant family contributed its share of the product to the common feast.

A characteristic feature of peasant leisure was the combination of some of its forms with certain types of work, which was due to the intensity of peasant labor and the lack of free time. An expression of this was the so-called "help", "cabbages", "supryadki", "work" gatherings, which became widespread among the peasantry. They were a synthesis of work and rest. Men and women, people of different ages created their leisure communities: youth gatherings, women's gatherings, gatherings of peasants of middle and older age were organized; a purely youth form of leisure were spring-summer round dances. At gatherings in which people of the older generation took part, conversations were held on various topics: the peasants shared the latest news, plans, joys and failures, received and gave advice, and "discussed" their fellow villagers.

At gatherings since the end of the XVIII century. often held collective readings. Gatherings played a special role in the life of young people: they contributed to the preparation of young people for their future family life. A festive gathering was called a "conversation", clothes, refreshments, and the content of conversations changed. At mixed youth gatherings, girls and boys got to know each other better, chose their future spouse. From the second half of the XIX century. after the abolition of serfdom, peasant leisure underwent a transformation. So, over time, the brotherhood turned into a more closed "guest". During the holidays, communal feasts were less and less common. Wealthy peasants were more willing to choose the form of "pooling" as a kind of their own way of collective leisure. Only the ritual-religious part of the holiday remained common to the members of the community. By the beginning of the XX century. "guest" has already completely replaced "brotherhood". It, as a rule, was a more intimate form of leisure communication, in which the communal element was almost completely absent, but the property factor played an important role.

From the end of the 19th century began to expand the contingent of peasant children studying in public primary schools. Growing, albeit at a very slow pace, the number of cultural and educational institutions working in the field of leisure: libraries, reading rooms, people's houses, the first amateur peasant theaters began to appear. Almost disappeared by the beginning of the 20th century. youth round dance as a traditional form of youth leisure. This form, the youth gathering, turned out to be more stable. But in it, along with such traditional components as song, dance, various informational conversations began to occupy a greater place: city news, information about working conditions in factories, about city fashions, etc.

Leisure activities and entertainment of the nobility.

The 18th century was a turning point in the life of the highest Russian class - the nobility. Having struck at the old patriarchal orders, the transformations of Peter the Great marked the beginning of the reorientation of the nobility towards the European model of behavior in the sphere of leisure, first to the Dutch-German, and then to the French. Peter I tried to introduce elements of European culture, looseness, emancipation into the usual boyar life. This goal was met by the "assemblies" established in accordance with the tsar's decree of 1718. The "Assemblies" were supposed to teach people from the privileged classes to communicate according to the Western model, to instill in Russian women a taste for social life. The integral elements of the "assemblies" were music and dances. By introducing a system of public holidays, Peter I obliged the nobles to take an active part in them. The nobles participated in various public entertainments, festivities, games. However, already in the 18th century, and especially in the subsequent time, the nobles sought to "isolate themselves" from the "common people". Representatives of the highest aristocratic circles were limited, as a rule, to the role of an observer at such holidays. In the post-Petrine era, public forms of leisure for the nobles were further developed. They were no longer introduced by royal decrees, with the use of administrative pressure. On the contrary, the noble environment became more "open" to various borrowings, and gave rise to its own forms of entertainment and leisure activities.

During the reign of the successors of Peter I, especially Catherine II, "assemblies" gradually began to give way to all sorts of balls, which were held on the occasion of great celebrations or important family events. End of the 18th century marked by a particularly active role of the imperial court in holding balls, masquerades, dinners for the nobility. From the end of the XVIII century. in "Russia, purely club forms of pastime of nobles began to emerge. In 1770 in St. Petersburg, and two years later in Moscow, the first English clubs appeared, whose members could only include hereditary nobles. These clubs set themselves the task of organizing recreation, communication, entertainment for representatives of noble circles.In 1783, the "Moscow Noble (noble) Society (Noble Assembly)" was created in Moscow. Petersburg, which only representatives of the highest aristocracy had access to.The end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries was the time for the development of salons, circles, societies of various orientations: musical, literary, sports, etc. Salons and circles were both narrow class, noble, and more open in terms of class.The latter was especially characteristic of the provinces, where, within the framework of salons and circles, they united s and nobles, and representatives of the local intelligentsia, raznochintsy. The main difference between a circle and a salon was that the circle implied an association of interests around some single topic, subject. The salon, on the other hand, was a less thematically oriented association, the role of the hostess (or owner) increased in it, since the visitors of the salon were connected not only and not so much by a commonality of interests, but by the fact of acquaintance or family ties with the hostess or owner.

The formation of a system of cultural and educational institutions in Russia contributed to the development of social forms of noble leisure. Already in the XVIII century. the first museums began to appear (for example, the famous Peter's Kunstkamera, founded in 1719 in St. Petersburg, the creation of the Hermitage in the Winter Palace under Catherine II, etc.), public theaters, and art exhibitions were organized. Along with social forms, the types of individual leisure activities of the nobles began to differ in great variety. In the post-reform period, the decline in the strength and power of the Russian nobility began. The boundaries of the estate began to blur, the landowners' households increasingly fell into a period of crises, these processes significantly changed the collective forms of noble leisure. Disillusioned with the traditional class institutions, the aristocracy began searching for new, more intimate forms of leisure pastime and demonstrating their class unity.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. aristocratic clubs and circles of interest in various areas became widespread: artistic, literary, musical, ballet lovers, etc., which united a narrow circle of people from the upper strata of the nobility. Some types of sports activities became the lot of the aristocracy: tennis, equestrian sports, etc., requiring special, expensively paid conditions for their implementation (the presence of specially equipped sports grounds, an arena, etc.). As a rule, lovers of such activities created their own associations. From the second half of the XIX century. clubs in the officer environment actively developed. Famous was, for example, a kind of club - the living room of the officers of the Izmailovsky regiment "Izmailovsky leisure" in St. Petersburg, which united officers involved in literary creativity. The state encouraged the creation of such officer clubs, considering them as a way to consolidate the officer corps. The middle and petty nobility in their leisure time communication turned out to be often more democratic, allowing into their midst rich merchants, and honorary citizens, and representatives of the various intelligentsia, who had the appropriate education and were of particular interest to members of noble associations. From the second half of the XIX century. in liberal-minded noble circles, the number of people who devoted their leisure time to social work aimed at the development of public education began to increase. Their forces created free schools for the poor, organized public readings in parks and gardens. They were members of public associations such as "committees and societies for literacy", "societies for the care of public education", etc.