1. Tell us about the features of the social structure and economic activity of the Mongols. How was the power of Genghis Khan created? What laws fixed the military nature of the state?

In the period preceding the creation of the empire of Genghis Khan, the Mongols lived by nomadic pastoralism, alternating seasonal pastures to feed livestock. They lived in tribes, the tribes often raided each other, stealing cattle. Herds were owned by individual clans, but pastures were considered the common property of the tribe. The Mongol tribe was headed by a khan, but the main circle of the most important issues was under the jurisdiction of the council of elders (kurultai). There was also a noyon elected by the kurultai - a military leader who led the squads of warriors (nukers). As a result of wars, the losing tribe sometimes took on something like a vassal oath in relation to the winners. So strong tribes began to gradually form uluses from subordinate tribes. Noyon Ulus already had a significant military force.

The military character of the organization of Mongolian society was fixed by the laws of Genghis Khan, who subjugated all other uluses and united the Mongols. In particular, he introduced administrative units of division corresponding to the military - "tens", "hundreds", "thousands" and "tumens". This correspondence was not accidental: each administrative unit had to put up a certain military unit and provide for its needs during the campaign. However, these needs were kept to a minimum for the sake of speed of movement, which would be hindered by significant convoys.

2. What allowed the Mongols to conquer vast territories in China? Why was their power over this country short-lived?

China was weak because it was divided. A war was in full swing between the traditional Chinese Song dynasty and the Manchurian tribes of the Jurchens who invaded China and created their own state led by the Jin dynasty. Also, smaller states existed on the territory of China, for example, the Tangut kingdom in the northwest. At the same time, all sides were weakened by frequent uprisings of ruined landless peasants.

These reasons helped the Mongols conquer China. But when all the patriotic forces consolidated against the invaders, they managed to throw off the foreign yoke relatively quickly thanks to their numbers and technical achievements.

3. List the reasons for the crisis of the Mongol Empire.

In the process of the growth of the Mongol empire, the control of the central government over the uluses turned out to be fragile, the absence of a bureaucratic apparatus affected;

Part of the uluses converted to Islam, and religious contradictions with the central government supplemented political ones;

The tribal aristocracy gained too much power: successful commanders from among them became actual rulers in some uluses, while the descendants of Genghis Khan, remaining in power only formally, became their puppets, or even lost power;

Parts of the subject lands, such as China, managed to overthrow the power of the Mongols.

4. Tell us about the initial stage of the formation of the Ottoman Empire.

In the XI century. Turkic tribes began to arrive in the Arab Caliphate, having passed along the steppes approximately the same way as all the peoples of the Great Migration. At first they served the Arabs as mercenaries, but soon began to rebel against them and create their own states, only formally dependent on the supreme Arab rulers, by that time already greatly weakened. It was the onslaught of the Turkic tribes that created the Seljuk Sultanate that pushed the Byzantine borders in Asia Minor far to the west and forced them to ask for help from the Pope, which led to the era of the Crusades. When the Arab Caliphate was destroyed by the Mongol invasion in the 1250s, the Turks were completely independent. But the Seljuk Sultanate was not strong, but broke up into many small principalities.

Among such small Turkic principalities in Asia Minor, one stood out, which, thanks to a series of reasonable rulers, starting with Osman I (1281-1326), was able to unite the rest of the principalities of Asia Minor under his rule. This new state is called Ottoman after the founder of the dynasty that ruled there until the beginning of the 20th century. In the XIV century. Ottoman rulers received from the Byzantine emperors a small barren peninsula of Gallipoli and used it as a springboard for further advance to the European mainland. By the end of the XIV century. The Ottoman state captured Bulgaria and most of Serbia, Byzantium (that is, by that time only Constantinople with its environs) was actually in the Ottoman ring. It is characteristic that the Ottoman conquerors used any strife and contradictions between their enemies to expand their territory. At the same time, their opponents used their own dynastic feuds and serious defeats of the Ottoman dynasty only as a respite: even a terrible defeat from Timur did not lead to the activation of the opponents of the Turks. By the middle of the XV century. The Ottoman Empire included all of Asia Minor along with Constantinople (which was renamed Istanbul), the entire Balkan Peninsula and other territories, the Crimean Khanate recognized itself as a vassal of the Ottomans.

5. What were the features of the development of India during the period of the Arab conquests and the Mongol invasion?

Peculiarities:

Due to climatic conditions, India was at that time one of the most densely populated territories on Earth;

India was a source of spices and incense for many other parts of the world, due to which she grew rich;

India was a territory inhabited by many peoples who spoke different languages ​​and professed different religions;

Representatives of the original Indian princely dynasties were not able to create large states;

Foreign invaders periodically created large states (the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughal Empire, etc.), but they did not cover the entire territory of the peninsula, the power of many of them was short-lived (especially the Mongol conquerors).

I want a girl with a golden dish to be able to go from the Yellow Sea to the Black Sea without fear for the dish or for her honor.

Genghis Khan

In the wild steppes of Transbaikalia

Today a carrier, tomorrow a warrior,

And the day after tomorrow, God's spirit,

Mongol really was worthy

And live, and drink, and eat for two.

N. Zabolotsky,
"Moving wagons of the Mongols"

Tribes speaking various dialects of the language, later called Mongolian, appeared in the steppes of Mongolia and Transbaikalia around the 8th century. Beginning in the 10th century, Chinese sources sometimes use the word "mon-gu-li". However, until the thirteenth century this collective name was not widely used. Each Mongol considered himself a member of a particular tribe, not a large people.

The largest and most powerful tribes were Tatars, Taichiuts, Keraits, Naimans and merkits. The Chinese most often dealt with the Tatars, so they called all other Mongols black Tatars, and actually the Tatars - white Tatars. Following the Chinese, the name "Tatars" began to be used by all other peoples, including Europeans.

Most of the Mongols lived in the steppe and were engaged in nomadic pastoralism. But there were also "forest tribes", who lived in the northern part of Mongolia and hunted mainly by hunting and fishing. Over time, however, many "forest tribes" also took up cattle breeding. It was cattle that was the main wealth and measure of value for the Mongols.

The nomads raised horses, as well as large and small cattle. They were active in trade with neighboring tribes, exchanging livestock products for handicrafts and grain. Intermediaries in this trade were Uighur merchants. Before the invention of their own script, the Mongols used the Uighur script.

By the XIII century. most of the Mongols were pagans. They worshiped the "eternal blue sky", the deity of the earth and the spirits of their ancestors. Each clan had its own shaman. However, back in the 11th century. the Keraite nobility accepted Nestorianism(one of the varieties of Christianity). Among the Mongols there were also Buddhists and Muslims. In general, the Mongols have always been distinguished by amazing religious tolerance.

It is interesting: in the Middle Ages in Europe there was a legend that somewhere far to the east there was a powerful Christian kingdom of “prester John”, created by Nestorian heretics who had fled from Byzantium. The presence of Nestorians among the Mongols made many Europeans mistake them for the subjects of "Prester John".

The envoy of the Pope Plano Carpini, who visited Mongolia in the middle of the 13th century, described this people as follows: “The Tatars were small in stature, broad-shouldered, shaved bald, with broad high cheekbones, they ate various meats and thin millet porridge. Koumiss (horse milk) was a favorite drink. The men of the Tatars looked after the cattle, were excellent shooters and riders. The household was in the hands of the women. The Tatars had polygamy, each had as many wives as he could support. They lived in wagons-yurts, which were easily dismantled.

The Mongols usually roamed the whole family. During the camp, the nomads put their yurts in a ring around the leader's yurt. This camp was called smoking. Over time, the genera lost their unity and broke up into many separate ailov(i.e. large families).

At the head of each tribe was khan. Below him were noyons(noble leaders of the clans). Each noyon (not to mention the khan) had his own detachment of warriors - nukers.

Mongol: Genghis Khan's War. A camp of still friendly Keraites.

It is interesting:"Nuker" in Mongolian means "friend". Thus, the military servants of the rulers of the Mongols were called the same as the Russians (“team”).

Formally, pastures belonged to the whole family. But by the thirteenth century their actual owners were khans and noyons. They also owned most of the livestock. Almost all ordinary Mongols ( haracha- mob) gradually turned into dependent shepherds- arats, to whom the nobility gave out part of their livestock for use. Sometimes a noyon gave several arat families to one of his nukers as a reward for faithful service. This reward was called hubby.

The noble Mongols had slaves, into which all prisoners of war turned. Slaves could be domestic servants or shepherds, but slaves who knew a trade were most valued. Indeed, among the Mongols there were almost no skilled artisans.

War played an important role in the life of the Mongols. It was conducted for the sake of robbery and the capture of slaves. Moreover, initially the wars were fought mainly between various Mongolian tribes: the neighboring peoples were still too tough for the divided Mongols. But soon the situation changed.

Unification of Mongolia

Let your nickname be Genghis. You have become the King of kings. The Almighty Lord commanded that your name be: Genghis Khan, King of Kings, Sovereign of Sovereigns.

Shaman Kaekchu

In the XI and XII centuries. in the Mongolian steppes there was a humid climate that favored nomadic pastoralism. The number of herds and herds was constantly growing, and after them the Mongols also multiplied. However, by the beginning of the 13th century, the climate became more arid. The steppe could no longer feed all its inhabitants.

Sid Meier's Civilization III. Here he is, Temujin, the father of all Mongols.

A direct consequence of climate change was the bloody feuds between the Mongolian tribes. Naimans, Keraites, Tatars and others, not finding sufficient food on their own pastures, went to war against their neighbors. According to one Arab historian, at the beginning of the XIII century. the Mongol khans "most of the time ... fought with each other, were at enmity, bickered and competed, robbed each other." As a result of internecine wars, the defeated tribes became dependent on their winners. Soon several large tribal unions arose in Mongolia, or uluses. Separate uluses were already strong enough to raid China and other neighboring peoples. Before the unification of all the Mongols under the rule of one khan, there was only one step left to take.

This step was destined to be taken Temuchin.

Temujin was not a khan by birth. His father Yesugei-bagatur was a noble noyon from the Taichiut tribe. He led his genealogy as far back as 254. Yesugei was a good commander. He even managed to put together his own ulus. In 1164, when Temuchin was only 9 years old, Yesugei was poisoned by the Tatars, and his ulus fell apart. Dispersed to other noyons and his once faithful nukers. Khan Taichiut Targultai took all the cattle. The Yesugei family (his two widows and children), abandoned by everyone and deprived of their livelihood, wandered around Mongolia for several years. Temujin himself even spent some time as a slave to Targultai.

It is interesting: Yesugei-bagatur named his son Temuchin in honor of one of the Tatar leaders, whom he killed shortly before the birth of the boy.

Finally Temuchin was lucky. His patron was Togoril, a powerful head of the Kerait tribe and an old friend of Yesugei. Relying on the support of Togoril, Temuchin gathered a strong detachment of nukers and with his help began to create his own ulus.

Having accumulated enough strength, Temuchin, together with Togoril and his named brother, the leader of the Jajirat tribe Jamugoy defeated the Merkits and their Taichiut allies. Soon, Jamugi's brother was killed by Temujin's people while trying to steal a herd. After that, the named brothers quarreled and became mortal enemies.

In 1197, Temuchin and Togoril, acting with the support of Chinese troops, attacked the Tatars and inflicted a severe defeat on them. For this "operation" Temujin received from the Chinese emperor the title jauthuri, and Togoril is the title van. Since that time, Togoril began to be called Wang Khan.

In 1201, the Tatars, Merkits, Taichiuts and some other tribes united against Temujin. Jamuga stood at the head of this coalition. The struggle between Temuchin and Jamuga dragged on for several years. There were several major battles, the winner of which was Temujin. Finally, in 1206, Jamuga was captured by five of his arats and handed over to Temuchin. Araty hoped to receive a rich reward from the winner. But instead of a reward, Temujin ordered the execution of the arats together with their families in front of the captive Jamugi, saying: “Is it conceivable to leave alive the arats who raised their hand against their natural khan?” After that, according to legend, Temujin offered Jamuga to forget old grievances and become friends again. However, Jamuga chose to die and asked to have his back broken. Such a death was considered noble among the Mongols, since it did not require bloodshed.

The Tatars, repeatedly beaten by Temuchin, were eventually slaughtered by him without exception. Ironically, for a very long time the Mongols around the world were called exclusively Tatars. The name of this tribe passed to the Crimean and Volga Tatars, although not a single real Tatar, most likely, reached the Crimea and the Volga region.

Genghis Khan.

Borte, beloved wife of Genghis Khan.

When the ulus of Temujin became equal in strength to the ulus of Van Khan, a war broke out between the former comrades-in-arms. Temujin emerged victorious from it. Soon Temuchin managed to defeat the Naiman tribe in battle and kill their leader. Dayan Khan. Dayan Khan's successor Kuchluk together with part of the Naimans, he fled to the Kara-Kitay Khanate, located southwest of Lake Balkhash.

Finally, in 1206, the kurultai(congress of the Mongolian nobility), proclaiming Temuchin the great khan of all the Mongols and giving him the name Genghis Khan. Then the great khan began to be called kagan. Khagan is the highest title, roughly equivalent to a European emperor. Before Genghis Khan, the Mongols used this name only for Chinese rulers. Under the rule of Genghis Khan were all the Mongol tribes, which only from that moment began to feel and call themselves not Keraites or Naimans, but Mongols.

Attention is a myth: in some books you can find one or another unambiguous interpretation of the name Genghis Khan. Somewhere he is translated as "ocean-khan", somewhere - as "true ruler". In fact, the meaning of this name has not yet been precisely established.

The long-awaited peace reigned in the Mongolian steppe. However, the new lord of the Mongols was faced with the old question: what to do with the surplus population, which no longer had enough space on the old pastures? Genghis Khan intended to solve this problem by robbing his neighbors and seizing their lands. Basically, there was no other way.

The beginning of the conquests

We Mongols have discipline,

Killed - and go under the sword yourself.

N. Zabolotsky,
"How Rubruk said goodbye to Mongolia"

The key to successful conquests was to be the highly effective internal organization of the young Mongolian state. Genghis Khan carried out a number of reforms, reflected in Great Yasa. Usually Yasa is called a code of laws, but it was more like a collection of sayings of Genghis Khan, made by him at different times and on different occasions. The idea of ​​such a collection was borrowed from China, where they have always been very popular. The last example is Mao Zedong's quote book. Yasa was created for a long time and finally took shape by the end of Genghis Khan's life.

Banknote in denomination of 1000 Mongolian tugriks with a portrait of Genghis Khan.

In Yasa, loyalty and courage were considered “good”, and cowardice and betrayal were considered “evil”. If a warrior fled from the battlefield or betrayed his khan, he was executed. If the enemy, even being captured, remained faithful to his master, he was spared and accepted into the ranks of the Mongol army.

Genghis Khan divided the entire population of Mongolia into "tens", yaguns(hundreds) mingans(thousands) and tumens(tens of thousands). These were both administrative units of the Mongolian state and units of the Mongolian army. The entire male population of Mongolia served in the army. In one "ten" usually served close relatives, members of the same village. There was a rule according to which, in case of cowardice or betrayal of one warrior, the entire “ten” was executed. Thus, for the sake of their own survival, each ail was forced to raise their children as brave warriors, completely devoted to the khan.

Noyons were at the head of the divisions. Noyon not only commanded a unit on the battlefield, but also received some income from the families whose members served in that unit. Under pain of death, the Mongol was forbidden to move from one “ten” to another, that is, in fact, from one noyon to another. Khan appointed commanders of detachments from among the noyons most devoted to himself, although usually the commander and subordinates were members of the same tribe.

The basis of the Mongol army was the cavalry, divided into light and heavy. Each light cavalry warrior had two horses, a saber, a battle axe, two bows, 20 arrows, a light spear and leather armor. The heavy horseman, in addition to all this, also wielded a heavy spear and sword. Typically, light cavalry fired their bows at the enemy, and then pretended to retreat, luring the enemy into an unexpected blow from heavy cavalry.

Genghis Khan created two special forces. The first of these, the so-called keshik, was a detachment of personal bodyguards of the great khan. Keshiktens were recruited from among the young noyons and enjoyed huge privileges. Their main task was to fight the enemies of the khan among the Mongols themselves. During the time of Genghis Khan, the keshik numbered 150 warriors. In addition, it was created detachment of bagaturs in which the best warriors were recruited. Bagaturs were always in the forefront and were the first to engage in battle with the enemy.

XIII century: glory or death. The light cavalry is the vanguard of the Mongolian army.

Genghis Khan also created intelligence and a well-functioning courier service. After the conquest of Northern China, the Mongols began to actively use siege weapons, serviced by Chinese engineers. As for the Mongol commanders, they were instructed to lead their army from the rear and, unless absolutely necessary, not risk their own lives. After all, after the death of the leader, the army turned into an unorganized crowd and was doomed to defeat. Therefore, the commander was required not personal heroism, but a well-functioning head. At the same time, there is a legend according to which Genghis Khan himself always fought in the forefront of his army, along with the bagaturs. Most likely, it is not true.

Yasa established the following procedure for the division of military booty: 60% of the loot went to the army, 20% - jihangiru(to the leader of the campaign), 20% - to the kagan. Since Genghis Khan usually led all the conquests himself, by the end of his life he possessed two-fifths of all the wealth of Northern China, Central Asia and some other countries. This makes him one of the richest people in world history.

The first victims of the Mongol army, numbering, according to some estimates, about 100 thousand soldiers, were the Buryats, Yakuts and some other peoples of southern Siberia. These conquests were led not by Genghis Khan himself, but by his son Jochi. After the war with the Mongols, the Yakuts went north, to the areas of their current habitat. The capture of Southern Siberia handed over to the Mongols the local iron deposits, necessary to provide a huge army with weapons.

In 1207 the Mongols attacked the Tangut state Western Xia located between China and Mongolia. The Tanguts offered stubborn resistance to the Mongols, which Genghis Khan managed to break only by 1209. The remnants of the Tanguts fought against the Mongols until 1227. In 1209, Genghis Khan managed to subdue the Uighurs. By 1211, the lands of the Kirghiz and Primorye also fell under the rule of the Mongols.

It is interesting: Before the Mongol invasion, Primorye had a fairly advanced civilization that built cities and even developed its own script. The warriors of Genghis Khan wiped it off the face of the earth, leaving no trace. This civilization was discovered by archaeologists only at the end of the 20th century.

Golden Horde. The construction of the mine is in full swing.

After that, it was China's turn. Strictly speaking, at that time there were two Chinese states: northern Jin empire and southern Song empire. These two empires were constantly at war with each other, since the Song Empire was ruled by the Chinese dynasty itself, and the Jin Empire arose as a result of the conquest of Northern China. Jurchens. The Jurchens, who came to China from Manchuria, behaved there like conquerors, and the ethnic Chinese hated them fiercely. Thus, all the forces of the Jin dynasty were focused on the fight against southern China and against their own subjects. This made it easier for Genghis Khan.

In 1211, the Mongol army attacked the Jin empire. The Jin army took up a defensive position at the exit of Badzher Gorge and did not attack the Mongols at the moment when they passed through the gorge and were most vulnerable. Moreover, the Jin commander informed Genghis Khan about the disposition of his troops. As a result, the Mongols won an easy victory, destroying the Chinese army of many thousands. In 1213, the army of Genghis Khan overcame the line of the Great Wall of China, and in 1215 stormed the capital of the Jin Empire Yanjing(modern Beijing). By 1217, the Mongols had conquered all Chinese lands north of the Yellow River and destroyed about 90 cities. The Jin emperor, in whose hands only a relatively small territory remained south of the Huang He, settled in Kaifeng. After that, Genghis Khan suspended the onslaught on Jin and turned his gaze towards Central Asia.

Conquest of Central Asia

In the wilderness of the eastern territories,

Where the wind beat in the face and chest,

Like a primeval crematorium

The Genghis Way was still on fire.

N. Zabolotsky,
"The Road of Genghis Khan"

As mentioned above, after the defeat of the Naimans, their Khan Kuchluk, together with the remnants of his army, fled to Qara Khitai Khanate. In 1208, at the height of the Mongols' war with Western Xia, Kuchluk's troops attacked Genghis Khan's army. After losing the battle on the banks of the Irtysh, Kuchluk calmed down for a while, but by 1218 he again began to pose a serious danger to Genghis Khan. By that time, Kuchluk had already managed to become the Khan of the Karakitays.

XIII century: glory or death.
These brave bagaturs will sweep everyone out of their way.

Deciding to put an end to the Kara-Chinese threat, Genghis Khan ended the war against the Jin. However, his army was so exhausted by the long war that he was able to allocate only two tumens for the campaign against Kuchluk. One of the best Mongol commanders stood at the head of these tumens. Jebe nicknamed "The Arrow".

Jebe's troops were much inferior in numbers to the Karakitay army. But the cunning Mongol managed to turn a significant part of his subjects against Kuchluk. After civil strife began in the Kara-Khitay Khanate, Jebe easily conquered this state. Kuchluk's army was again defeated, and he himself was executed. The sedentary population of the khanate, who professed Islam, went over to the side of the Mongols, since Kuchluk persecuted Muslims, and Jebe allowed them public worship. The city of Balasagun, inhabited by Muslims, surrendered to the Mongols without a fight, for which it received the name Gobalyk from them, that is, "a good city". Having conquered the Karakitays, the Mongols reached the border of a powerful Khorezm.

By the beginning of the XIII century. Khorezm was a strong Muslim state that united Iran and most of Central Asia. Such rich cities as Samarkand and Bukhara were located on its territory. However, the Shah of Khorezm Ala ad-Din Muhammad II had to fight against the strong Kipchak (Polovtsian) aristocracy, which occupied key positions in the government and in the army.

Apparently, Genghis Khan was originally going not to fight with Khorezm, but to conduct mutually beneficial trade with him. He sent a large caravan with goods to Khorezm, but the governor of the border town of Khorezm Otrar ordered to destroy the Mongol merchants, suspecting them of saboteurs. After that, Genghis Khan sent an embassy to the court of the shah himself, demanding an apology and extradition to him of the governor responsible for the murder of the merchants. However, the governor of Otrar was one of the leaders of the Kipchak party, and the shah, fearing to provoke a new uprising, rejected all the demands of Genghis Khan. Moreover, the shah ordered one of the Mongol ambassadors to be beheaded, and the rest to shave off their beards. The Mongol khan could not endure such an insult, and the war became inevitable.

Mongols under the walls of Samarkand.

The invasion of Khorezm, apparently, was the largest military operation of Genghis Khan. According to the sources, the Mongol army that invaded Khorezm in 1219 numbered 20 tumens, that is, about 200 thousand soldiers. Genghis Khan himself was at the head of the army, and his sons and the most capable commanders were at the head of individual tumens. Among the commanders of the tumens, the already mentioned Jebe and Subedey-bagatur. The campaign plan was developed taking into account intelligence data.

The Shah did not trust his troops and did not dare to give the Mongols a battle in the open field. Instead, he dispersed his warriors among the fortified cities. This made their task easier for the Mongols, since it ensured them a constant numerical superiority over the scattered troops of the Shah.

The Mongols took Otrar first. His governor, because of whom, in fact, the war began, was preparing for a stubborn defense. However, one of his commanders went over to the side of the Mongols and opened the gate for them. As you can see, the Mongols, intolerant of betrayal in their own ranks, at the same time willingly used the services of defectors. Most of the inhabitants of Otrar were killed, and Genghis Khan ordered the governor to pour molten silver into his ears.

In 1221, after a five-month siege, the Mongols took the capital of Khorezm Urgench. Bukhara and Khujand were soon taken. Samarkand and several other cities surrendered to the Mongols without a fight, believing in the promises that the inhabitants would be spared their lives.

If the city offered resistance to the Mongols, then its fate was always the same. First, all the townspeople were taken out into the field, after which the city was plundered. Having removed all valuables from the city, the Mongols demolished the city walls, and often destroyed the entire city, leaving a huge ashes in its place. Craftsmen with their families, as well as young women, were driven into slavery, while everyone else, as a rule, was killed. Sometimes the Mongols also spared healthy young men who were not trained in the craft. They were used to service siege engines.

Mongolian army.

Immediate surrender to the mercy of the winner, as a rule, saved the city from complete destruction. However, robberies and massacres occurred in this case as well.

Sometimes the Mongols slaughtered not only the townspeople, but also the inhabitants of the rural areas adjacent to them. Sometimes it was necessary to commit so many murders that there were not enough soldiers, and the slaves who followed the army were attracted to this terrible work. After one such massacre, only the count of the dead lasted as much as 13 days.

Before the arrival of the Mongols, Central Asia was a prosperous agricultural region. The Mongols, on the other hand, killed the farmers, cut down the gardens, trampled the fields and destroyed the irrigation system that had been created for centuries. Huge territories have turned into a barren desert. As for the enslaved artisans, at first they were driven to Mongolia. Later, the Mongols began to create large workshops in the conquered countries themselves, in which local artisans worked.

Ala ad-Din Mohammed fled to Iran and soon died there under unclear circumstances. His son became the new shah Jalal ad-Din. Genghis Khan did not go further than Samarkand, but sent troops to conquer Iran. Jalal ad-Din gathered the remnants of the Khorezmian army and gave the Mongols several battles. However, he was eventually defeated and fled to India. The Mongols tried to pursue him there too, but ran into fierce resistance and retreated. Jelal ad-Din, having settled in India, continued to attack the Mongols until he died in 1231. With his death, the dynasty of the shahs of Khorezm was cut short.

Battle on the Kalka

In the same year, due to our sin, the tongues came unknown, but no one knows them well: who are the essence and where is the izidosh ... And they are called Tatars, and others say taurmeni, and others are pechenesi ... God alone knows who the essence is and where isidosha.

Novgorod Chronicle

Having done away with Khorezm, Genghis Khan, at the head of most of his army, moved back to Mongolia. At the same time, he sent two tumens, led by Jebe and Subedei, to the west to test the ground before a new campaign.

Golden Horde. The Mongolian avant-garde set foot on the Ryazan lands. What lies ahead for them?

Jebe and Subedei rounded the Caspian Sea from the south, devastated Azerbaijan and Armenia and in 1222 they inflicted a decisive defeat Georgia. Moving further north, the Mongols faced a strong coalition, which included Cumans(Kipchaks), Alans(Ossetians), Lezgins and Circassians. Unable to break this coalition in open battle, Jebe again used a technique that had already brought him success during the Kara-Khitay campaign. He presented rich gifts to the Polovtsian khans and swore eternal friendship. The Polovtsy believed and abandoned their allies. Having defeated the Alans, Circassians and Lezgins, the Mongols attacked the Polovtsians. Such perfidy, from the point of view of the Mongols, was completely justified, since it contributed to the victory.

Having fairly beaten the Polovtsy, at the very beginning of 1223 the Mongols invaded the Crimea and stormed the Genoese colony Surozh(Zander). After that, they again attacked the Polovtsians. In the face of imminent defeat, the Polovtsy turned to the Russian princes for help.

Attention is a myth: it is widely believed that the Russians and the Cumans were mortal enemies and fought each other all the time, with the Cumans always attacking first. However, in fact, the Russians and the Polovtsy not only committed against each other mutual raids, but also actively traded with each other. Many princes were friends with the Polovtsian khans and even married their daughters.

In the spring of 1223, several Polovtsian khans came to Kyiv, among whom was Kotyan, father-in-law of the Galician prince Mstislav Mstislavovich Udaly. Mstislav Udaloy was one of the best Russian commanders of that time and enjoyed the well-deserved respect of other princes.

Princes from all over southern Russia gathered in Kyiv to listen to the Polovtsy. Kotyan asked them for help against the Mongols, saying at the same time: "Today the Tatars have captured our land, tomorrow they will take yours." At first, the princes did not want to embark on a dangerous adventure, but Mstislav Udaloy, using his enormous authority, convinced them to help the Polovtsy. The princes decided to meet the Mongols and attack them in the Polovtsian steppes. Mstislav Udaloy and 17 other South Russian princes, along with their squads, set out on the campaign. Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich sent a detachment of the prince to help them Cornflower of Rostov, but this detachment was late for the decisive battle.

Golden Horde. Mongolian scout in the camp of Russian soldiers.

Soon after the Russians connected with the Polovtsy, Mongol ambassadors came to them. According to the Russian chronicles, the ambassadors proposed the following: “We heard that you are going against us, but we did not touch your land - neither cities nor villages. We came, by the will of God, to our serfs and grooms - the Polovtsians. They have done you a lot of harm, for which we beat them. Better take the world with us, and drive them away. As you can see, the old fox Jebe again decided to use his favorite trick, quarreling the allies. But the Russian princes, taught by the bitter Polovtsian experience, did not fall for this deception. Moreover, they executed ambassadors, which was contrary to their own rules.

Having descended down the Dnieper, the Russian-Polovtsian troops, not far from Kherson, stumbled upon the advance detachment of the Mongols and utterly defeated him. After this first victory, the Russians became "dizzy with success." Leaving the banks of the Dnieper, they moved into the depths of the steppe, where on the banks river Kalka encountered the tumens of Jebe and Subedei.

It is very difficult to estimate the number of Russian and Mongolian troops in the ensuing battle. Judging by the fact that Jebe and Subedei initially had only 2 tumens, with which they withstood several battles and did not receive any reinforcements, the Mongols most likely had 15-20 thousand soldiers. As for the Russians, the princely squad usually numbered from 300 to 500 soldiers. Multiplying this number by the number of princes who participated in the campaign, we get 6-9 thousand people. Most likely, the forces of the Mongols and the Russian-Polovtsian coalition were approximately equal.

Differences arose between the Russian princes. Mstislav Kievsky wanted to give the Mongols a defensive battle. The Kievans and part of the Chernigovites began to dig in at a rocky height convenient for defense. All the rest of the princes, together with the Polovtsy, on May 31, 1223, crossed to the left bank and attacked the enemy.

Medieval II: Total War. Mongolian heavy cavalry in the battle of Kalka.

While most of the combatants were still preparing for battle, a detachment was sent forward Daniel Volynsky and Polovtsian Khan Yaruna. The Mongols took this detachment into the ring and defeated it after a fierce battle, and the Polovtsians were the first to flinch. Following that, the Mongols attacked the main forces of the Russians. This attack was completely unexpected for the Russians - most of the combatants did not even have time to put on their armor. As a result, the battle turned into a massacre. The surviving warriors, led by Mstislav Udaly and Daniil Volynsky, fled from the battlefield and galloped without stopping to the very Dnieper, pursued by the Mongols. Mstislav and Daniil eventually managed to escape, and here are six more princes, including Mstislav of Chernigov died at the hands of the Mongols.

Meanwhile, the Mongols besieged the fortified camp of Kiev. On the third day of the siege, the Mongols offered Mstislav of Kiev to surrender on the condition that he and all his people would be returned home for a ransom. Mstislav believed the Mongols, but they, of course, deceived him. All the surrendered warriors were killed, and Mstislav and two other princes were laid on the ground, laying boards on top of them. On these boards, the Mongol military leaders arranged a feast on the occasion of the victory. The princes lying under the boards died a painful death.

Attention is a myth: such an unusual way of executing Russian princes is often attributed to the cruelty of the Mongols. In fact, Jebe and Subedei thus showed their respect for the defeated opponents. After all, the Russian princes died without losing a drop of blood, which means, according to Mongolian concepts, they died a noble death.

After their victory, the Mongols raided the Dnieper region, and then turned to the Middle Volga region. There, at the mouth of the Kama, they encountered the troops of the Volga Bulgaria and suffered a severe defeat from them. After that Jebe and Subedei turned back home and in 1225 reached Mongolia.

The Novgorod chronicler summed up the tragic events of 1223 in this way: “And there was a cry, and weeping, and sadness in the city and in the village ... The Tatars returned from the Dnieper River; and we will not know where the essence came from and where you sit down again.

Testament of Genghis Khan

In those days the composition of the peoples of the world

Was confused and crumpled

And he was for the commander

Asian invisible to the world.

All this world of living creatures,

People, tribes and entire countries

I paid taxes and tributes,

As Genghis Khan intended.

N. Zabolotsky,
"What did Karakorum live for"

Returning to Mongolia, Genghis Khan discovered that the Tanguts, defeated back in 1209, again raised their heads, revived their state and concluded an alliance with the Jin Empire against the Mongols. In 1226, Genghis Khan led a campaign against the Tanguts and in 1227 forced them to surrender, capturing all their cities, defeating all their armies and killing all members of the ruling family.

At the very end of the campaign against the Tanguts, on August 18, 1227, Genghis Khan died unexpectedly. The cause of his death is still unknown. According to one version, the great conqueror died by falling from a horse, according to another, he died of pneumonia, and according to a third, he was killed by a captured Tangut princess.

Golden Horde. This archer in front of the tent is Batu Khan in person.

The place where Genghis Khan was buried has not yet been discovered. He was buried in deep secrecy, and no sign was left on his grave. So demanded the customs of his native tribe, the Taichiut. It is assumed, however, that the Great Khan was interred near the Onon River, that is, in those places where he was born and where he was proclaimed the ruler of all the Mongols.

In less than 20 years, the Mongols managed to create a huge empire, which included many countries and peoples. The territory conquered by the Mongols was so great that they had to keep power in the hands of many defeated rulers. These rulers continued to rule over their peoples, but were required to pay tribute to the Mongols and sometimes to field auxiliary armed detachments. In addition, each new ruler was obliged to confirm his rights to power, receiving from the hands of the Mongol khan a special label.

Shortly before his death, Genghis Khan divided his possessions into four uluses, headed by his sons. Jochi, Ogedei, Tolui and Chagatai. Since Jochi died a few months before his father, his ulus, located in the west of the Mongol Empire, was divided between the two grandsons of Genghis Khan. These grandchildren were named Batu(Russians called him Batu) and Horde.

Dying, Genghis Khan bequeathed to his descendants to continue their campaigns of conquest and reach "last sea", or "Sea of ​​the Franks"(that is, the Atlantic Ocean).

In 1229, after two years of mourning for Genghis Khan, the Mongolian nobility gathered for a kurultai in the Mongolian capital Karakorum to choose a new great khan. According to Mongolian customs, Genghis Khan was to be succeeded by his youngest son Tolui. However, the kurultai chose Ugedei as the new great khan, since this was the dying will of Genghis Khan himself.

In 1231, the Mongols resumed their war against the Jin Empire. This time they acted in concert with the Song Empire. In 1234, the combined Mongol-Chinese troops took the capital of the Jurchen emperor, the city of Kaifeng. The Jin Empire ceased to exist. In 1231 the Mongols attacked for the first time Korea.

In 1232, the troops of Batu Khan, who by that time had become the sole ruler of the Jochi ulus, together with a large detachment of Subedei who had come from Mongolia, tried to conquer Volga Bulgaria. However, the Bulgars again repulsed the onslaught of the Mongols, and for Subedei this was the second defeat in a row from the Volga Bulgars.

Khan Ogedei.

It is interesting: Turkic-speaking Bulgarians at one time wandered in the northern Black Sea region. In the 7th century this people split into several groups. One of them went to the Danube and, having conquered the Slavs there, founded the Danube Bulgaria, which still exists. Another group migrated to the confluence of the Volga and Kama, establishing a powerful state there, known as the Volga Bulgaria. The largest cities of the Volga Bulgars were Bolgar and Bilyar. They also founded Kazan and Yelabuga, which at that time were small border fortresses. Kazan Tatars and Chuvashs are the descendants of the Volga Bulgars.

The Mongols realized that they could not conquer Europe with the forces of one Jochi ulus. At the kurultai of 1235, it was decided to send forces from other uluses to help Batu. In 1236, under the command of Batu, there was a large army, the exact number of which is unknown. The total number of Mongolian troops at that time did not exceed 150 thousand people, and a significant part of them were located in China. The forces of the Jochi ulus proper numbered about 40 thousand soldiers. Thus, the invasion forces in Europe totaled no less than 50 and no more than 120 thousand people.

In the autumn of 1236, the Mongols invaded Volga Bulgaria for the third time and finally defeated it. Finally, the resistance of the Bulgars was broken only by 1240. Part of the Bulgars fled to the Russian lands. The Mongols were joined by military detachments Mordovians, which before that paid tribute to the Russians and Bulgars.

In the autumn of 1237, Batu's troops concentrated in the area of ​​present-day Voronezh. Their goal was North-Eastern Russia.

The death of the Russian land

In those days, by the grace of Batu,

Palms eaten to the bone,

Still smoking ancient Kyiv

At the feet of uninvited guests.

There are no more marvelous songs,

Yaroslav lay in the tomb,

And the maidens in hryvnias fell silent,

Danced the last dance.

N. Zabolotsky,
"The Beginning of the Journey"

In December 1237, the Mongols invaded the territory of the Ryazan principality. Batu sent an embassy to the Ryazan princes, demanding from them a tenth of all their property. Subsequent events clearly show that the Russians had no idea about the true strength of the Mongols and were not at all afraid of them.

First, the Ryazan princes rejected Batu's ultimatum. Secondly, when the people of Ryazan asked the Prince of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich for help, he refused to support them, but decided "Individual scolding", that is, to defeat the Mongols, relying only on their own strength. Thirdly, the Ryazan princes, even without the support of the Vladimir people, decided to give the Mongols a battle in the open field!

One can only be surprised at such fearlessness, because, according to modern estimates, the Ryazan principality could put up no more than 7 thousand trained soldiers, and Vladimir - no more than 25 thousand.

According to the Russian chronicles, in the first clash between the Russians and the Mongols, the Ryazan warriors fought with extraordinary daring. For example, one of the princes cut through the entire Mongol army several times.

But, despite all the heroism of the Russian soldiers, they all died, and on December 21, after a six-day siege, fell Ryazan. As punishment for the fierce resistance, the city was razed to the ground, and most of its inhabitants died. The few surviving Ryazanians went to the small town of Pereyaslavl-Ryazansky, which soon became known as Ryazan. Ryazan in the old place was never rebuilt.

After the fall of Ryazan, two detachments of Ryazan warriors survived. One of them, under the command of the boyar Evpatiy Kolovrat, began to partisan in the dense Ryazan forests, attacking small detachments of the Mongols. According to legend, Batu managed to destroy this detachment only by surrounding him and using throwing weapons. Another Ryazan detachment retreated to Kolomna, where he connected with the Vladimir border guards and gave the Mongols a new battle. Near Kolomna, the Russians again fought with a twinkle. They even managed to kill one of the commanders- Genghisides, and this happened very rarely.

Medieval II: Total War. Mongolian throwing guns do not shoot very accurately and often, but they are very far and scary.

At the end of January, the Mongols destroyed Moscow, and on February 4, 1238, they besieged Vladimir. Yuri Vsevolodovich had left his capital shortly before with a small retinue, leaving a strong garrison and his entire family in it. Vladimir had excellent fortifications, but they could not resist the Mongol siege weapons. On February 7, the Mongols broke into the city and killed all its defenders and civilians. In the same month, Batu's troops burned 15 more Russian cities, including Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl and Tver.

Meanwhile, Yuri Vsevolodovich did not sit idly by. Lying on the shores River Sit, he began to gather there the squads of all the Vladimir-Suzdal princes. Apparently, the calculation was that the Mongols, exhausted by bloody assaults on well-fortified cities, would not resist the combined forces of the largest of the Russian principalities.

At the end of February, Batu divided his forces. One detachment approached Torzhok and took it after a two-week siege. The second detachment, led by the commander Burundai, attacked the troops of Yuri Vsevolodovich. March 4 on the banks of the City occurred "slashing evil" in which the Russians were utterly defeated. Grand Duke Yuri fell in battle, and Vasilko of Rostov, who at one time did not reach Kalka, was captured and put to death.

After that, the Mongols went to Novgorod, but, not having reached it only a hundred miles, they suddenly turned south. Why the Mongols turned down the opportunity to plunder a rich trading city is still a mystery. Perhaps the Mongols, who suffered heavy losses, were frightened by the powerful Novgorod fortifications. Or maybe they decided that they would not find enough food in the Novgorod land, which always imported grain from the Vladimir principality? Or were they stopped by the spring thaw, which turned the roads into an impenetrable mess? We do not know the answer to this question.

A few years later, the Mongols imposed tribute on Novgorod. Moreover, none other than the prince helped them to do this. Alexander Nevskiy later canonized as a saint. When the Novgorodians killed those who arrived in Novgorod Basques(Mongolian tribute collectors), Alexander Nevsky arrived in the city with his warriors and quickly suppressed the rebellion, executing all the instigators. After that, he helped the Mongols to hold the first in the history of Russia population census necessary for the needs of collecting tribute.

The devastation of Suzdal by the Mongols.

Alexander, who became famous for his victories over the Germans and Swedes, actively cooperated with the Mongols and, having received from them a label for the Grand Duchy of Vladimir, he himself suppressed all anti-Mongolian actions. Apparently, he did not believe that Russia could defeat the Mongols. Later, his policy of cooperation with the conquerors continued Moscow princes who collected tribute for the Mongols from the Russian lands (for a certain percentage) and helped the Mongols in their punitive expeditions. Another position was taken Tver princes who several times led popular uprisings against Mongolian yoke.

But let's get back to the events of 1238. Turning south, the Mongols again marched across the entire north-eastern Russia. This time they divided their forces into many small detachments and moved on a wide front, plundering and destroying what they did not have time to plunder and destroy in the first run. One of these small detachments came across a small town Kozelsk and stood under its walls for seven whole weeks, suffering heavy losses. Only having received reinforcements with siege weapons, the Mongols were able to take this small town. The Mongols gave Kozelsk a nickname "evil city"(remember that "good city" located in the country of the Karakitais). After that, the Mongols returned to the Volga steppes.

In the spring of 1239, the Mongols attacked southern Russia. Pereyaslavl fell in March. After that, Batu took a break, and in the fall he attacked the Chernigov principality. Having defeated the Chernigov squads in a field battle, the Mongols took the capital of the principality on October 18. The Mongols approached the walls Kyiv.

The Mongolian avant-garde did not dare to storm the big city at once and began to wait for the approach of the main forces. Meanwhile, the prince of Kyiv, frightened by the Mongols, abandoned the city to its fate and fled to Hungary. Once upon a time, every Russian prince wanted to rule in Kyiv. Now, no one wanted to take on the defense of the doomed city. Finally, Daniel of Galicia, a participant in the Battle of the Kalka and a powerful ruler of southwestern Russia, became the prince of Kiev. He sent a detachment to Kyiv, headed by the governor Dmitry.

At the end of November, the Mongols laid siege to Kyiv. After a multi-day assault, they broke into the city on December 6. The defenders of Kyiv fought for every quarter, but in the end were forced to retreat to tithe church. The church collapsed, burying the last defenders of Kyiv under its rubble. According to one version, the Mongols destroyed it, according to another, the church could not withstand the huge mass of Kievans who sought refuge on its roof. Voivode Dmitr was captured by the Mongols, but they granted him freedom for his unparalleled courage.

Mongolian soldiers are escorting captured Russian artisans into slavery.

It is interesting: The Church of the Tithes was built by Prince Vladimir the Holy shortly after the baptism of Russia. It was the first stone church in Russia and before the construction of the Hagia Sophia was the main church of Kyiv.

Now on the path of Batu lay Galicia-Volyn principality, one of the strongest in contemporary Russia. The Mongols were able to take the main cities of the principality Galich and Vladimir-Volynsky, but failed to take several fortresses located in the Carpathians. Apparently, Batu, mindful of Kozelsk, did not want to waste time and effort on the siege of these last centers of Russian resistance. Before the Mongols lay Western Europe, and behind it - the "sea of ​​the Franks", the ultimate goal of the campaign.

As for Russia, for many years it became dependent on Golden Horde(so in Russia they called the ulus of Jochi). The Horde khans collected tribute from the Russian lands, pitted the Russian princes against each other, passing the label on the great reign to one or the other. Russia suffered a terrible ruin: out of 74 Russian cities, 49 were destroyed, and 14 were never restored. Russian material and spiritual culture was thrown back for centuries, many crafts disappeared, and ties with Europe almost ceased.

In bloody battles, almost all combatants died. The surviving princes recruited new warriors from among the commoners and treated them not as their vassals, but as serfs. The Mongol invasion turned the Russian princes into despotic autocrats, predetermining the nature of power in Russia for many centuries to come.

Galloping through Europe

In the spring of 1241, the Mongol army, weakened in two Russian campaigns, but still very strong, crossed the Carpathians and invaded Hungary. This country is a huge and, moreover, extremely fertile steppe - an ideal road along which the Mongol cavalry could reach the very center of Europe. Therefore, Batu sent his main forces against the Hungarians, and threw a smaller detachment against Poland.

XIII century: glory or death. Forward to the last sea!

On April 11, 1241, the Mongols defeated the 60,000th army of the Hungarian king Bela IV in the battle for river Chaillot. After that, they took and destroyed the capital of Hungary, the city pest.

Meanwhile, the second detachment crossed the Vistula on the ice and on March 24 took Krakow. After that, the Mongols advanced further west, cutting off Poland from Germany and besieging a powerful fortress Breslau. They were met by the united Polish-German army, led by the prince of Poland and Silesia Henry II the Pious. A few days later, the troops of the Czech ruler were to join her. Wenceslas I.

Having learned from his scouts the exact position of the Czech and German-Polish troops, the Mongol commander Khan Kaidu immediately raised the siege of Breslau and attacked Henry's army. The Mongols approached the enemy under the cover of a dense smoke screen (set fired bundles of reeds were used as smoke bombs) and began to fire at them with bows. European archers also tried to shoot at the Mongols, but they could not see anything because of the smoke.

To seize the initiative, Henry decided to bring into battle his main striking force - the Teutonic and Polish knights. The knights attacked almost blindly, because they also did not see the enemy because of the smoke. However, they managed to overturn the light cavalry of the Mongols.

Battle of Liegnitz.

The Mongols retreated, luring the Poles and Teutons under the blow of heavy cavalry. The heavy cavalry of both sides met in hand-to-hand combat, and the Mongols constantly shouted in Polish “Save yourself!”, Hoping thereby to sow panic in the ranks of the enemy. As a result of a fierce battle, the European knights were overturned, and Henry himself died. In the evening, the Mongols collected 9 bags of cut off enemy ears on the battlefield. This battle went down in history as battle of Liegnitz. After her, Kaidu's troops went to Hungary to join Batu.

The next year, in 1242, the Mongols tried to take Vienna, but failed. Then they turned south, to Croatia, and went to the coast of the Adriatic.

By this time, the Mongol invasion had completely fizzled out. Batu no longer had the strength to throw to the "Sea of ​​the Franks", especially since the German rulers had already managed to gather significant forces by that time. At this time, news came from distant Mongolia about the death of the great Khan Ogedei. Batu was supposed to participate in the kurultai that was gathering on this occasion. Under this pretext, the Mongols turned east and went to the steppes, ruining Serbia, Bosnia and Bulgaria along the way.

Thanks to the stubborn resistance of the Volga Bulgars, Russians, as well as Hungarians, Poles and Germans, most of Europe escaped the Mongol invasion.

Completion of conquests

In the land of Xanad blessed

The palace was built by Kubla Khan,

Where Alf runs, sacred stream,

Through the darkness of gigantic, foamy caves,

Falls into a dreamy ocean.

S. T. Coleridge,
"Kubla Khan, or Dream Vision"

Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan Empire.

After the death of Ogedei, a long struggle for power began between the descendants of Genghis Khan. Finally, in 1251, mongke, son of Tolui and grandson of Genghis Khan. He continued his conquests both in the west and in the east.

In 1256, troops led by brother Möngke Hulagu completed the conquest of Iran and invaded Mesopotamia. In 1258 they took Baghdad and destroyed Abbasid Caliphate. After that, Hulagu invaded Syria and began to prepare for the conquest of Egypt. But in 1260 the Egyptian sultan defeated the Mongols and drove them to the east.

At the same time, at the other end of Eurasia, another brother Mongke Khubilai(in Europe he was called Kubla Khan) conquered State Dali and Tibet. By this time, the Mongol empire had reached its greatest extent. As already mentioned, it was divided into several uluses. The ulus of the kagan included Mongolia, Manchuria and Northern China. Altai with the adjacent regions was ruled by the descendants of Ogedei. The ulus of Chagatai included the eastern part of Central Asia. Finally, the ulus of Jochi (Golden Horde) belonged to the Volga region, the North Caucasus, Crimea, part of Central Asia and Western Siberia. On the lands conquered by Hulagu, a new ulus was created, ruled by his descendants.

In 1259 Möngke died. Kurultai elected the youngest son of Tolui as the new kagan Arigbugu. But Khubilai did not obey the decision of the kurultai and also proclaimed himself a kagan. A civil war broke out, in which Kublai won the victory. But while the two kagans were fighting for power over the empire, the uluses of Jochi and Khulagu separated from it. The unified Mongol empire ceased to exist.

But the Mongol conquests were not over yet. In 1267, Khubilai launched a war against the Song Empire. In 1271 he moved his capital from Karakorum to Yanjing. Taking advantage of the civil strife that torn apart southern China, Khubilai already by 1279 had conquered the Song empire and united all of China under his rule. Korea also fell under his rule.

Khubilai proclaimed himself emperor of China and founded a new imperial Yuan dynasty, which ruled China until 1368. Very soon, the same thing happened to the Mongol rulers of China as to other conquerors of the Celestial Empire, both before them and after them. They adopted Chinese culture and in many ways became more like the Chinese than the Mongols. True, the Yuan emperors did not become completely Chinese either, apparently because of the too short period of their rule in China.

Fight between the Japanese and the Mongols.

Mongolian fleet.

In 1281, Khubilai decided to conquer Japan and sent a powerful fleet to its shores. According to legend, the Mongol fleet consisted of 1,000 ships, and each ship had a hundred warriors. The Japanese began to hastily prepare for defense, but their chances against Kublai's army were small. Suddenly, a terrible typhoon began, destroying most of the Mongol fleet. A small part of the Mongol army nevertheless reached the shores of Japan, but was easily destroyed samurai. This typhoon that saved Japan from the Mongols was named by the Japanese "kamikaze" what does it mean in Japanese "divine wind".

After that, Khubilai organized several campaigns against Burmese and Vietnam and also to the island Java. In these campaigns, the Mongols made extensive use of Chinese soldiers and ships. But the Yuan empire failed to gain a foothold in Indochina. The Burmese campaign of 1300 is traditionally considered the end of the Mongol conquests.

Mongols in video games

Mongols are found in a variety of strategies. For example, they are in all games from the series Sid Meier's Civilization. AT Civilization II the Mongol conquests are even dedicated to a separate scenario called "The Great Horde". In the third Civilization the Mongols are militarists prone to expansion. They start the game with pottery, the warrior code, and a free scout. Their unique squad keshikten(Keshik horse archer) crafted in place of the normal knight. Keshikten is somewhat inferior to the knight in terms of its combat performance, but it is cheaper and, most importantly, does not require iron for its creation.

You can play as Mongols in Age of Empires II, and not only on single maps. In this game, a separate campaign is dedicated to the Mongol conquests.

In Game "XIII century: glory or death" there is also a campaign for the Mongols. It consists of five separate, unrelated battles: Chaio, Legnica, City, Kalki and clashes with the Hungarians on one of the Carpathian passes. All battles are recreated quite accurately.

Mongol: Genghis Khan's War. Mixed in a bunch of horses, people ...

Medieval II: Total War. A small Mongol detachment put to flight a whole crowd of Russians.

AT Medieval II: Total War You can only lead the Mongol army in separate battles, for example, on Kalka. In the campaign, the Mongols are not available. Like a natural disaster, at a certain moment they appear on the edge of the map and begin to cause the player a lot of all kinds of trouble.

In the recent Russian real-time strategy "Golden Horde" Mongols are one of three playable races. Accordingly, a separate campaign is dedicated to them. The main difference between the Mongols and the Russians and the Crusaders is their high mobility. This is also their main advantage. The Mongols can transport all their buildings from place to place, and their city can move from one source of raw materials to another, which reduces the scattering of forces around the map and makes life much easier for the player. Mongol warriors receive significant bonuses if they fight on horseback. In addition, the Mongols can train warriors from peasants, and not from militias, like other peoples. It cannot be said that the events in the campaign are fully consistent with the historical ones. But they are close to them. There are, however, gross blunders. For example, Mongolian hero commanders, including Batu Khan, Burundai, Jebe and Subedei, can only "pump" and get a high level by participating in hand-to-hand combat and exterminating enemies in droves. Everything would be fine, but only self-respecting Mongol commanders, especially the Chingizid khans, did not participate in the battles themselves. Their prowess was not in the ability to swing a saber, but in the ability to give correct and timely commands.

A game "Mongol: Genghis Khan's War" based on the film "Mongol" and dedicated to the unification of Mongolia and the first conquest campaigns of Genghis Khan. Accordingly, there are campaigns for the Mongols and for the Jin Empire. The creators of the game tried to cram all the battles of Genghis Khan into the campaign. So, the player will have to follow the great commander to subjugate all the Mongol tribes in turn. However, the missions are extremely monotonous. All battles end with a banal “wall to wall” collision, and in the turmoil of the battle it is absolutely impossible to make out where are your friends and where are strangers. There are many types of units in the game, but the difference between them is described, in fact, by one parameter. Military units have only three commands: move, attack, and hold position. No patrols, combat formations and other frills for you.

In general, most of the games about the Mongols are made very well, and the historical inaccuracies encountered in them almost do not spoil the pleasure of the gameplay.

Why did the Tatar-Mongols, having conquered the vast expanses of Eurasia (from China to Russia), suddenly stop their campaign “to the last sea” and spare Western Europe? One of the most important mysteries of world history has not yet been unequivocally explained. Recently, scientists, relying on chronicle sources and the "archives" of nature itself (tree rings), recreated the microclimate of Eastern Europe and pointed to the decisive role of natural factors in the Mongolian strategy. The cold and rainy spring of 1242, the swamping of the Middle Danube Plain, coupled with the plunder of the region, made it difficult to supply the army, and as a result, the Mongols chose not to risk returning to the southern Russian steppes.

The task of conquering the Polovtsy and reaching Kyiv was set by Genghis Khan (in 1221), but the Mongols began to implement these plans only under his son Ugedei after the kurultai (congress of khans) in 1235. An army under the command of Batu (Batu), the grandson of Genghis Khan, and an experienced commander Subedei, numbering about 70 thousand people, moved to the west. The details of the campaign against northeastern and southern Russia are well known to everyone from school. After the burning of Kyiv, Batu captured the cities of southern and western Russia, up to Galich and Przemysl, where he settled down for the winter of 1240/1241.

The next goal of the Mongols is obvious - Hungary, located on the Middle Danube Plain, the extreme western part of the great belt of the Eurasian steppes. In addition, it was there, to King Bela IV, that the defeated Cumans, old enemies of the Tatar-Mongols, migrated. But the army was divided: the 30,000th army victoriously passed the Polish lands, defeating the Polish-German army in the battle of Legnica (April 9). However, the Mongols did not move against Germany, turned south and ended up in Hungary through Moravia, where the main forces of the nomads had invaded even earlier.

Batu's corps moved through the Veretsky Pass in the Carpathians, Kadan's corps - through Moldavia and Transylvania, Buchek's detachment - through the southern route, through Wallachia. Such a formation was planned by Subedey to force the Hungarians to split their forces and break them piece by piece. The main forces of Subedei moved more slowly, acting as a reserve. After the capture of many cities and complex maneuvers on April 11, the Mongols utterly defeated the Hungarian-Croatian army on the river. Chaillot and began the administrative restructuring of the conquered part of Hungary.

After resting for several months, in the winter of 1242, Batu's army crossed the frozen Danube and began besieging cities, while Kadan's corps set out to ravage Croatia, where the Hungarian king had hidden. However, the Dalmatian fortress of Klis did not submit to the Mongols. In the spring of 1242, for a still unknown reason, Baty and Subedey turned back and returned to the southern Russian steppes through Bosnia, Serbia and Bulgaria.

RETRACT MYSTERY

What made the Mongols stop their victorious invasion deep into Europe and even leave conquered Hungary, where they had already appointed Baskaks (tribute collectors) and minted coins? Most often, Batu's retreat is explained by the sudden death of Khan Ogedei in December 1241 - Genghisid wanted to arrive at the kurultai in Mongolia as soon as possible in order to participate in the election of the great khan. However, this hypothesis is opposed by the fact that Batu never reached the kurultai, but remained on the territory of his ulus (the future Golden Horde).

There is an opinion that the Tatar-Mongols were not going to conquer Europe, but only wanted to punish their Polovtsian enemies, already defeated at the river. Kalka. The Kypchaks were sheltered by the Hungarian king, who ignored the demands of the Mongols to extradite them. This version is supported by Batu's purposeful hunt for Bela IV, for the pursuit of which in the winter of 1242 a whole corps was allocated. However, this version does not explain why the Mongols began to include Hungary in their state and why they then abandoned this project.

The explanations of a military nature are more substantiated: the difficulty of taking fortresses in the transdanubian part of Hungary, large losses in manpower and the poverty of the Pannonian plain, which is not able to feed the troops, forced the Mongols to turn back. However, all this did not stop the Avars and the Hungarians three or four centuries ago.

DIRT, SLUD AND HARVEST

The authors of the new study rightly point out that all these explanations are too general. To understand the logic of Batu and Subedei, one must at least have a clear idea of ​​the geography, climate and weather of 1240-1242. in the theater of war. The Mongol military leaders followed the natural conditions very closely (this is known from the letter of Khan Hulagu to the French king) - and scientists admit that rapid climatic shifts influenced both the successful conquest of Hungary and the decision to leave it a year later.

So, in the spring and autumn of 1241, the Mongols quickly moved across the Hungarian lands, capturing one fortress after another. No one offered organized resistance to the invaders, and they freely robbed, killed and captured the local population. The summer was early (the chronicler mentions the heat during the Battle of the Chaillot River - April 11) and warm. The chronicle says that the Mongols did not burn cereals in the fields, took care of fruit trees and did not kill peasants who were harvesting. That is, they did not turn agricultural land into pastures because their horses did not lack food.

But the cold and snowy winter of 1242 came early. First, she helped the Mongols: the Danube froze, the nomads crossed the river and began to besiege the fortresses of Bela IV (usually the Mongols did not start campaigns in winter). But luck turned away from them: because of the early thaw, they could not take Szekesfehervar. “The snow and ice melted, and the swampy area around the city became impregnable,” writes the Hungarian chronicler. Due to the same impassable mud, the Kadan corps sent to Dalmatia was forced to retreat from the city of Trogir.

Soil scientists know that the lowlands of Hungary are very easily flooded. If the winter is snowy and the spring is rainy, then the vast plains quickly turn into a swamp. By the way, the Hungarian steppes “dried up” only in the 19th century. thanks to the drainage projects of the Habsburgs, until then, the spring floods of numerous rivers formed many kilometers of swamps. Swamp and mud nullified the effectiveness of siege weapons and reduced the mobility of the cavalry.

The cold rainy spring, the late appearance of grass and the swamping of the plains sharply reduced the area of ​​pastures - the Mongolian horses, already weakened by the hard winter, did not have enough food. The Mongols realized that there was no need to wait for a big harvest in 1242. And so it happened: in the autumn a terrible famine broke out in Hungary.

So the decision of the Mongols to retreat looks quite reasonable. Weather conditions also influenced the choice of the route for returning to the southern Russian steppes - through Serbia and Bulgaria. Batu's army preferred the drier and higher mountain areas along the foothills of the Carpathians to the swampy plains.

HISTORY DRIVEN CLIMATE ANOMALIES?

When recreating the "weather history" of the western campaign, the authors of the article did not limit themselves to random facts from medieval chronicles. Tree ring data from northern Scandinavia, the Central Eastern Alps, the Romanian Carpathians, and the Russian Altai helped determine European summer temperatures from 1230-1250. Judging by the mountains closest to Hungary, in 1238-1241. the summer was long and hot - this, in particular, could attract the Mongols there. However, 1242-1244. have colder summers. Moreover, in 1242 Bohemia, southern Poland, western Slovakia, northwestern Hungary and eastern Austria - and only there, in the conflict zone - received anomalous rainfall.

Scientists emphasize that the influence of climate on history is not total and static, but random and dynamic. Thus, a fleeting anomaly in 1242 (a cold spring plus a lot of precipitation) played a serious enough role for the Mongols, who were always distinguished by the flexibility of their goals and objectives, to decide not to go ahead, but to retreat, saving people and horses. Likewise, the typhoons (“kamikaze”, divine wind), generated by strong El Niño, twice swept the Mongolian fleet off the coast of Japan, saved this country from conquest at the end of the 13th century.

One way or another, the Tatar-Mongols limited themselves to the South Russian steppes in the West. Scientists carefully note: it is not yet possible to finally establish whether the nomads retreated due to political factors (the death of Ogedei) or, having decided that the Hungarian lands, too vulnerable to weather fluctuations, are not suitable for them as a springboard (and rear base), is still impossible. It is worth studying the environment of the 13th century more carefully: for example, excavate the fortresses besieged by the Mongols (and the mud near their walls), deal with the state of the rivers and swamps of the Pannonian Plain and other regions of Eurasia that the Mongols (including Russia) walked through.

In the 13th century, the Mongols built an empire with the largest contiguous territory in human history. It stretched from Russia to Southeast Asia and from Korea to the Middle East. Hordes of nomads destroyed hundreds of cities, destroyed dozens of states. The very name of the founder of the Mongolian became a symbol of the whole Medieval era.

Jin

The first Mongol conquests affected China. The Celestial Empire did not immediately submit to the nomads. In the Mongol-Chinese wars, it is customary to distinguish three stages. The first was the invasion of the state of Jin (1211-1234). That campaign was led by Genghis Khan himself. His army numbered one hundred thousand people. The neighboring Uighur and Karluk tribes joined the Mongols.

The city of Fuzhou in northern Jin was captured first. Not far from it, in the spring of 1211, a major battle took place at the Yehulin Ridge. In this battle, a large professional Jin army was annihilated. Having won the first major victory, the Mongol army overcame the Great Wall - an ancient barrier built against the Huns. Once in China, it began to rob Chinese cities. For the winter, the nomads retired to their steppe, but since then returned every spring for new attacks.

Under the blows of the steppes, the Jin state began to fall apart. Ethnic Chinese and Khitans began to rebel against the Jurchens who ruled this country. Many of them supported the Mongols, hoping to achieve independence with their help. These calculations were frivolous. Destroying the states of some peoples, the great Genghis Khan did not at all intend to create states for others. For example, the Eastern Liao, which broke away from the Jin, lasted only twenty years. The Mongols skillfully made temporary allies. Dealing with their opponents with their help, they also got rid of these "friends".

In 1215, the Mongols captured and burned Beijing (then known as Zhongdu). For several more years, the steppes acted according to the tactics of raids. After the death of Genghis Khan, his son Ogedei became the kagan (great khan). He switched to conquest tactics. Under Ogedei, the Mongols finally annexed the Jin to their empire. In 1234, the last ruler of this state, Aizong, committed suicide. The invasion of the Mongols ravaged northern China, but the destruction of the Jin was only the beginning of the triumphal march of the nomads across Eurasia.

Xi Xia

The Tangut state of Xi Xia (Western Xia) was the next country conquered by the Mongols. Genghis Khan conquered this kingdom in 1227. Xi Xia occupied territories west of the Jin. It controlled part of the Great Silk Road, which promised rich booty to the nomads. The steppes besieged and ravaged the Tangut capital Zhongsin. Genghis Khan died while returning home from this campaign. Now his heirs had to finish the work of the founder of the empire.

Southern Song

The first Mongol conquests concerned states created by non-Chinese peoples on Chinese territory. Both Jin and Xi Xia were not the Celestial Empire in the full sense of the word. Ethnic Chinese in the 13th century controlled only the southern half of China, where the Southern Song empire existed. The war with her began in 1235.

For several years, the Mongols attacked China, exhausting the country with incessant raids. In 1238, the Song pledged to pay tribute, after which the punitive raids ceased. A fragile truce was established for 13 years. The history of the Mongol conquests knows more than one such case. Nomads "put up" with one country in order to concentrate on conquering other neighbors.

In 1251, Munke became the new great khan. He initiated a second war with the Song. Kublai Khan's brother was placed at the head of the campaign. The war went on for many years. The Sung court capitulated in 1276, although the struggle of individual groups for Chinese independence continued until 1279. Only after that the Mongol yoke was established over the entire Celestial Empire. As early as 1271, Kublai Khan founded the She ruled China until the middle of the 14th century, when she was overthrown as a result of the Red Turban Rebellion.

Korea and Burma

On its eastern borders, the state created in the course of the Mongol conquests began to coexist with Korea. A military campaign against her began in 1231. A total of six invasions followed. As a result of devastating raids, Korea began to pay tribute to the state of Yuan. The Mongol yoke on the peninsula ended in 1350.

At the opposite end of Asia, the nomads reached the limits of the Pagan kingdom in Burma. The first Mongol campaigns in this country date back to the 1270s. Khubilai repeatedly delayed the decisive campaign against Pagan because of his own setbacks in neighboring Vietnam. In Southeast Asia, the Mongols had to fight not only with the local peoples, but also with an unusual tropical climate. The troops suffered from malaria, which is why they regularly retreated to their native lands. Nevertheless, by 1287, the conquest of Burma was nevertheless achieved.

Invasions of Japan and India

Not all wars of conquest started by the descendants of Genghis Khan ended successfully. Twice (the first attempt was in 1274, the second - in 1281) Habilai tried to launch an invasion of Japan. For this purpose, huge fleets were built in China, which had no analogues in the Middle Ages. The Mongols had no experience in navigation. Their armadas were defeated by Japanese ships. In the second expedition to the island of Kyushu, 100 thousand people took part, but they did not manage to win.

Another country not conquered by the Mongols was India. The descendants of Genghis Khan had heard about the riches of this mysterious land and dreamed of conquering it. North India at that time belonged to the Delhi Sultanate. The Mongols first invaded its territory in 1221. The nomads devastated some provinces (Lahore, Multan, Peshawar), but the matter did not come to conquest. In 1235, they annexed Kashmir to their state. At the end of the 13th century, the Mongols invaded the Punjab and even reached Delhi. Despite the destructiveness of the campaigns, the nomads did not manage to gain a foothold in India.

Karakat Khanate

In 1218, the hordes of the Mongols, who had previously fought only in China, turned their horses to the west for the first time. Central Asia turned out to be on their way. Here, on the territory of modern Kazakhstan, there was the Kara-Kitai Khanate, founded by the Kara-Kitai (ethnically close to the Mongols and Khitans).

This state was ruled by Genghis Khan's longtime rival Kuchluk. Preparing to fight against him, the Mongols attracted to their side some other Turkic peoples of Semirechye. The nomads found support from the Karluk Khan Arslan and the ruler of the city Almalyk Buzar. In addition, they were assisted by settled Muslims, who were allowed by the Mongols to conduct public worship (which Kuchluk did not allow to do).

The campaign against the Kara-Khitay Khanate was led by one of the main temniks of Genghis Khan, Jebe. He conquered the entire East Turkestan and Semirechye. Defeated, Kuchluk fled to the Pamir Mountains. There he was caught and put to death.

Khorezm

The next Mongol conquest, in short, was only the first stage in the conquest of all of Central Asia. Another large state, in addition to the Kara-Khitay Khanate, was the Islamic kingdom of Khorezmshahs inhabited by Iranians and Turks. At the same time, the nobility was in it. In other words, Khorezm was a complex ethnic conglomerate. Conquering it, the Mongols skillfully used the internal contradictions of this great power.

Even Genghis Khan established outwardly good neighborly relations with Khorezm. In 1215 he sent his merchants to this country. Peace with Khorezm was needed by the Mongols to facilitate the conquest of the neighboring Kara-Khitay Khanate. When this state was conquered, it was the turn of its neighbor.

The Mongol conquests were already known to the whole world, and in Khorezm, the imaginary friendship with the nomads was treated with caution. The pretext for breaking off peaceful relations by the steppes was discovered by accident. The governor of the city of Otrar suspected the Mongol merchants of espionage and executed them. After this thoughtless massacre, war became inevitable.

Genghis Khan went on a campaign against Khorezm in 1219. Emphasizing the importance of the expedition, he took all his sons with him on the journey. Ogedei and Chagatai went to besiege Otrar. Jochi led the second army, which moved towards Dzhend and Sygnak. The third army aimed at Khujand. Genghis Khan himself, together with his son Tolui, followed to the richest metropolis of the Middle Ages, Samarkand. All these cities were captured and plundered.

In Samarkand, where 400 thousand people lived, only one in eight survived. Otrar, Dzhend, Sygnak and many other cities of Central Asia were completely destroyed (today only archaeological ruins have survived in their place). By 1223 Khorezm was conquered. The Mongol conquests covered a vast territory from the Caspian Sea to the Indus.

Having conquered Khorezm, the nomads opened for themselves a further road to the west - on the one hand to Russia, and on the other - to the Middle East. When the united Mongol Empire collapsed, the Khulaguid state arose in Central Asia, ruled by the descendants of Genghis Khan's grandson Khulagu. This kingdom lasted until 1335.

Anatolia

After the conquest of Khorezm, the Seljuk Turks became the western neighbors of the Mongols. Their state, the Konya Sultanate, was located on the territory of modern Turkey on the peninsula. This region also had another historical name - Anatolia. In addition to the state of the Seljuks, there were Greek kingdoms - the ruins that arose after the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders and the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1204.

The Mongol temnik Baiju, who was the governor in Iran, took up the conquest of Anatolia. He called on the Seljuk Sultan Kay-Khosrov II to recognize himself as a tributary of the nomads. The humiliating offer was rejected. In 1241, in response to the demarche, Baiju invaded Anatolia and approached Erzurum with an army. After a two-month siege, the city fell. Its walls were destroyed by catapult fire, and many inhabitants died or were robbed.

Kay-Khosrow II, however, was not going to give up. He enlisted the support of the Greek states (Empires of Trebizond and Nicaea), as well as Georgian and Armenian princes. In 1243, the army of the anti-Mongolian coalition met with the interventionists in the mountain gorge of Kese-Dag. The nomads used their favorite tactic. The Mongols, pretending to retreat, made a false maneuver and suddenly counterattacked the opponents. The army of the Seljuks and their allies was defeated. After this victory, the Mongols conquered Anatolia. According to the peace treaty, one half of the Konya Sultanate was annexed to their empire, while the other began to pay tribute.

Near East

In 1256, the grandson of Genghis Khan Hulagu led a campaign in the Middle East. The campaign lasted 4 years. It was one of the largest campaigns of the Mongol army. The Nizari state in Iran was the first to be attacked by the steppes. Hulagu crossed the Amu Darya and captured Muslim cities in Kuhistan.

Having won a victory over the Khizarites, the Mongol khan turned his gaze to Baghdad, where Caliph Al-Mustatim ruled. The last monarch of the Abbasid dynasty did not have sufficient forces to resist the horde, but he self-confidently refused to peacefully submit to foreigners. In 1258 the Mongols laid siege to Baghdad. The invaders used siege weapons and then launched an assault. The city was completely surrounded and deprived of outside support. Baghdad fell two weeks later.

The capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, the pearl of the Islamic world, was completely destroyed. The Mongols did not spare the unique architectural monuments, destroyed the academy, and threw the most valuable books into the Tigris. Plundered Baghdad turned into a heap of smoking ruins. His fall symbolized the end of the medieval Golden Age of Islam.

After the events in Baghdad, the Mongol campaign began in Palestine. In 1260, the battle of Ain Jalut took place. The Egyptian Mamluks defeated the foreigners. The reason for the defeat of the Mongols was that on the eve of Hulagu, having learned about the death of the kagan Mongke, he retreated to the Caucasus. In Palestine, he left the commander Kitbugu with an insignificant army, which was naturally defeated by the Arabs. The Mongols could not advance further deep into the Muslim Middle East. The border of their empire was fixed on the Mesopotamia of the Tigris and Euphrates.

Battle on the Kalka

The first campaign of the Mongols in Europe began when the nomads, pursuing the fleeing ruler of Khorezm, reached the Polovtsian steppes. At the same time, Genghis Khan himself spoke about the need to conquer the Kipchaks. In 1220, an army of nomads came to Transcaucasia, from where it moved to the Old World. They devastated the lands of the Lezgin peoples on the territory of modern Dagestan. Then the Mongols first encountered the Cumans and Alans.

The Kipchaks, realizing the danger of uninvited guests, sent an embassy to the Russian lands, asking the East Slavic specific rulers for help. Mstislav Stary (Grand Duke of Kyiv), Mstislav Udatny (Prince Galitsky), Daniil Romanovich (Prince Volynsky), Mstislav Svyatoslavich (Prince Chernigov) and some other feudal lords responded to the call.

The year was 1223. The princes agreed to stop the Mongols in the Polovtsian steppe even before they could attack Russia. During the gathering of the united squad, the Mongolian embassy arrived to the Rurikovichs. The nomads offered the Russians not to stand up for the Polovtsians. The princes ordered the ambassadors to be killed and advanced into the steppe.

Soon, on the territory of the modern Donetsk region, a tragic battle took place on the Kalka. 1223 was a year of sadness for the entire Russian land. The coalition of princes and Polovtsy suffered a crushing defeat. The superior forces of the Mongols defeated the united squads. The Polovtsy, trembling under the onslaught, fled, leaving the Russian army without support.

At least 8 princes died in the battle, including Mstislav of Kyiv and Mstislav of Chernigov. Together with them, many noble boyars lost their lives. The battle on the Kalka became a black sign. The year 1223 could turn out to be the year of a full-fledged invasion of the Mongols, but after a bloody victory, they decided that it was better to return to their native uluses. For several years in the Russian principalities, nothing more was heard about the new formidable horde.

Volga Bulgaria

Shortly before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire into areas of responsibility, each of which was headed by one of the sons of the conqueror. Ulus went to Jochi. He died prematurely, and in 1235, by the decision of the kurultai, his son Batu set about organizing a campaign in Europe. The grandson of Genghis Khan gathered a gigantic army and went to conquer countries far away for the Mongols.

The Volga Bulgaria became the first victim of the new invasion of nomads. This state on the territory of modern Tatarstan has been waging border wars with the Mongols for several years. However, until now, the steppes have been limited to only small sorties. Now Batu had an army of about 120 thousand people. This colossal army easily captured the main Bulgarian cities: Bulgar, Bilyar, Dzhuketau and Suvar.

Invasion of Russia

Having conquered the Volga Bulgaria and defeated its Polovtsian allies, the aggressors moved further west. Thus began the Mongol conquest of Russia. In December 1237, the nomads ended up on the territory of the Ryazan principality. His capital was taken and mercilessly destroyed. Modern Ryazan was built a few tens of kilometers from Old Ryazan, on the site of which only a medieval settlement still stands.

The advanced army of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality fought the Mongols in the battle of Kolomna. In that battle, one of the sons of Genghis Khan, Kulkhan, died. Soon the horde was attacked by a detachment of the Ryazan hero Yevpaty Kolovrat, who became a real national hero. Despite stubborn resistance, the Mongols defeated every army and took more and more new cities.

At the beginning of 1238, Moscow, Vladimir, Tver, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Torzhok fell. The small town of Kozelsk defended itself for so long that Batu, having razed it to the ground, called the fortress "an evil city." In the battle on the City River, a separate corps, commanded by the temnik Burundai, destroyed the united Russian squad led by Vladimir Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich, who was beheaded.

More than other Russian cities, Novgorod was lucky. Having taken Torzhok, the Horde did not dare to go too far to the cold north and turned south. Thus, the Mongol invasion of Russia happily bypassed the country's key commercial and cultural center. Having migrated to the southern steppes, Batu took a short break. He let the horses feed and regrouped the army. The army was divided into several detachments, solving episodic tasks in the fight against the Polovtsians and Alans.

Already in 1239 the Mongols attacked South Russia. Chernigov fell in October. Glukhov, Putivl, Rylsk were devastated. In 1240 nomads besieged and took Kyiv. Soon the same fate awaited Galich. Having plundered the key Russian cities, Batu made the Rurikovich his tributaries. Thus began the period of the Golden Horde, which lasted until the 15th century. The principality of Vladimir was recognized as the senior destiny. Its rulers received permission labels from the Mongols. This humiliating order was interrupted only with the rise of Moscow.

European hike

The devastating Mongol invasion of Russia was not the last for the European campaign. Continuing their journey to the west, the nomads reached the borders of Hungary and Poland. Some Russian princes (like Mikhail of Chernigov) fled to these kingdoms, asking for help from the Catholic Monarchs.

In 1241, the Mongols took and plundered the Polish cities of Zawikhost, Lublin, Sandomierz. Krakow was the last to fall. Polish feudal lords were able to enlist the help of the Germans and Catholic military orders. The coalition army of these forces was defeated in the battle of Legnica. Prince Heinrich II of Krakow was killed in the battle.

The last country to suffer from the Mongols was Hungary. Having passed the Carpathians and Transylvania, the nomads ravaged Oradea, Temesvar and Bistrica. Another Mongol detachment marched with fire and sword through Wallachia. The third army reached the banks of the Danube and captured the fortress of Arad.

All this time, the Hungarian king Bela IV was in Pest, where he was gathering an army. An army led by Batu himself set off to meet him. In April 1241, two armies clashed in the battle on the Shayno River. Bela IV was defeated. The king fled to neighboring Austria, and the Mongols continued to plunder the Hungarian lands. Batu even made attempts to cross the Danube and attack the Holy Roman Empire, but eventually abandoned this plan.

Moving west, the Mongols invaded Croatia (also part of Hungary) and sacked Zagreb. Their forward detachments reached the shores of the Adriatic Sea. This was the limit of the Mongol expansion. The nomads did not join Central Europe to their power, being satisfied with a long robbery. The borders of the Golden Horde began to pass along the Dniester.