The vast territory gives Australia a great endowment with natural resources. Despite the small population, the country actively and rationally uses the available resources and actively develops the direction of alternative energy sources.
Due to its great length, the country has several climatic zones at once, which is reflected in the unique and diverse flora and fauna.
Water resources
Throughout Australia there are a small number of rivers. During the snowmelt period, the rivers are quite full-flowing, but at all other times, even large rivers, like the Darling, become very shallow. Dams and reservoirs are built to irrigate fields and pastures. The only exception is Tasmania, the rivers flowing through this lake are regularly fed by snow and rain. Due to this, there are a large number of hydroelectric power stations in Tasmania. The lakes of Australia are waterless pits for most of the year, filled with water only in summer. In the nearby seas, fishing and the cultivation of pearl mollusks are well developed.
Land resources
The total land area occupies more than 774 thousand hectares, of which more than half are suitable for agricultural needs and construction. However, constant drought does not allow the use of all available territory. Irrigation systems are available on the territory of 2550 hectares, so now the sown areas occupy only 6% of the entire territory. Australia grows many crops, vegetables, fruits and cotton.
forest resources
Australia's forests are small, accounting for only 2% of the country's total area. However, Australian subtropical forests are the largest in terms of area in the world. You can also find humid tropical, subantarctic and savannah forests. Due to the arid climate, the flora of Australia is represented mainly by dry-loving plants. The central part of the mainland is predominantly covered with scrub. Economic activity has greatly modified many plant species.
Mineral resources
Australia is rich in mineral resources, ranking #1 in the world for zirconium and bauxite deposits and #2 for uranium deposits. Coal mining is also very well developed. Both large and small gold deposits are scattered throughout Australia. Platinum, silver, nickel, opal, antimony, bismuth, as well as diamonds are mined in significant volumes. The country also has reserves of oil and natural gas. Australia fully provides for its industry and, apart from oil, does not need to purchase mineral resources.
Alternative energy sources
Australia is on the path of active development of alternative energy sources. Climatic conditions allow highly efficient use of solar and wind energy. The country has every chance in a short time to completely switch to the use of only alternative energy sources.
BUT Australia , one of the highly developed countries in the world, attracts with its mild climate and equally mild immigration laws. It opens its doors to experienced professionals and businessmen.
Andimmigration to Australia - this is an opportunity not only to live in a highly developed country, but also, having passed the citizenship exam after 4 years of residence in the country and having received citizenship, travel around the world without visas.
T well , being one of the economically developed and stable countries in the world, is open to free immigration. In other words, almost anyone with education and work experience can choose it as their place of residence. The principles and laws of immigration are quite simple and understandable - everyone can figure them out on their own.
E the only country in the world , occupying the territory of the whole mainland of the same name, as well as about. Tasmania and adjacent islands. The country is located in the southern and eastern hemispheres, washed by the seas of the Pacific and Indian oceans. In the north it is washed by the Timor, Arafura Seas and the Torres Strait, in the east by the Coral and Tasman Seas, in the south by the Bass Strait and the Indian Ocean, in the west by the Indian Ocean. The coastline is slightly indented. The country has 3 time zones (ahead of Moscow by 6 - 8 hours). Time in Sydney is ahead of Moscow by 7 hours in winter, by 8 hours in summer. In addition, time also varies from state to state, where half an hour is sometimes added to standard time.
BUTAustralia was opened Billem Janszon in 1606. The population of the country at that time was made up of Australian Aborigines who settled there more than 42 thousand years ago. In 1770, the country was declared a colony of the English Empire, and in 1901, all the Australian colonies united in the Australian Union, completely subordinate to the English Queen.
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Australia- the sixth country in the world in terms of territory, and this is the only state that occupies an entire continent. The Australian Union includes the Australian mainland and several islands, the largest of which is Tasmania. On the territory of the mainland, diverse nature coexists with modern densely populated megacities. Although most of the continent is occupied by semi-deserts and deserts, Australia has a variety of landscapes: - from alpine meadows to tropical jungles. Australia has become home to unique species of flora and fauna, some of which are not found in other parts of the world. Many plants and animals, including giant marsupials, became extinct with the advent of the natives; others (for example, the Tasmanian tiger) - with the advent of Europeans. The Australian continent is the perfect place to practice any water sport. Surfing, windsurfing, diving, water skiing, rowing and yachting - all this is at the service of vacationers on the coast. If this does not appeal to you, go for a walk in one of the many reserves, ride a bike or horseback. In addition, you can go on a safari or go rock climbing. The attractiveness of Australia lies not only in the nature of the mainland. Well-appointed cities, centers of cultural and business life of the state also contribute here. In all metropolitan areas - be it Sydney, Canberra, Melbourne or any other major city - historical sights coexist with skyscrapers, cozy parks - with crowded streets, and various museums - with chic shops. When you leave Australia, of course, you will want to take something with you as a keepsake, something that will remind you of your trip to this wonderful country. In souvenir shops you can buy various handicrafts created by natives, clothes made from the finest sheep's wool, and in jewelry stores you can buy jewelry made from famous Australian opals, fine pearls or pink diamonds. Availability of immigration Australia, being one of the economically developed and stable countries in the world, is open to free immigration. In other words, almost anyone with education and work experience can choose it as their place of residence. The principles and laws of immigration are quite simple and understandable - everyone can figure them out on their own. Climate of Australia The Australian continent is located within the three main warm climatic zones of the southern hemisphere: subequatorial (in the north), tropical (in the central part) and subtropical (in the south). Only a small part of Tasmania lies within the temperate zone. In winter, which falls in June, July and August, snow sometimes falls, but it does not last long. The subequatorial climate, characteristic of the northern and northeastern parts of the continent, is characterized by an even temperature course (during the year, the average air temperature is 23 - 24 degrees) and a large amount of precipitation (from 1000 to 1500 mm., and in some places more than 2000 mm.). The further south you go, the more noticeable the change of seasons. In the central and western parts of the mainland in summer (December-February), average temperatures rise to 30 degrees, and sometimes even higher, and in winter (June-August) they drop to an average of 10-15 degrees. In the center of the continent in the summer, the temperature during the day rises to 45 degrees, at night it drops to zero and below (-4-6 degrees). |
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Museums in Australia
Sydney
Sydney has a large number of interesting cultural sites - the famous Sydney Museum of the History and Anthropology of Australia, the War Memorial Art Gallery, the National Maritime Museum (a really interesting place - everything about the sea and watercraft is collected here - from aboriginal boats to battleships and surfboards), Art gallery of New South Wales, the Museum of Applied Arts and Science, one of the most "daring" museums in the world - the Museum of Modern Art, the Nicholson Museum of Antiquities, Wild Animal Park Australia and Hyde Park.
Melbourne
Melbourne is often referred to as the "Cultural Capital of the Southern Hemisphere". These days, Melbourne's compact city center is filled with museums, galleries and great shopping, but most of the city is occupied by parks, squares and the Royal Botanic Gardens. Also of interest are the National Gallery and Museum of Victoria, the Museum of Modern Australian Art, St. Patrick's Cathedral, the James Cook Memorial and the city's old Mint.
Perth
You can visit the Western Australia Fine Arts Gallery, which exhibits works by foreign and Australian masters, including masterpieces of traditional Aboriginal art, striking in their technique. No less interesting is the Museum of Western Australia, which tells about the nature of the state, its history, about the largest meteorite crater in the world in Wolf Creek, and, of course, about the indigenous people - the aborigines.
Darwin
In the city itself, it is interesting to visit the country's only Military Museum on East Point, the original Aboriginal Art and Culture Gallery, the saltwater crocodile farm and the Darwin Botanical Garden.
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ayers rock Unusual in its red color, the rocky monolith of Uluru has long been the emblem of central Australia. This is the oldest and largest monolithic rock on earth (its age is about 500 million years). It makes an amazing impression both because it rises in the middle of a completely flat surface, and because it changes its shades at sunset and sunrise. Many tourists and photographers come to admire this magical play of light. This rock was and remains a sacred place of the Aborigines. On it you can see rock paintings. |
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Great Barrier Reef One of Australia's most famous attractions is the Great Barrier Reef, the largest coral structure in the world. This is a huge system of reefs and islets, stretching for 2,010 km. along the east coast of the country, from Cape York almost to Brisbane. For over 20 years, the Barrier Reef has been a national park. |
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Blue Mountains The Blue Mountains is a unique nature reserve near Sydney. Here, as in many other parts of Australia, nature is carefully preserved as it was thousands of years ago. Covered with eucalyptus forests, the mountains seem really blue from afar - due to the evaporation of eucalyptus oils. Viewing platforms offer magnificent panoramas of mountains covered with forests, sheer cliffs, deep valleys and canyons. |
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Harbor Bridge It is also called "coat hanger" - due to the fact that it looks like a giant hanger. This is one of the longest bridges in the world (503 meters). It was opened in 1932 and cost $20 million by the time it was completed. And today motorists, moving to the South side of Sydney, pay $ 2 toll, covering the cost of maintaining the bridge. The bridge pylon closest to the Opera House is open to the public. From the observation deck, a circular panorama of Sydney opens, this is a convenient place for photo and video filming. |
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sydney tower The Sydney Tower is the tallest building in the Southern Hemisphere (304.8 m high). There is an observation deck, revolving shops and restaurants. |
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sydney opera Of all the attractions in Australia, the Sydney Opera House attracts the largest number of tourists. The famous sails of the Opera House is a symbol not only of Sydney, but of the whole of Australia. Some consider the Opera House a magnificent example of "frozen music". The architect himself said that he created a sculpture, inside which he placed the theater premises. "You will never get tired of it (the building), you will never get tired of it," he predicted. And he was right - the opera building never ceases to amaze, no matter how much we admire it. |
| Sydney Aquarium Sydney Aquarium - Magnificent marine park. Here you can observe outlandish fish and marine animals in picturesque aquariums or from underwater tunnels, where overhead |
Australian economy: industry, foreign trade, agriculture
The Australian economy is a developed Western-style market system. The level of GDP per capita is close to the main Western European countries. The country was ranked third out of 170 in the Human Development Index (Human Development Index) and sixth in quality of life by The Economist (2005). Economic growth continues despite the global economic crisis. One of the main reasons for the success is the economic reforms - privatization, deregulation and reform of the tax system - carried out by the Howard government.
Australia has not had a recession since the early 1990s. In April 2005, unemployment fell to 5.1%, reaching its lowest level since the 1970s. Now unemployment is 4.3%. The service sector, which includes tourism, education and banks, accounts for 69% of GDP. Agriculture and extraction of natural resources - 3% and 5% of GDP, but at the same time make up a significant share of exports. The main buyers of Australian products are South Korea and New Zealand. Many economists are concerned, however, with a large foreign trade deficit.
Energy industry in Australia
Australia is relatively well endowed with energy mineral resources. This country accounts for 8% of the world's hard coal reserves and 15% of lignite reserves, and in terms of uranium reserves, Australia probably ranks second in the world, second only to the former USSR. Australia's oil resources are limited, while gas resources are plentiful. The use of hydropower resources is possible only in the Snowy Mountains and Tasmania, due to this source 10% of all electricity generated in the country is provided.
Transport Australia
Long distances are the main obstacle that the Australian economy had to overcome. Sea shipping has always been essential for the movement of heavy bulk goods, which were predominantly produced in Australia. In fiscal year 1995-1996, Australian ports handled almost 400 million tons of international bulk cargo (70% of which was iron ore and coal) and 22 million tons of international non-bulk cargo. The ports of Dampier (iron ore), Port Hedland (iron ore), Newcastle (coal and iron ore) and Hay Point (coal) occupied the leading positions in terms of bulk cargo turnover. All state capitals are located on the coasts and are general cargo ports. Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Fremantle (outport of Perth) are the largest ports in terms of total cargo turnover. The most significant carrier is the state-owned Australian National Line, which in 1996 owned 10 ships.
The first Australian railway was built in Melbourne in 1854. The uncoordinated construction of roads with different gauges by the colonial authorities led to a system that was inconvenient, expensive and slow. The first priority was to convert the national railway system to a single standard gauge. In this regard, the rebuilding of the Adelaide-Melbourne railway line in 1995 was of great importance.
The Australian government viewed the railways as a means of developing the country. The maximum length - 42,000 km - was reached in 1921. Subsequently, the length of the network was somewhat reduced, and in 1996 traffic was maintained on state railways with a total length of 33,370 km. In addition, there were private lines operated mainly by iron ore companies, including the 425 km Mount Newman line and the 390 km Hamersley line (both in the Pilbara region of Western Australia). The state railroad system, which had long been separately managed by different states, was reassigned to the National Railroad Corporation in 1991.
Highways are vital for the transport of goods and passengers. In 1995, there was one registered vehicle for every 1.65 people. The total length of the road network in 1997 was 803,000 km, but it is unevenly distributed. Only the eastern, southeastern and southwestern regions of the country are adequately provided with roads. Only 40% of all roads have a hard surface - asphalt or concrete. Many roads are only rough or slightly different from trails, others are gravel or loose stone. In rural and remote areas, traffic is sometimes interrupted for weeks during the wet season. Currently, there is a paved ring road encircling the mainland, and a submeridional road Darwin - Adelaide. Australia has a national highway system funded by the federal government. It includes more than 1,000 km of toll roads, and in the 1990s the construction of toll roads by private contractors began (especially in the Melbourne area).
The development of air transport in Australia has helped to establish communication with the outside world and within the country. On domestic routes, passenger transportation is provided mainly by Quontas and Ansett airlines. For decades, the two-airline principle was carried out by the federal government, with one of them (Ansett) being privately owned and the other (Transåstrelien Airlines or Aústrelien Airlines) being state-owned. In addition, the state-owned company Kuontas was engaged in international transportation. In the 1990s, Quontas and Australien Airlines merged, the combined company Quontas was privatized and now serves both domestic and international flights. In addition, Ansett also began to serve international flights. Domestic lines are currently open to competition, but none of the smaller companies can compete with Quontas and Ansett.
There are a total of 428 licensed aircraft pick-up and drop-off locations in Australia, from major international airports to airstrips serving sheep ranches. Thanks to air transport, even in vast sparsely populated areas of the country, mail, fresh fruits and vegetables are regularly delivered, and emergency medical care is also established. Aircraft are also used for planting seeds, fertilizing pastures and transporting a wide variety of goods.
Agriculture in Australia
From 1795, when the first white settlers became partially self-sufficient in basic food, until the end of the Second World War, agriculture, and especially sheep farming, formed the basis of the Australian economy. Although agriculture has lost its leading position with the development of industry, this industry still underlies the well-being of the country. In 1996-1997, it provided almost 3% of the gross national product and 22% of export earnings.
The expression "Australia rides a sheep" justified itself for a hundred years - from 1820 to about 1920. Using several Spanish merinos imported in 1797 from the Cape of Good Hope, as well as others brought a little later from England, John MacArthur and his wife Elizabeth by Careful crossbreeding brought out a new breed - the Australian Merino. The mechanization of the English textile industry determined the demand for fine-stapled wool, which Australia was able to satisfy from 1820. In 1850 there were 17.5 million sheep in this country. After 1860, the money raised from the gold mines of Victoria was used to expand sheep farming. In 1894, the number of sheep exceeded 100 million. In 1970, the number of sheep in Australia reached a record high of 180 million. However, as a result of a sharp drop in the price of wool on the world market in 1997, it was reduced to 123 million.
In 1974, a proposal was made to introduce a lower level of auction prices for wool, and it worked successfully until 1991, when the sale of a huge stock of accumulated wool on the "free market" began. As a result, wool prices plummeted. By that time, more than 4.6 million bales of unsold wool had accumulated in the country. The marketing of these stocks, as well as newly produced wool, has become a problem for modern Australia. In 1996, 730 thousand tons of wool were produced, but prices for it fell by 57% compared with the level of 1988-1989.
While Australian wool had a market since the early 19th century, there was no such market for meat for many years. Therefore, old and extra sheep were slaughtered for skins and fat. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the invention of meat freezing technology in 1879 made it possible to export Australian mutton to England. The successful development of trade stimulated the breeding of new breeds of sheep, which gave meat of better quality than merino, but somewhat worse wool. In 1996-1997, 583 thousand tons of mutton were produced in Australia, of which 205 thousand tons were exported. Over the past decade, live sheep have been exported, which were slaughtered after delivery to the country of destination. Basically, this product was purchased by the Muslim countries of the Middle East. In total, over 5.2 million sheep were exported from Australia in 1996-1997.
Since there are no large predators in Australia other than the dingo, cattle ranching during the colonial period reached a significant scale, especially in drier and more remote areas, where it outpaced sheep farming. However, the development of this industry was held back due to the inability to export products and the limited domestic market. The "Gold Rush" in Victoria in the 1850s attracted thousands of people. A significant beef market arose there, which marked the beginning of the development of commercial beef cattle breeding. However, it was only after 1890, when frozen Australian beef began to enter the English market, that the further development of this industry was guaranteed. By that time, most of the mainland, which is now used for grazing cattle, had been mastered, and the total number of livestock reached about 10 million heads.
In 1997, there were 23.5 million heads of beef cattle. The production of beef and veal amounted to 1.8 million tons, of which 42% was exported. The opening of the Japanese market was of great importance for the expansion of Australian beef exports. As in sheep breeding, during these years, the export of live cattle increased significantly - more than 860 thousand heads in 1996-1997.
Dairy farms in Australia are concentrated on the southeast coast, where there is a lot of rainfall or irrigation; the most important areas for the development of this industry are the south coast of Victoria, the Murray Valley near Echuka and the border area between Queensland and New South Wales. In 1997 there were 3.1 million head of dairy cattle. The number of these herds has declined since the early 1960s, but thanks to improved composition and quality of pastures, as well as improved farming methods, the volume of dairy production has not decreased. In the 1990s, the number of dairy cattle increased again. This trend is partly due to the successful adaptation of the industry to world market conditions after the decision was made in the mid-1980s that dairy products should be priced in line with world prices. Currently, about half of Australian dairy products are exported (mainly to the Middle East and Asia) in the form of cheese, milk powder, butter and casein. In the past, the production of dairy products depended on government subsidies, now this industry is becoming more and more independent.
Other livestock sectors, such as pig, poultry and beekeeping, are mainly oriented to the domestic market, and only a few products are exported.
The cultivation of grain crops is limited mainly to the eastern and southeastern peripheral regions of Australia, to a lesser extent developed in the southwest of Western Australia and in Tasmania. After 1950, when 8 million hectares were sown, there was a significant increase in sown area until a record level of 22 million hectares in 1984. Subsequently, unfavorable climatic and economic factors led to a reduction in sown areas to 17 million hectares in 1991, but then they began to expand again - to 19.4 million hectares in 1994.
Fertilization is necessary for the cultivation of crops and the functioning of many pastures. In 1995-1996 they were used on an area of 28.4 million hectares. Irrigation plays an increasingly important role for Australian farms. In 1994, the total area of irrigated land was 2.4 million hectares. Most of these lands were concentrated in the Murray-Darling basin. In 1995-1996, the total value of crop production was AUD 14.7 billion. dollars. The most important among grain crops is wheat grown in areas with an average annual rainfall of 380-500 mm. It accounts for more than half of all cultivated areas. It is predominantly a winter crop, which is very sensitive to droughts. In particular, in 1994-1995, when the drought hit New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland, the wheat harvest fell to 9 million tons, and two years later in 1996-1997 it almost tripled and reached 23.7 million tons. t.
Barley and oats are important winter crops. They are used as fodder for livestock, and are also sown in stubble fields - such areas often serve as pastures. Australia is one of the world's leading exporters of oats; its collection in 1995-1996 amounted to 1.9 million tons on an area of 1.1 million hectares. South Australia is the leader in barley production. Part of the harvest of this crop is used for malt, the rest is for livestock feed or exported. In 1995-1996, 5.8 million tons of barley were harvested on an area of 3.1 million hectares. Among other grain crops, corn (used mainly for fodder), sorghum (grown for grain and fodder), triticale (a hybrid of rye and wheat), and oilseeds - peanut, sunflower, safflower, rapeseed and soybeans stand out. Canola cultivation expanded in the 1990s.
The majority (98%) of rice is grown on irrigated land along the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers (lower valley) in southern New South Wales. Rice crops are expanding in Queensland. In 1996-1997 rice harvest amounted to 1.4 million tons on an area of 164 thousand hectares.
Sugar cane cultivation is limited to coastal areas in eastern Queensland and northern New South Wales. In 1995-1996, 4.9 million tons of sugar were produced, and most of it was exported. Cotton crops in Australia are confined mainly to irrigated lands. The main cotton-growing areas are the Namoi, Guidir and McIntyre river valleys in New South Wales and Burke County. In 1995-1996, 430 thousand tons of cotton fiber were produced (of which 70% was exported). Australia meets its needs for short and medium staple cotton, but has to import long staple cotton.
Vegetable production provides Australia's needs, and over the past decade, the area under vegetables has increased and the range of these crops has expanded. In 1995-1996 vegetable crops occupied 130 thousand hectares. Although much of it for fresh consumption is still grown on small intensively cultivated suburban farms, the development of transport has facilitated the establishment of vegetable farms in areas with the most suitable soils and low land costs. Most vegetables for canning and freezing are produced in irrigated areas.
In Australia, the demand for fruits and grapes is met in excess, but nuts and olives have to be imported. The irrigated lands along the Murray and Murrumbidgee river valleys stand out in terms of productivity, supplying grapes, citrus fruits and a variety of stone fruits such as peaches, cherries and apricots. The main horticultural exports are raisins, oranges, pears and apples. Tropical fruits such as pineapple, banana, papaya, mango, macadamia and granadilla are grown in the strip between Coffs Harbor (New South Wales) and Cairns (Queensland) on the country's east coast.
Grapes are used in winemaking and for dried and fresh consumption. In 1995-1996 vineyards covered an area of 80 thousand hectares. In recent years, wine production has increased and a significant part of it (more than 25%) was exported. Australian wines are very diverse. In 1994, there were 780 wineries operating in the country. However, 80% of all production came from the four largest wineries.
Forestry. Australia is poorly endowed with good timber. Only 20% of the country's area is covered by primary forests, with 72% of the forests located on public lands, the rest on private lands. Almost three quarters of the forests are occupied by eucalyptus stands. Few species are suitable for making wood pulp, with the exceptions being mountain ash in Gippsland and curry in Western Australia. Local types of softwood have a particularly limited use. To reduce shortages, exotic softwood trees, predominantly stately New Zealand pine, have been planted on about 1 million hectares. However, Australia has to import wood, mainly softwood, from Canada and the US. In turn, Australia exports timber harvested in Tasmania and New South Wales.
Fish farm. Fishing is confined mainly to the southern and eastern parts of the shelf. In the 1990s, it greatly expanded, and a significant part of the catch was exported - mainly spiny lobsters and shrimp to Japan, Xianggang (Hong Kong) and Taiwan. The total value of exported seafood in 1995-1996 exceeded 1 billion Australians. In the same year, a total of 214 thousand tons of seafood were harvested, of which the most important fish species were bluefin tuna, Australian salmon, mullet and shark, and of crustaceans - shrimp and spiny lobsters. Shrimp production was 27.5 thousand tons, and lobsters - 15.6 thousand tons. Shrimp are caught by trawlers in the Gulf of Carpentaria, and lobsters are caught in many areas along the southern coast of Australia. The oyster and scallop fishery is mainly oriented to the domestic market.
Since the early 1980s, aquaculture has expanded and is now one of the fastest growing sectors of fisheries. Currently, the main objects of this industry are oysters, tuna, salmon, shrimp and scallops. The value of its production in 1995-1996 amounted to 338 million Australians. dollars, or twice as much as six years ago. The once prosperous pearl industry has now almost ceased, but artificial pearl farms have been established in several (at least ten) places on the northern coast and provide a considerable income. Rivers and streams in the mountains of Eastern Australia provide favorable opportunities for trout fishing.
Manufacturing industry in Australia
The development of the manufacturing industry in Australia was greatly facilitated by the reduction in imports during the Second World War. The expansion of this industry continued in the 1950s and 1960s, and employment there increased by 70%. In the 1970s, the growth of employment in the manufacturing industry slowed down, and this trend continues today. However, the manufacturing industry now accounts for approx. 14% of GDP, i.e. much less than 20 years ago, when this industry provided 20% of GDP. At the end of the 1970s, approximately 1.2 million people were employed in the manufacturing industry, and in 1996 - approx. 925 thousand people, or 13% of the active population.
Mining industry in Australia
Over the past 40 years, mining in Australia has expanded, and now this country is a major supplier of minerals to the world market. Australia is ahead of other countries in the production of bauxite, diamonds, lead and zircon and in the export of coal, iron ore, bauxite, lead, diamonds and zinc. Australia is the world's second largest exporter of bauxite and uranium, and the third largest exporter of gold and aluminium. The largest extractive industry is coal, hard coal accounts for 10% of Australian exports. In general, in 1995-1996, the extractive industry provided 4% of Australia's GDP, and the products of this industry accounted for 22% of exports. In addition to coal, iron ore, oil, copper, zinc ores and uranium were exported from Australia.
In the past, the most important mineral resource was gold. In 1851-1865, deposits in the states of Victoria and New South Wales, where gold was first found, annually produced an average of 70.8 tons of this precious metal. Later gold deposits were discovered in Queensland, the Northern Territory and Western Australia. Currently, gold is mined in many parts of the country, but mainly in Western Australia. In total, 264 tons of gold were mined in 1995-1996, with 78% in Western Australia, where the richest Kalgoorlie deposit stands out.
Since 1950, mineral exploration has expanded. Important discoveries were made in the 1960s, especially in the Precambrian shield of Western Australia and in sedimentary basins. As a result, for the first time since the gold rush of the 1850s, there was a gigantic boom in the mining industry. This campaign was financed by the capital of Japan, the United States and, as well as Australia itself. The most active activity unfolded in Western Australia, especially in the extraction of iron ore.
At one time, the export of iron ore was banned, as it was believed that its reserves in the country were limited. This policy was radically changed after huge deposits of this ore were discovered in 1964 in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. In 1995-1996, 137.3 million tons of iron ore were mined in Australia, of which 92% was for export. The main deposits are located in Western Australia - the Hamersley, Newman and Goldsworthy mountains. Other deposits are Tallering Peak, Kulanuka and Kulyanobbing.
Australia has extensive reserves of bauxite, the main raw material for aluminum production, and since 1985 this country has produced at least 40% of the world's bauxite production. Bauxites were first discovered in 1952 on the Gove Peninsula (Northern Territory), and in 1955 in Weipa (Queensland). There are also deposits in Western Australia - in the Darling Range southeast of Perth and on the Mitchell Plateau in the Kimberley region; in all but the last, development has begun. In 1995-1996, 50.7 million tons of bauxite were mined. Part of the bauxite goes to the production of alumina, and the other part is processed into aluminum. The bauxites from the Weipa deposit are sent to Gladstone, where alumina is produced. Similar enrichment plants operate in Gove (Northern Territory); Quinan and Pinjarre (Western Australia) and Bell Bay (Tasmania). In 1995-1996, alumina production in Australia amounted to 13.3 million tons, most of it is exported. At the same time, Australian enterprises produced 1.3 million tons of aluminum by electrolysis.
The coalfields near Newcastle have been exploited since 1800 and coal was one of the first Australian exports. Anthracite and semi-anthracite coals are rare, but the reserves of other types of coal are large. The main deposits of bituminous (coking and steam) coals are located in the Bowen (in Queensland) and Sydney (in New South Wales) basins; some seams are over 18 m thick and may be mined (particularly in the Bowen Basin). It was these coals, in particular from the Queensland deposits located near Collinsville, Moura, Blair Atol and Bridgwater, that revived the Australian coal industry. Japan, the main importer of Australian coal, has been heavily investing in coal mining in the Bowen Basin, where several new mines have been opened. In 1995-1996, 194 million tons of hard coal were mined in Australia (about half in Queensland and the same in New South Wales), 140 million tons of coal were exported (43% to Japan, 13% to Korea and 7% to Taiwan) . Australia is currently the leading supplier of coal to the world market.
Coking coal for iron and steel industry is mined from deposits near Newcastle and Wollongong. Sub-bituminous coals are being developed in Ipswich and Cullaid in Queensland, Lee Creek in South Australia and Fingal in Tasmania. The main deposit of Western Australia is located in Collie, 320 km south of Perth. The Latrobe Valley in Victoria has large deposits of brown coal: three main seams are mined by highly mechanized open pit mining; most of the coal is used in local thermal power plants to power southern Victoria. Other brown coal deposits are located west of Melbourne - in Anglesey and Baccus Marsh. Large brown coal deposits have been discovered in Kingston in the southeast of South Australia, Esperance in Western Australia and Rosevale in Tasmania.
Because the coal industry is of critical economic importance, including for power generation, exports and employment, Australia has long resisted the implementation of the UN resolution adopted at the Kyoto climate change conference in December 1997. Ultimately, she agreed to significantly reduce 2010 carbon gas emissions.
The oil exploration program, which began in the 1950s with state support, contributed to the clear identification of at least 20 sedimentary basins; of these, nine are now producing oil. The most important deposits are in Gippsland (Victoria), Carnarvon (Western Australia), Bonaparte (Northern Territory and Western Australia) and Cooper Eromanga (South Australia and Queensland). In 1995-1996, 30 billion liters of oil were produced, incl. almost half of the Gippsland Basin. Australia has almost reached the level of self-sufficiency in petroleum products, exports of crude oil and condensate in 1994-1995 amounted to 35 million liters, and imports - 77 million liters, which is much less than the level of local production.
Natural gas, first discovered in the Roma region of Queensland in 1904, until 1961 had only local significance. In 1995-1996, almost 30 billion cubic meters were produced in Australia. m of gas, mainly from the deposits of the Gippsland region and the shelf off the northwest coast, with the latter region accounting for more than half and being exported. All state capitals and many other cities are connected by pipelines to gas fields. Brisbane receives gas from the Roma-Surat fields; Sydney, Canberra and Adelaide - from the Cooper Eromanga Basin; Melbourne - from the Gipsland shelf; Perth - from the Dongar-Mandara fields and the shelf off the northwest coast; Darwin - from the deposits of the Amadius basin.
Australia is gradually expanding its LPG production. In 1995-1996, 3.6 billion liters of this gas were produced, including 62% from the Bass Strait fields and 25% from the Cooper Basin.
Australia is the main producer and lead, which are often found together with. The most important area for the extraction of these metals is Mount Isa - Cloncurry in western Queensland, from where the ore goes to the processing plants in Mount Isa and Townsville. Older but still significant mining areas for these metals are Zian Dundas in Tasmania (since 1882) and Broken Hill in western New South Wales (since 1883). In terms of metal content in 1995-1996, 774 thousand tons of lead ore were mined. In the same year, 1.3 million tons of zinc were mined. The Mount Isa-Cloncurry region is also a major hotspot. This metal was first mined in the Kapanda-Barra region of South Australia in the 1840s. In 1991, Australia produced 1.3 million tons of copper in terms of copper concentrate.
Australia became a major producer after the metal was discovered in 1966 at Cambalda, south of the Kalgoorlie gold region in Western Australia. In 1991, 65.4 thousand tons of nickel were mined. After the discovery of diamond deposits in the northeast of Western Australia in 1979, Australia became their main producer. Diamond mining at the Argyle mine began in 1983 and is now considered one of the largest in the world. Most of the mined diamonds are of industrial importance. In 1995-1996 Australia exported almost 7200 kg of diamonds. A significant amount of opals and sapphires is also mined. The Coober Pedy, Andamooka and Mintabe deposits in South Australia produce most of the world's precious opals; New South Wales has the Lightning Ridge and White Cliffs deposits. Sapphires are mined near Glen Innes and Inverell in New South Wales and at Anaki in Queensland.
Australia has most of the world's reserves of rutile, zircon and thorium contained in the sands along the country's east coast between Stradbroke (Queensland) and Byron Bay (NSW) and off the coast of Western Australia at Capel. In 1995-1996, 2.5 million tons of sands containing these minerals were mined. The extraction of manganese ore far exceeds the needs of the country, and most of the production is exported. All manganese comes from Groote Island in the Gulf of Carpentaria. Australia has been a major supplier of tungsten in the past and a significant portion of its production is still exported. Tungsten mines are located in the northeast of Tasmania and on King Island.
Australia owns 30% of the world's reserves of cheap uranium raw materials. The Labor government in power, out of security concerns, limited uranium mining to two mines. The development of the Ranger Nabarlek fields near Jabiru in the Northern Territory began in 1979, and the development of the Olympic Dam fields in South Australia in 1988. In 1995-1996, 3.2 thousand tons were mined in the first area, and 1.85 thousand tons in the second. The coalition government that came to power in 1996 lifted restrictions on uranium mining. Government approval has been obtained for the Jabiluka mine in the Northern Territory and the Beverly mine in South Australia is planned, although both projects are facing opposition from environmental groups.
Salt is produced by the evaporation of sea water, as well as the waters of salt lakes. Four large installations of this kind, located in Western Australia (Dhampier, Lake MacLeod, Port Hedland and Shark Bay), provide almost 80% of the salt produced in the country. Most of it is exported to Japan, where it is used in the chemical industry. For the domestic market, salt is produced in small factories located mainly in South Australia, Victoria and Queensland.
Australia's foreign trade
Australia has always depended on overseas markets for the products of its ranches, farms, mines and, more recently, manufacturing industries. In 1996-1997, the value of exports amounted to almost 79 billion Australian dollars. dollars, including finished products - 61.4%, mineral raw materials - 22.7% and agricultural products - 13.6%. In the same year, 75% of Australia's exports went to the Asia-Pacific region. The top buyer of Australian goods was Japan (19% of export value), followed by South Korea (9%), New Zealand (8%), US (7%), Taiwan (4.6%), China (4.5%) , Singapore (4.3%), Indonesia (4.2%) and Hong Kong (3.9%), while the UK accounted for only 3%.
Australia's trade balance in 1995-1996 was generally characterized by a slight deficit: exports - 78.885 billion Australians. dollars, imports - 78.997 billion austral. dollars. The main imports were computers, aircraft, vehicles, chemical products (including oil), telecommunications equipment, medicines, clothing, shoes and paper. Australia's trade balance with different countries evolved in different ways. For example, there was a surplus with Japan (exports A$15.3 billion and imports A$10.2 billion) and a large deficit with the United States (exports A$5.5 billion). , and imports - 17.6 billion Australian dollars). In addition, there was a surplus with South Korea, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Iran and South Africa and significant trade deficits with the UK, and .
The economic ties between Australia and the United States attract particular attention. Australia is considered an active ally of the US, but in terms of foreign trade, the balance is not in Australia's favor - just like in trade between the US and Japan, the latter (which in turn is inferior to Australia) wins. Australia and the United States are competitors in the export of some goods, such as grain. Government subsidies given to US export farmers are seen in Australia as unfair competition.
Despite relatively balanced foreign trade performance, Australia has a chronic deficit in its overall international financial balance. This can be explained by successive deficits generated by non-trade factors such as interest payments on foreign loans, dividend payments to foreign investors, insurance costs and ship charters. In fiscal year 1996-1997, Australia's "current account deficit" was 17.5 billion Australians. dollars, or 3.4% of GDP, which is much less than the level of 1994-1995, when it was 27.5 billion Australians. dollars, or 6% of GDP.
In fiscal year 1996-1997, Australia's entire external debt was estimated at AU$288 billion. dollars. Taking into account the value of Australian investments abroad (except for shares), Australia's net external debt was 204 billion Australians. dollars. A country's overall international investment position can be estimated by adding this external debt to its net equity investment. In 1996-1997, Australia's gross foreign share liabilities were AUD 217 billion. dollars, and a net liability on foreign shares - 105 billion austral.dollars. In general, the international investment position of Australia, taking into account debt and equities, was characterized by a deficit of 309 billion Australians. Doll.
The Australian economy has always been heavily dependent on foreign investment. With the government's continued market orientation, healthy economy, and large-scale development projects, foreign capital has continued to flow. In fiscal year 1996-1997, total foreign investment was AUD 217 billion. dollars, and the volume of Australian investments abroad - 173 billion Australian. USD In general, approx. 29% of the shares of Australian companies were owned by foreigners, and in private trading companies this figure reached 44%. Particularly large is the participation of foreign capital in the mining industry.
Throughout the 20th century Australia tried to protect its industry by imposing duties on imported goods, while at the same time trying to establish free export of goods. Since the beginning of the 1970s, customs duties have been sharply reduced, which significantly affected the production and employment in a number of sectors of the economy, for example, in the manufacturing industry - in the production of cars, clothing and shoes. As a result of these policies, the Australian economy has become more competitive, and the share of manufactured goods in exports has increased significantly. Thanks to a more stable economic structure, by the end of 1998 Australia was able to overcome the strong shocks that erupted in the Asia-Pacific region without much loss. Australia has strengthened its position in the so-called. Cairns Group of Trading Partners and in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, upholding the principle of free trade. In the late 1990s, the Australian government, concerned about high unemployment and the unwillingness of other partners in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation to continue the policy of lowering customs duties, itself introduced a moratorium on further reductions in duties until 2004.
Money circulation and banking. Australia has adopted a decimal currency system since 1966. The Australian dollar is issued by the Reserve Bank of Australia, which regulates interest rates and controls the financial system. In recent years, regulation of the banking sector has been gradually loosened. For example, since 1983 foreign banks have been allowed to operate in Australia, and fundamental differences between different types of banks and between banks and other financial institutions, such as life insurance companies, construction companies and pension funds, are being gradually reduced or erased. As of June 1996, 50 Australian and foreign banks operated in the country, with more than 6.5 thousand branches. The four largest Australian banks - the National Bank of Australia, the Union Bank of Australia, Westpack Banking Corporation and the Australian and New Zealand Banking Group - control more than half of all banking assets. The merger of these four large banks is prohibited by the state, which seeks to ensure the competitiveness of the banking sector.
Australian public finance
Despite the federal principle of government, which initially gave the states significant financial autonomy, the dominant factor in the system of public finances in Australia is the federal government. In fiscal year 1995-1996, for example, the national government increased its share of public sector revenue by 73%, while its own expenditures (excluding subsidies to other government agencies) amounted to approx. 55% of total public sector spending. The draft federal budget for the 1998-1999 financial year provides for revenues of 144.3 billion Australians. dollars, of which 2.5% comes from tax revenues, and expenses in the amount of 141.6 billion austral. dollars, which will amount to a budget surplus of 2.7 billion Australians. dollars. The main areas of budget spending are social insurance and social assistance (38% of total spending), health care (16%), defense (7%) and education (4%).
The surplus envisaged by the draft budget should end the 7-year period of the budget deficit, which came after the Labor government managed to achieve a positive budget balance for 4 years in a row (from 1987-1988 to 1990-1991). It is assumed that in the foreseeable future the country will have a deficit-free budget. As a result, within four years, the amount of domestic public debt (the statistics of which do not include indicators of state-owned business enterprises) should be reduced to zero. For comparison: in the 1995-1996 financial year, the amount of public debt reached a peak and amounted to 95.8 billion Australians. dollars, or 19.5% of GDP. The total revenues of the governments of the states and territories in 1995-1996 amounted to 74.4 billion Australians. About 46% of this amount was received in the form of grants from the federal government, the rest was received in the form of taxes on payroll, property, financial transactions and sales tax. The main items of expenditure for state and territory governments are education (31% of spending), health care (20%), public debt repayment (15%), police and security services (9%).
Taxation system. In the system of taxation, the most important place is occupied by income tax. Although in general the level of taxes in Australia is much lower than in other developed industrial countries, income tax rates are quite high. In 1995-1996, income tax accounted for over 60% of taxes collected at all levels (while personal income tax accounted for 40%, and legal entities - 13%). Income from individuals is calculated on a progressive scale, starting with a minimum rate of 20% levied on income that exceeds the tax-exempt annual income of 5.4 thousand AUD. dollars, and up to a maximum rate of 47% on income in excess of 50 thousand Australians. dollars (data as of 1997-1998). Over the past decades, there has been a gradual decrease in the maximum income tax rate, which was previously 60%.
Wealth and real estate taxes are relatively low, totaling 5% of total tax deductions, and there is no inheritance tax (inheritance tax was abolished in the 1970s). Tax on goods and services in 1995-1996 amounted to approx. 23% of total tax revenues, which is somewhat less than in other industrialized countries, but the taxation mechanism in this area is rather complicated. The federal government collects a wholesale tax at various rates (12% on some goods, 22% on others, and 32% on "luxury goods"). There is also a 37% wholesale tax on beer and spirits, a 41% tax on wine and a 45% tax on expensive cars. Food, clothes, building materials, books, magazines and newspapers, medicines are not taxed. In addition, a federal excise tax is levied on oil and certain agricultural products. Until 1997, taxes and excises were also levied on gasoline, alcoholic beverages and tobacco products, which were legally treated as taxes on franchise and working capital. In August 1997, the High Court ruled that these taxes were unconstitutional and violated the government's monopoly on excises, so steps were hastily taken to transfer these taxes to the category of state taxes that go to state budgets.
In 1985, the then Labor government supported the idea of introducing a simple and comprehensive consumption tax, but then he had to withdraw this project under pressure from supporters of the social security system and trade unions, who feared the regressive effect of the new tax mechanism. The proposal to introduce a single tax on goods and services (GST) was included in the radical platform of the liberal-national opposition in the elections of 1993, but the apparent unpopularity of this proposal, admittedly, was the reason for the defeat of the opposition coalition. However, in 1996 the same opposition coalition led by John Howard defeated the Labor Party even though its program included the same unpopular thesis about the introduction of NTU. At the same time, the Howard government promised that if he was re-elected in 1998, it would not only reduce the income tax rate (which was supposed to be the basis of the budget surplus planned by the government), but at the same time introduce a 10% GST on all goods and services (except institutions health care, education and kindergartens). With this tax reform program, the Howard government won the election. However, the fate of the NTU project remains unclear, as the government does not have a majority in the Senate. It is likely that if foodstuffs are also excluded from the tax base, the NTU will be supported by small party senators and come into force in 2000.
Distribution of Australian tax revenue
The states that formed the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901 became not only self-financing, but also self-governing entities. As the federal government strengthened and expanded its participation in the development and implementation of state financial policy (for example, in 1908 the national pension program was adopted), it began to collect taxes that had previously been the prerogative of state governments (land tax, funeral duty, income tax and etc.) and compete with the states in capital construction lending.
In the early days of the Union, a number of once-important revenue items for the state budgets - the tax on public utilities, public transport and the sold-off lands of the British crown - gradually lost economic importance. On the other hand, the constitutional transfer of "customs and excise" to the federal government has limited the ability of the states to levy taxes in these areas. Although the transfer of these payments to the federal level was intended to stimulate internal trade between the states and establish uniform tariffs on imports, this gave impetus to the emergence of a "vertical budget imbalance", in which the federal government's revenue invariably exceeds its real spending and, accordingly, the states really spend far more than they can collect in taxes. With regard to "excise payments", the High Court insisted on a fairly broad interpretation of them, which deprived the state budgets of many potential sources of revenue in the form of turnover tax, consumption tax, penalties and left the states with a rather narrow tax base.
Throughout the 1920s, states struggled to meet their debt repayment obligations and interest payments on previously taken loans, causing them to run budget deficits. In 1927, a special mechanism was developed for coordinating government loan programs and eliminating competition between the federal center and the states in the field of borrowing within the framework of a financial agreement between the states and the federal government, according to which a loan council was formed. All government loans (with the exception of defense loans) now had to be made in consultation with a loan board, which included one representative from each state and central government. The federal government received two advisory votes and one casting vote in the council, so that the government needed to enlist the support of two more states to make favorable decisions. But even without these additional votes, the federal government's financial dominance in other areas of the economy allowed it to consistently exercise decisive influence on the decisions of the loan board. In 1928, the financial agreement received constitutional justification in a referendum that approved the inclusion of Article 105A in the constitution.
Finally, when the federal government succeeded in monopolizing the collection of income taxes in the 1940s, its financial power was on a firm footing. In the early 1940s, income tax became the most important source of replenishment of the state budget, while income tax rates varied significantly from state to state. During World War II, the federal government, ostensibly in an effort to find efficient and fair ways to increase budget revenues, proposed to the states that they waive direct taxes for the duration of the war (in exchange for federal compensation payments) so that uniform tax rates could be established throughout the country. . But the premiers of the states did not agree with this proposal, and then in 1941 the federal parliament passed a law obliging the states to adopt a new scheme. As a result, the states were entitled to compensatory transfers for lost revenues, but only on the condition that they did not impose their own income tax. A number of states challenged the single tax law, but in 1942 the High Court upheld it. In 1946, the federal parliament again passed the same law in order to maintain a single tax in peacetime (in 1957 this law was also upheld by the High Court). However, the federal government had no legal grounds to prevent the introduction of local income taxes in the states. However, the practical significance of the new legislation was that the federal government secured a monopoly on the collection of income taxes, since the imposition of a state income tax would automatically deprive it of federal transfers and could lead to "double taxation" in that state.
This system of taxation finally strengthened the financial basis of Australian federalism. Currently, income taxes are collected by the central government. The federal budget for 1998-1999 provides for the collection of income taxes in the amount of 99 billion Australians. dollars - of which 76% are for individuals, 23% - for legal entities. Another 15 billion Australians. dollars should come to the budget from the tax on wholesale sales and 14 billion austral. dollars - from excise payments on petroleum products and so on.
In 1971, some of the vertical budgetary imbalance was corrected when the federal government gave the states the right to levy a payroll tax (in exchange for a reduction in the size of the general needs transfer, although the states immediately legislated higher tax rates, as a result of which they benefited from this reform) . The payroll tax has become the most important source of state budget revenues, being directly related to the rate of economic growth. However, this tax is considered too burdensome for businesses, as it slows down the development of investment and employment.
In practice, the vertical budget imbalance is determined by the federal center, which returns budget funds to the states in the form of transfers (subsidies). The Union Government proposes a draft budget for the coming year at the annual conference of state premiers. The heads of state governments participate in this partly ritual and partly competitive forum, making their own amendments and entering into special agreements with the government. At different stages of the modern history of the country, the federal center was considered by the states as a generous, then as a tight-fisted creditor, although it must be admitted that the degree of generosity of the Union government invariably depended on the general principles of its economic strategy. Thus, in the first years after the war, budget revenues from increased tax collection served as a powerful financial support for strengthening the federal government. At the same time, the size of compensatory transfers to the states was constantly decreasing.
The system of vertical budget imbalance has its supporters. The country has developed a centralized and generally effective system of income tax collection, and the powers of the federal center to determine the amount of government spending and borrowing, in turn, provide it with the ability to effectively manage the country's economy as a whole. On the other hand, the opinion is expressed that the budget imbalance significantly disrupts the interdependence between public spending programs and the execution of the budget revenues. According to the opponents of the current system, not only does this imbalance prevent direct linking of decisions on public spending with responsibility for the execution of the revenue side of the budget, but also the social and financial responsibility of power structures is eroded.
State governments, in principle, are able to increase their budget revenues through local taxes. In the past, the central government has given the states the opportunity - notably in 1952 and 1977 - to take over some of the functions of collecting income taxes. However, the states did not want to use the powers they received. With the increase of some local payments and taxes, other taxes are simultaneously reduced, or even completely canceled. Thus, in most states the inheritance tax was abolished, land tax benefits were introduced, and in 1977 none of the states took advantage of the opportunity to introduce an income tax surcharge.
The Howard government promised that all revenue generated by the introduction of GST would be redistributed to the states. This measure should provide states with more accurate fiscal revenue projections, although it is unlikely to help reduce vertical fiscal imbalances.
In the past, most federal grants to the states were distributed as “untied” “general use” payments (in the 1990s they were called bailout grants), which allowed the states to use the allocated funds at their own discretion. Article 96 of the constitution states that the federal government "may grant financial assistance to any state on such terms as the federal parliament thinks acceptable." And according to the decision of the High Court, the federal center, when allocating financial assistance to the states under certain conditions, has the right to determine among these conditions those that may relate to powers that are not constitutionally transferred to the federal center.
The first legislation in the 1940s to allocate the power to collect taxes proposed that the federal government's reimbursement of income taxes collected in the states should be in the form of "untied" payments, so that the states could dispose of them as freely as they previously disposed of income from collection local income taxes. Beginning in the late 1940s, however, the federal government repeatedly increased the share of "tied" (i.e., targeted) payments, which now account for about half of all federal transfers.
Ten years after the formation of the Commonwealth of Australia, the federal government has become a reliable source of financial assistance to states that had previously experienced serious financial difficulties. In 1933, when the practice of issuing government subsidies was firmly rooted, the central government created a permanent special body - a commission on subsidies - to determine the amount and form of financial assistance to the states.
The area of Australia occupies 7.7 million km2, and it is located on the mainland of the same name, the Tasmanian and many small islands. For a long period of time, the state developed exclusively in an agrarian direction, until alluvial gold (gold deposits brought by rivers and streams) was discovered there in the middle of the 19th century, which caused several gold rushes and laid the foundation for modern demographic models of Australia.
In the post-war period, geology rendered an invaluable service to the country by the continuous launch of mineral deposits, including gold, bauxite, iron and manganese, as well as opals, sapphires and other precious stones, which became an impetus for the development of the state's industry.
Coal
Australia has an estimated 24 billion tons of coal reserves, more than a quarter of which (7 billion tons) is anthracite or black coal, located in the Sydney Basin of New South Wales and in Queensland. Brown coal is suitable for power generation in Victoria. Coal reserves fully meet the needs of the Australian domestic market, and allow the export of surplus mined raw materials.
Natural gas
Natural gas deposits are widespread throughout the country and currently provide most of Australia's domestic needs. There are commercial gas fields in every state and pipelines connecting these fields to major cities. Within three years, Australian natural gas production increased almost 14 times from 258 million m3 in 1969, the first year of production, to 3.3 billion m3 in 1972. Overall, Australia has trillions of tons of estimated natural gas reserves spread across the continent.
Oil
Most of Australia's oil production is aimed at meeting its own needs. Oil was first discovered in south Queensland near Muni. Australian oil production is currently around 25 million barrels per year and is based on fields in northwestern Australia near Barrow Island, Mereene and subsoil in the Bass Strait. The deposits of Balrow, Mereeni and Bas Strait in parallel are the objects of natural gas production.
uranium ore
Australia has rich deposits of uranium ore, which are enriched for use as fuel for nuclear power. West Queensland, near Mount Isa and Cloncurry, contains three billion tons of uranium ore reserves. There are also deposits in Arnhem Land, in far northern Australia, as well as in Queensland and Victoria.
Iron ore
Most significant iron ore reserves in Australia are located in the western part of the Hammersley region and its environs. The state has billions of tons of iron ore reserves, exporting magnetite-iron from mines to Tasmania and Japan, while extracting ore from older sources on the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia and the Kulanyabing region in southern Western Australia.
The Western Australian Shield is rich in nickel deposits, which were first discovered at Kambalda near Kalgoorlie in southwestern Australia in 1964. Other nickel deposits have been found in older gold mining areas in Western Australia. Nearby, small deposits of platinum and palladium were discovered.
Zinc
The state is also extremely rich in zinc, the main sources of which are the mountains of Isa, Mat and Morgan in Queensland. Large reserves of bauxite (aluminum ore), lead and zinc are concentrated in the northern part.
Gold
Australia's gold production, which had been substantial at the beginning of the century, declined from a peak production of four million ounces in 1904 to several hundred thousand. Most of the gold is mined from the Kalgoorlie Norseman region in Western Australia.
The continent is also known for its gemstones, especially the white and black opals from South Australia and western New South Wales. In Queensland and in the New England region of northeastern New South Wales, sapphire and topaz deposits have been developed.
Australia is federal and consists of six states. Australia has only maritime borders. The territory of the country is located on the Australian mainland, Tasmania and other islands. Australia's neighboring countries are New Zealand, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and other island states of Oceania. The coat of arms of the country is a symbol of the Australian state. The kangaroo and emu that support the shield are the unofficial emblem of the nation. The Flag of Australia is one of the state symbols of the country. There are three main elements on the Australian flag: the flag of Great Britain (also known as the "Union Jack"), the Commonwealth Star (or Federation Star, aka Hadar) and the constellation of the Southern Cross. The flag was adopted shortly after the formation of the federation, in 1901. Natural zones of Australia and climatic zones. Flora of Australia. Eucalyptus is considered the plant symbol of Australia. The animal world of Australia is unique, but it is devoid of monkeys, ruminants and thick-skinned mammals. Most of the animals inhabiting this continent are marsupials. Australia's world-class resources. Quiz. Lesson results.
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Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), MR "Khangalassky ulus" MKOU "Evening (shift) general education school" Australia Developed by: Kaisarova Oksana Viktorovna teacher of geography MKOU "Evening (shift) general education school in Bestyakh February, 2015
Educational goals: 1. Reveal the main features and uniqueness of the country. 2. Assimilation of knowledge about the main features of the EGP, natural and raw materials, national composition, population distribution. 3. To develop the horizons of students, logical thinking, arouse interest in the country under study. 4. Work on general educational skills: listen, compare, generalize. Methods and forms of educational activity: lecture with elements of conversation; work of students with the text of the textbook, maps. Teaching aids: political map of the world, textbooks, atlases for grade 10, wall maps.
It is located below us, There, obviously, they walk upside down, Gardens bloom in October, There are rivers flowing without water (they disappear somewhere in the desert). There are traces of wingless birds in the thickets, There snakes get food for cats, Animals are born from eggs, And there dogs don’t know how to bark, Trees themselves climb out of the bark. There, rabbits are worse than a flood ... (G. Usov)
Australia Australia has a federal structure and includes six states: New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Western Australia and two territories: the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory. Australia has only maritime borders. The territory of the country is located on the Australian mainland, Tasmania and other islands. Australia's neighboring countries are New Zealand, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and other island states of Oceania. Australia is remote from the developed countries of America and Europe, large markets for raw materials and sales of products, but many sea routes connect Australia with them. Australia plays an important role in the Asia-Pacific region.
Coat of arms of Australia The coat of arms of the country is a symbol of the Australian state. In the upper half, from left to right, are the coats of arms of the states: New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland. Bottom, left to right: South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania. Above the shield is the 7-sided "Star of the Commonwealth" or the Star of the Federation above the blue and gold wreaths, forming the coat of arms of the country. The six points of the star represent the 6 states, and the seventh represents the combination of the territories and Australia. The kangaroo and emu that support the shield are the unofficial emblem of the nation.
Flag of Australia The Flag of Australia is one of the state symbols of the country, which is a rectangular blue panel with an aspect ratio of 1:2. Three main elements can be distinguished on the Australian flag: the flag of Great Britain (also known as the "Union Jack"), the Commonwealth Star (or Federation Star, aka Hadar) and the constellation of the Southern Cross. The flag was adopted shortly after the formation of the federation, in 1901.
Flora of Australia The unique climatic conditions and location of Australia determined the originality of its flora and fauna. Eucalyptus is considered the plant symbol of Australia. A huge tree has powerful roots that go into the ground for 20 or even 30 meters! An amazing tree has adapted to the arid Australian climate. Eucalyptus trees growing near swamps are able to draw water from a reservoir and thereby drain the swamp. Thus, for example, they drained the swampy land of Colchis on the coast of the Caucasus.
The east coast of Australia, where it is washed by the Pacific Ocean, is buried in thickets of bamboo. Closer to the south there are bottle trees, the fruits of which resemble the shape of a bottle. Aborigines extract their rainwater from them.
Dense subtropical forests grow in the north. Here you can see huge palm trees and mangroves. The entire northern coast, where precipitation is the most, grows acacias and pandanus, horsetail and ferns. Toward the south, the forest thins out. The savannah zone begins, which in the spring is a lush carpet of tall grasses, and by the summer it dries up, burns out and turns into a soulless desert. Central Australia is a pasture zone.
Wildlife of Australia The wildlife of Australia is unique, but it is devoid of monkeys, ruminants and thick-skinned mammals. Most of the animals inhabiting this continent are marsupials. On the abdomen of these animals is a deep fold of skin, which is called a bag. The cubs of these animals after birth are very small, blind and devoid of hair, and also do not have the opportunity for independent life. Immediately after its birth, the cub moves into a bag, inside of which there are nipples with milk. Kangaroo Koala Platypus Wombat Dingo Echidna Lyrebird Emu Possum
Australia's world-class resources: The world's number one uranium resource is in the Alligator River basin on the Arnhem Land peninsula. First place in the export of wool. The second place in the world (Guinea) in terms of bauxite reserves is near Perth in the south-west of the country and on the coast of the Cape York Peninsula. Third place (KNP, Brazil) in the world in terms of iron ore reserves. 4th in the world in terms of coal reserves. The main region for the reserves of copper, lead-zinc, nickel and titanium ores is Queensland. Leading place in terms of gold reserves (Kalgoorlie in the southwest of the country) and diamonds (Argyle mine in the northwest).
1. Australia was a colony in the past: Great Britain, Germany, France, Holland? 2. Question-joke. Which island of southern Australia "carries in a bag" its inhabitants? 3. What animals are depicted on the state emblem of the country? 4. What animals are depicted on Australian coins? 5. One of the explorers of Australia was: Vitus Bering, James Cook, Amerigo Vespucci, Vasco da Gama? Quiz
6. Select from the list of animals endemic to Australia (and nearby islands): echidna, gorilla, wapiti, dromedary, koala, dingo, muskrat, armadillo, skunk, wombat, opossum, anteater? 7. Does the koala bear live in: Africa, Asia, Australia, South America? 8. What natural resources Australia compares favorably with other continents: Iron ores, hydropower, non-ferrous metal ores, artesian waters, forest resources? 9. The largest share of the population of Australia lives: in cities, urban agglomerations, farms, urban-type settlements?
10. The largest areas of sheep breeding are: the savannah and semi-desert territories of Australia, the prairies of North America, the desert territories of Africa, the pampas and the mountains of Latin America? 11. The highest volume of grain production per capita has: Australia, Italy, Russia, China? 12. What crops are grown by modern inhabitants of Oceania: wheat, coffee, cocoa beans, cotton, sugar cane, rice, coconut palm, bananas, pineapples, corn? 13. Which animal largely determines the economic situation of the country: a cow, a koala bear, a pig, a kangaroo, a sheep, a chicken?
Lesson results. 1. Summary: make a conclusion on your own: was it interesting for you at the lesson? 2. Summing up the answers to the questions. 3. Homework: read the text of the textbook
Australia is the driest continent on earth. It is all in the southern hemisphere. This determines the natural conditions and resources of Australia.
Natural conditions and resources of Australia: climate
For the reasons mentioned above, the seasons in Australia are the opposite of those in the northern hemisphere, being hot from November to January and cool from June to August.
The climate in Australia has sharp differences in its different parts. Its northern part, humid and hot, is replaced by semi-desert regions, and the coasts (southeast and south) belong to the subtropical zone, so the climate here is warm and pleasant.
Natural conditions and resources of Australia: relief
The terrain in Australia is mostly flat. From the Cape York Peninsula, in the east of the country, the Great Dividing Range stretches to the Bass Strait, and it continues on the island of Tasmania. The highest point in Australia is Mount Kosciuszko (2228 m).
In the west of the country you will find four deserts: the Great Victoria Desert, the Simpso Desert, the Gibson Desert, and the Great Sandy Desert.
Australia attracts tourists from all over the world with its exoticism, unique flora and fauna, comfortable climate, endless beaches, cloudless skies and bright sun.
Natural conditions and resources: rivers
There are few large rivers on the Australian mainland, except for the island of Tasmania. Australia's main river is the Murray, with tributaries the Goulburn, the Murrumbidgee and the Darling.
At the beginning of summer, these rivers are the most full-flowing, because. snow is melting in the mountains. They become very shallow during the hot season. Even the Darling, which is the longest in Australia, gets lost during a drought in the sands. Dams were built on almost all of the Murray's tributaries, and reservoirs used for irrigation were created near them.
Natural conditions and resources: lakes
The lakes of Australia are predominantly waterless basins. Rarely, when filled with water, they become silty, salty and shallow reservoirs.
The largest lakes in Australia include Lake Eyre, Gairdner, Garnpang, Amadius, Torrens, Mackay, Gordon. But here you can meet unique, simply amazing lakes.
For example, Lake Hillier, which is bright pink, is located on Middle Island. Even if you fill something with water from the lake, its color will not change. There are no algae in the lake, and scientists have not given an explanation for what exactly gives the lake such a pink color.
Or there is the luminous Jeepsland Lake. It is a complex of swamps and lakes located in the state of Victoria. Here, in 2008, a high concentration of microorganisms Noctiluca scintillans or Nightweed was observed.
Photographer Phil Hart and local residents observed such a rare phenomenon. The “night light” glows when it reacts to stimuli, so the photographer threw stones into the water and teased them in every way to capture the glow, and at the same time also an unusual picture of the sky. However, the pictures turned out just wonderful.
Natural conditions and resources: forests
In Australia, forests occupy only 2% of the entire mainland area. But tropical rainforests, located along the shores of the Coral Sea, are unusual for Europeans and very picturesque.
Subantarctic and subtropical forests with huge ferns and eucalyptus trees are located in the east and south of the continent. In the west, "hard-leaved" evergreen savannah forests grow. Here you can find eucalyptus trees whose leaves are turned in such a way that they do not give shade.
About 500 species of different eucalyptus trees can be found in Australia, for example, blue eucalyptus trees in the Blue Mountains in the Thunder Valley.
The largest subtropical forests in the world in terms of area are the Rainforests, which have survived almost unchanged since the time of Gondwana. Here you can see plants that have been growing since the time of the dinosaurs.
A large volcano was once located here, which supplied these lands with good soil. At the moment, the volcano has been destroyed by erosion, but magnificent high waterfalls have appeared. So in the Gondwana forests you will definitely find something to admire.
The rainforests between New Wales and Queensland are on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Now this area includes 50 reserves.
Mineral resources
This is the main natural wealth of Australia. Australia ranks first in the world in zirconium and bauxite reserves and second in uranium reserves.
Australia is one of the largest coal producers in the world. There are deposits of platinum in Tasmania. Gold deposits are located mainly in the southwest of Australia, near the cities of Northman, Coolgardie, Wiluna, Queensland. And there are small deposits of this valuable metal in almost all states of the continent. The state of New South Wales has diamonds, antimony, bismuth and nickel.
The state of South Australia is distinguished by the fact that opals are mined here, and even an entire underground city of Coober Pedy or Coober Pedy has been built. The mining town is located at the bottom of a dried-up ancient sea. Its inhabitants mine opals and live underground to escape the unbearable heat. They say here: "If you need a new house, dig it yourself!" The underground city has shops and even an underground temple.
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