VSEVOLOD SAKHAROV

Russian literature of the 19th (XIX) century

In the 19th century, Russian literature reached unprecedented heights, which is why this period is often called the "golden age"

One of the earliest events was the reissue of the CAP. Following him, 4 volumes of the "Dictionary of the Church Slavonic and Russian Language" were printed. For a century, the world has learned about the most talented prose writers and poets. Their works have taken a worthy place in world culture and influenced the work of foreign writers.

Russian literature of the 18th century was characterized by a very calm development. Throughout the century, poets have sung about the sense of human dignity and tried to inculcate high moral ideals in the reader. Only at the end of the 90s did more daring works begin to appear, the authors of which emphasized the psychology of the individual, feelings and emotions.

Why did Russian literature of the 19th century achieve such a development? This was due to the events that took place in the political and cultural life of the country. This is the war with Turkey, and the invasion of Napoleon's army, and the public execution of oppositionists, and the eradication of serfdom ... All this gave impetus to the emergence of completely different stylistic devices.

A prominent representative of Russian literature of the 19th century is Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. A comprehensively developed and highly educated person was able to reach the peak in enlightenment. By the age of 37, he was known to the whole world. He became famous thanks to the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila". And "Eugene Onegin" to this day is associated with a guide to Russian life. Pushkin became the founder of traditions in writing literary works. His heroes, absolutely new and original for that time, won the hearts of millions of contemporaries. Take at least Tatyana Larina! Mind, beauty and features inherent only in the Russian soul - all this was perfectly combined in her image.

Another author who forever entered the history of Russian literature of the 19th century is M. Lermontov. He continued the best traditions of Pushkin. Like his teacher, he tried to understand his destiny. They really wanted to convey their principles to the authorities. Some compared the poets of that time to the prophets. These writers also influenced the development of Russian literature in the 20th century. They gave her the features of publicity.

It is in the 19th century that the establishment of realistic literature falls. Slavophiles and Westernizers constantly argued about the peculiarities of the historical formation of Russia. Since that time, the realistic genre began to develop. Writers began to endow their works with features of psychology and philosophy. The development of the poetry of Russian literature of the 19th century begins to fade away.

At the end of the century, such writers as A.P. Chekhov, A.N. Ostrovsky, N. S. Leskov, M. Gorky. In most of the works, pre-revolutionary moods begin to be traced. The realistic tradition begins to fade into the background. It was supplanted by decadent literature. Her mysticism and religiosity relished both critics and readers.

Style directions of Russian literature of the XIX century:

1. Romanticism. Romanticism has been known to Russian literature since the Middle Ages. But the 19th century gave it completely different shades. It originated not in Russia, but in Germany, but gradually penetrated into the works of our writers. Russian literature of the 19th century is characterized by romantic moods. They found reflection in Pushkin's poems and can be traced in the very first works of Gogol.
2. Sentimentalism. Sentimentalism began to develop at the very beginning of the 19th century. He focuses on sensuality. In Russian literature of the 18th century, the first features of this trend were already traced. Karamzin managed to reveal it in all its manifestations. He inspired many authors and they followed his principles.
3. satirical prose . In the 19th century, satirical and journalistic works began to appear in Russian literature, especially in the works of Gogol. At the very beginning of his journey, he tried to describe his homeland. The main features of his works is the unacceptability of the lack of intelligence and parasitism. It affected all strata of society - landowners, peasants, and officials. He tried to draw the attention of readers to the poverty of the spiritual world of wealthy people.
   1. realistic novel . In the second half of the 19th century, Russian literature recognized romantic ideals as absolutely untenable. The authors sought to show the real features of society. The best example is Dostoyevsky's prose. The author reacted sharply to the mood of the people. Depicting the prototypes of friends, Dostoevsky tried to touch upon the most acute problems of society. It was at this time that the image of an “extra person” appeared. There is a reassessment of values. The fate of the people no longer means anything. In the first place are the representatives of society.
4. folk poem. In Russian literature of the 19th century, folk poetry occupies a secondary place. But, despite this, Nekrasov does not miss the opportunity to create works that combine several genres: revolutionary, peasant and heroic. His voice does not let you forget about the meaning of rhyme. The poem “Who is living well in Russia?” is the best example of the real life of that time.

Late 19th century

At the end of the 19th century, Chekhov was at the peak of his popularity. At the very beginning of his career, critics repeatedly noticed that he was indifferent to acute social topics. But his masterpieces were very popular. He followed the principles of Pushkin. Each representative of Russian literature of the 19th century created a small artistic world. Their heroes wanted to achieve more, fought, experienced ... Some wanted to be needed and happy. Others set out to eradicate social failure. Still others experienced their own tragedy. But each work is remarkable in that it reflects the realities of the century.

© Vsevolod Sakharov . All rights reserved.

Lesson: Literature

Lesson topic: Peculiarities of the Literary Process in the Second Half of the 19th Century (2 lessons)

Grade: 10

OU: MAOU secondary school №16, Yekaterinburg

subject teacher: Ushakova L.S.

UMC: Literature textbook for grade 10. Part 1. Authors: V. Sakharov, S. Zinin. Moscow "Russian Word", 2007

Lesson topic	Features of the literary process of the second half of the 19th century
The goals of the teacher	To identify the level of literary development of 10th grade students, their reading circle, reading interests, literary outlook;expand their understanding of literature as the art of the word, reflecting the life of a person and society; give a general description of the historical and cultural development of Russia in the second half of the 19th century; to deepen the understanding of the classics, of classical literature
Lesson type	Lesson of working with informational text using the technology "Development of critical thinking through reading and writing"
Planned educational outcomes	Personal: the ability to self-assessment based on the criterion of success of educational activities; orientation to understanding the reasons for success in educational activities; the formation of educational and cognitive interest in new educational material and methods for solving a new particular problem. Cognitive: search for the necessary information to complete educational tasks using educational literature;the formation of the ability to systematize and analyze information at all stages of its assimilation; skills of conscious, "thoughtful" reading; the ability to give a reflective assessment of what has been passed; usagesign-symbolic means, including models and schemes for solving problems. Communicative:building small monologue statements, joint activities of working groups, taking into account specific educational and cognitive tasks. Regulatory: accepting and saving the learning task; planning their actions in accordance with the task and the conditions for its implementation, including in the internal plan; making the necessary adjustments to the action after itcompletion based on its evaluation and taking into account the nature of the errors made; performance of educational actions in a materialized, loud-speech and mental form. Subject: identification of the main stages in the development of Russian classical literature of the second half of the 19th century, literary trends and genres, artistic methods, Russian literary criticism.
Methods and forms of education	search, individual work, group work
Means of education	Textbook, handout
tricks	"Basket" of ideas, strategy "Zigzag-1", "Pivot table", "Daisy Bloom", presentations

The nineteenth century, the iron, truly cruel age!

Alexander Blok

During the classes

Call stage

1. The word of the teacher. Introductory conversation.

The theme of our lesson: "Features of the literary process of the second half of the XIX century."

Our task is to identify the main stages in the development of Russian classical literature of the 19th century, literary trends and genres, artistic methods, and Russian literary criticism. As an epigraph to our lesson, I took the words of the poet Alexander Blok: “The nineteenth century, the iron, a truly cruel age!”

2. Reception "Basket" of ideas.

teacher's word

The 60-70s of the 19th century were a turning point in the history of Russia. Describing these years, L.N. Tolstoy emphasized: “All this has turned upside down and is only getting better.” What is "everything"? What historical events are we talking about? First, each of you will remember and write down in your notebook everything you know on this issue (strictly individual work, duration 1-2 minutes). Then team up in pairs and exchange information, voice it.(All information is briefly written in the form of abstracts by the teacher in the “basket” of ideas (without comments), even if they are erroneous. Facts, opinions, names, problems, concepts related to the topic of the lesson can be “dumped” into the basket of ideas. Further in the course lesson, these facts or opinions, problems or concepts that are scattered in the mind of the child can be connected in a logical chain).

Suggested Answer

1853-1856 - Crimean War; 1854 - siege of Sevastopol;

1855 - accession to the throne of Alexander II;

1861 - the abolition of serfdom;

1863-1864 - the end of the Caucasian War.

Absolute decline in production, rising unemployment.

The spread of education, the progress of domestic science.

teacher's word

First of all, L.N. Tolstoy spoke about the system of moral values ​​and the breakdown of social foundations. First of all, peasant life was blown up, and the peasantry in Russia was synonymous with the word "people." The whole old system of life values ​​cracked at the seams. It poured out sometimes in tragic, disgusting forms. There was a destruction, on the one hand, of the ancient peasant culture, on the other, of the nobility, and the creation of a new, national culture was not a matter of one century. For a person, the loss of habitual values ​​is the loss of the meaning of life. In Russia, "responsible for the meaning of life" was literature.

The stage of comprehension of the content.

teacher's word

By the middle of the 19th century, the process of developing the basic principles of depicting reality had ended in Russian literature.realism established. and 19th century literature. becomes a real driving force in the entire Russian artistic culture. Basic feature of realismas a creative method isincreased attention to the social side of reality. The task of truthfully showing and investigating life involves many methods of depicting reality in realism, which is why the works of Russian writers are so diverse both in form and in content. The main thing in this method, according to realist theorists, is typing . The images of a realistic work reflectgeneral laws of beingand not living people. Any image is woven from typical features, manifested in typical circumstances. This is the paradox of art. The image cannot be correlated with a living person, it is richer than a concrete person - hence the objectivity of realism. Everyone has his own principle of selecting the facts of reality, which necessarily reveals the subjective view of the artist. Every artist has his own measure.

Realism as a method of depicting reality in the second half of the 19th century. was namedcritical realism, because his main task was to criticize reality, and the main issue that received wide coverage was the question of the relationship between man and society. To what extent does society influence the fate of the hero? Who is to blame for the fact that a person is unhappy? What can be done to change people and the world? - these are the main questions of literature in general, Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century. - in particular. The main question that worried all thinking intelligentsia was the question: “Which path will Russia take?”

He divided everyone into two camps: Slavophiles and Westerners . The differences between them were in the definition of the main direction in which Russia should go.

1 .Zigzag-1 strategy

The purpose of this technique is to study and systematize a large amount of material. To do this, the text is divided into semantic passages for mutual learning. The number of passages should match the number of group members.

1. Westerners.
2. Slavophiles.
3. Soilers.
4. Revolutionary Democrats.
5. The era of the Russian novel
6. Russian dramaturgy of the 19th century

Westernism

Westernism is a current of Russian social thought that took shape in the 1840s. The objective meaning of Westernism consisted in the fight against serfdom and in the recognition of the "Western", i.e. bourgeois way of development of Russia. Westernism was represented by V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogarev, T.N. Granovsky, V.P. Botkin, P.V. Annenkov, I.S. Turgenev, I.I. VN Maikov and others. Representatives of Westernism advocated the "Europeanization" of the country - the abolition of serfdom, the establishment of personal freedoms, especially freedom of speech, for the broad and comprehensive development of industry; highly appreciated the reforms of Peter I, since they, in their opinion, oriented Russia towards the European path of development. Progress along this path, the representatives of Westernism believed, should lead to the strengthening of the rule of law, the reliable protection of the rights of citizens from judicial and administrative arbitrariness, the unleashing of their economic initiative, in a word, to the complete victory of liberalism. In the field of art and aesthetics, Westerners opposed romanticism and supported realistic styles, primarily in the work of N.V. Gogol and representatives of the natural school. The main platform for Westernism was the journals Otechestvennye Zapiski and Sovremennik. In the journals that became organs of Westernism, along with scientific and popular science articles that promoted the successes of European science and philosophy (German Literature, 1843, Botkin), the Slavophile theory of the community was challenged and the ideas of a common historical development of Russia and other European countries were carried out. , the genre of travel essays-letters was widely cultivated: “Letters from Abroad” (1841-43) and “Letters from Paris” (1847-48) by Annenkov, “Letters about Spain” (1847-49) by Botkin, “Letters from Avenue Marigny” (1847) by Herzen, “Letters from Berlin” (1847) by Turgenev, and others. The pedagogical activity of professors at Moscow University, primarily Granovsky’s public lectures, played an important role in spreading the ideas of Westernism. The disputes between Westerners and Slavophiles were reflected in Turgenev's "Notes of a Hunter", in "The Past and Thoughts" (1855-68) and "Forty-Thief" (1848) by Herzen, "Tarantas" (1845) by V.A. Sollogub and others.

Slavophilism

Slavophilism is a direction in the social, literary and philosophical thought of Russia in the mid-19th century. The main ideologists of Slavophilism are A.S. Khomyakov, I.V. Kireevsky, K.S. and I.S. Aksakovs, Yu.F. Samarin. They called for relying on national traditions, they understood that Russia needed reforms, but they advocated only such transformations that would not contradict the original Slavic spirit.Slavophilism is not a philosophical school, however, the authors of the doctrine are united by common prerequisites for creativity: the belief that the basis of human culture is religious faith, which forms folk customs, art, literature, and science. Slavophiles went from Orthodoxy to the people, and not vice versa. They stood up for the preservation of the people's roots, from which the highest education of the nation should grow, and sharply criticized the psychology of thoughtless borrowing. Kireevsky was the first to recognize nationality in the poetry of A.S. Pushkin: “It is not enough to be a poet in order to be popular: one must be educated, so to speak, in the center of the life of one’s people, share the hopes of one’s fatherland, its aspirations, its losses, in a word, live it life and express it involuntarily, expressing oneself ”(I.V. Kireevsky. Something about the nature of Pushkin’s poetry, 1828). P.V. Kireevsky, the younger brother of I.V. Kireevsky, was a collector of Russian folk songs; his collection was published in 1860-74 in 10 volumes. Close to the Slavophiles was the poet N.M. Yazykov, who in 1844 attacked the Westerners with an angry message "To not ours." The circle of Slavophiles included the historian-archivist D.A. Valuev, who in 1845 published the Collection of Historical and Statistical Information about Russia and the Peoples of the Same Faith, one of the first serious studies in Russia on the Slavs. The first printed edition of the Slavophiles was the magazine "Moscow Collection", which in 1852 was closed immediately after the publication of the first issue for the article by I. Kireevsky "On the nature of the enlightenment of Europe and its relation to the enlightenment of Russia." The accusations of the Minister of Public Education related to the fact that the author of the article does not do justice to the reforms of Peter I, expresses thoughts about the alienation of Western education, which do not correspond to the types of government, and brings the concept of nationality to a dangerous extreme. All Slavophiles were ordered to publish only with the special consent of the Main Directorate of Censorship. The restriction was lifted only in 1856, and then the journal Russkaya Beseda (1856-60) began to appear regularly. In 1861-65, I.S. Aksakov published the newspaper Den. In the historical and cultural perspective, Slavophilism was transformed into pochvenism and pan-Slavism.

soil cultivation

Pochvennichestvo is a Russian literary-critical and philosophical-aesthetic trend that developed in the atmosphere of ideological conflicts of the 1860s. The leading theorists of soil science A.A. Grigoriev, M.M. Dostoevsky, F.M. Dostoevsky and N.N. Strakhov were united by the idea of ​​merging “enlightened society” with “national soil” on the basis of in their opinion, was to ensure the spiritual and social development of Russia. The concept of isolation from the soil in relation to the Russian intelligentsia, who had departed from the people after the reforms of Peter the Great, was used in 1847 by K.S. Aksakov: “We are like plants that have bared their roots from the soil” (Moscow Literary and Scientific Collection for 1847). In the future, these words were repeatedly varied by Dostoevsky: “The expressions that we broke away from our soil, that we should seek our soil, were Fyodor Mikhailovich’s favorite turns,” wrote Strakhov (F.M. Dostoevsky in the memoirs of his contemporaries). The organizational center of the pochvenniks was the journals Vremya (1861-63) and Epoch (1864-65) published by the Dostoevsky brothers. Genetically, pochvenism went back to the so-called "young edition" of the magazine "Moskvityanin" (1841-56), whose inspirer and leading critic in 1850-56 was Grigoriev. In philosophical and aesthetic terms, pochvenism was a conservative form of philosophical romanticism. The interest in the people was combined among the soil workers with a keen attention to the human person. The aesthetic concepts of F.M. Dostoevsky, which were not expressed in the form of a coherent system, were formulated by him in separate statements: according to Dostoevsky, true art in an indirect form contributes to the improvement of the individual, but social benefit cannot be demanded from it. In Strakhov's concept of soil, the entire history of Russian literature appears as the history of "the gradual liberation of the Russian mind and feelings from Western influences, the gradual development of our identity in verbal art" (ibid.). The organic result of the development of all Russian literature was, according to Strakhov, the epic of L.N. and alien "(Strakhov N.N. Critical articles). In the announcement of a subscription to the magazine "Time" for 1863, which was one of the most striking manifestos of soil movement, M.M. Dostoevsky wrote: "We are introducing a new idea about the complete moral independence of the people , we defend Russia, our root, our beginnings. Pochvenism was sharply criticized by representatives of liberal, conservative, revolutionary-democratic and populist journalism (M.A. Antonovich, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, D.I. Pisarev, G.I. Uspensky, N.K. Mikhailovsky, N.V. Shelgunov), and then Marxist (G.V. Plekhanov, A.V. Lunacharsky, M. Gorky). Modern Western literary criticism often turns to a wide range of soil ideas, interpreting them as a "true manifestation" of "Russian national identity."

Philosophy of revolutionary democrats

The formation and development of the revolutionary-democratic ideology in Russia is associated with the namesV. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. I. Dobrolyubov, D. I. Pisarev, as well as with the names of M. V. Butashevich-Petrashevsky and M. A. Speshnev. The revolutionary democrats fought for the abolition of the autocracy and serfdom, and were supporters of the socialist transformation of the country. Their socialism was called utopian, since it was believed that the transition to socialism through the transformation of the peasant community, bypassing capitalism, was not feasible by peaceful means. They created a philosophical and sociological doctrine, which, in terms of theoretical richness, in terms of the breadth and depth of posing and solving problems, surpasses much of what was done in philosophy by other representatives of this trend.

The revolutionary democrats were united in understandingways to transform Russia. This path was associated with the building of socialism in Russia on the basis of communal, collective ownership of the means of production. At the same time, the construction of socialism V. G. Belinsky conceivedas a way of revolutionary transformations and expropriation of landowners' lands and possessions. Herzen was a supporter of calm revolutionary changes without violence and civil war.

The main provisions of the theory of “Russian socialism” were developed byAlexander Ivanovich Herzen(1812 - 1870). He came to the conclusion that the country in which it is possible to combine socialist ideas with historical reality is Russia, wherecommunal land tenure. In the Russian peasant world, he argued, there are three beginnings , allowing to carry out an economic revolution leading to socialism:

1) the right of everyone to land,

2) communal ownership of it,

3) worldly government.

These communal principles, embodying “elements of our everyday, direct socialism,” impede the development of the rural proletariat and make it possible to bypass the stage of capitalist development: “The man of the future in Russia is a peasant, just like a worker in France.”

According to Herzen,the abolition of serfdom while maintaining the community will make it possible to avoid the sad experience of the capitalist development of the West and go straight to socialism. “We,” Herzen wrote, “we call Russian socialism that socialism that comes from the land and peasant life, from the actual allotment and the existing redistribution of fields, from communal ownership and communal management, and goes along with the workers’ artel towards that economic justice, to which socialism in general strives for and which science confirms.

Herzen considered the community that existed in Russia to be the basis, but by no means a ready-made cell of the future social order. He saw its main drawback in the absorption of the individual by the community.

On November 1, 1861, Herzen put forward the slogan "To the people!", which became for decades a call for patriotic youth to actively participate in the liberation movement.

Publicistic speeches had a great influence on the general course of discussions about the social opportunities of the community.Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky(1828-1889), especially two of his articles - "A Critique of Philosophical Prejudices Against Common Ownership" (1858) and "Economic Activity and Legislation" (1859).

The first of them concluded that the existence of a primitive community in the conditions of a high stage of civilization, which has been achieved in the current century, is not an obstacle to its entry into this civilization, because in communal ownership there is "the highest form of man's relationship to the earth." Moreover, as Chernyshevsky wrote in another article a year earlier, communal ownership secures the possession of land for every farmer and "consolidates the national welfare much better than private property." Such ownership is in the best position to ensure success in agriculture, since communal property "unites owner, owner and worker in one person." All this allows us to conclude that it is possible to accelerate social development with the help of the community.

Unlike Herzen Chernyshevsky -staunch democrat. The authority of Chernyshevsky in the liberation movement of the early 1860s. was very high, and the government put him under secret supervision. In 1862, following the suspension of the Sovremennik magazine, Chernyshevsky was imprisoned in solitary confinement in the Peter and Paul Fortress. Here he writes a novel What to do ?”, which, with its ideological content, had a great influence on several generations of revolutionary-minded youth, who tried to put into practice the principles of a reasonable human community. Particularly attractive in the novel was the element of asceticism in the name of a common cause, which turned out to be characteristic of the subsequent revolutionary intelligentsia.

In the absence of direct evidence, Chernyshevsky was found guilty "of taking measures to overthrow the existing order of government", sentenced to seven years in hard labor and eternal settlement in Siberia. His writings were banned in Russia until the first Russian revolution.

The revolutionary democrats considered the peasant community to be the basis of the future economic and political system. This manifested their utopianism, since even then the community did not represent a single entity, it was stratified. According to N.G. Chernyshevsky, in a "social republic" the legislative power belongs to the people, and the government must be responsible to them. The right of the people, represented by the People's Assembly, is to control the executive power.

The era of the Russian novel

"Russian novel" is not a national concept, but a worldwide one. That is how it is customary to call one of the most amazing pages of world culture. The art of the 20th century stands on the shoulders of Russian giants: Turgenev, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy.

The Russian novel is the pinnacle of nineteenth-century literature. The rise cannot be long, so the era of the Russian novel fits in less than three decades.

Such is the chronology of the era of the Russian novel. Belinsky called himepic of private life. Indeed, the novel appears there and then when there is an interest in an individual, when the motives of her actions, her inner world become no less important than the actions and deeds themselves. But a person does not exist on its own, outside of ties with society, and more broadly - with the world. "I" and the world, "I" in the world, "I" and fate - these are the questions that the novel poses. Thus, for it to arise, it is necessary for a person to “emerge”, but not only to arise, but also to realize himself and his place in the world. Psychological analysis has become the need of the era. Russian literature instantly responded: a Russian novel appeared.

The key problem of the Russian novel wasthe problem of a hero looking for ways to renew his life, a hero who expressed the movement of time. In the center of the first Russian novels, it is precisely such heroes - Eugene Onegin and Grigory Aleksandrovich Pechorin. The plot of Pushkin's novel is built on a private intrigue, but the character traits of the characters and their life stories are consistently and multilaterally motivated. Could Pushkin imagine what and how he created. Probably not. But the tradition has been established. From Pushkin stretched a series of novels named after the main characters: Oblomov, Rudin, Lord Golovlev, Anna Karenina, Brothers Karamazov. The search for a new novel form began.

The novel by M. Yu. Lermontov "A Hero of Our Time" will mark the beginningpsychology in Russian prose: the writer discovered a completely "new world of art" in the "inner man". The cycle of stories, united by the image of the protagonist, successively replaced narrators and the author's preface, turned into a novel. Its genre nature is still being debated, for it synthesized all the achievements of Russian prose in the first decades of the 19th century. But to Gogol the novel form seemed small, and he created a prose poem.

So, having barely emerged, the Russian novel boldly violated genre canons and began to develop so rapidly that in almost a quarter of a century, if not exhausted, then extremely pushed the narrow boundaries of the genre form. This was the most significant contribution of Russian literature of the 19th century to world culture.

It was in the 60s and 70s works were created that determined the face, national identity and greatness of our literature. Novels were also written after 1880, but they no longer had such world significance.

Why to answer the question about the meaning of life, the genre of the novel was requiredand not some other genre? Because finding the meaning of life requires a spiritual change of the person himself. The person in search is changing. The epoch itself, the turning point in which he lives, pushes him to search for the meaning of life. It is impossible to imagine the path of Pierre Bezukhov outside the war of 1812; Raskolnikov's throwing is out of time, when only "a fantastic, gloomy thing, a modern thing, a case of our time" could happen; Bazarov's drama - outside the pre-stormy atmosphere of the late 50s. The epoch in the novel is a chain of collisions of a person with people in a whirlpool of events. And in order to show a changing person in a changing time, a large genre is needed.

On the pages of "War and Peace" by L. N. Tolstoy, the "dialectics of the soul" of man was recreated. And, although the inner life of the individual in Tolstoy acquired a value in itself, the epic beginning in the narrative only intensified.

But the Russian novel, which set itself such high and complex tasks, of course, broke the usual ideas about this genre. The reaction of foreign readers to the appearance of the works of Turgenev, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky is very characteristic. First of all, I was struck by the simplicity of the plot, the absence of sharp intrigue, external entertainment; the composition seemed to be a chaotic heap of events.

However, it soon became clear that the unusual form of the Russian novel is the expression of a new content that European literature did not yet know. First of all, the hero of the novel was new. Another genre feature of the Russian novel isplot incompleteness. Raskolnikov is in hard labor, and Dostoevsky promises us to continue his story. Pierre in the epilogue is the happy father of the family, and we feel how the drama is ripening. And most importantly, important, "damned" issues have not been fully resolved.

Russian dramaturgy of the 19th century

Russia of the 18th century. Classicism dominates, and consequently, a strict hierarchy of genres: comedy is a “low” genre, tragedy is “high”, and drama is “medium”. Writers of the 19th century inherited only tragedy and comedy. They get it as if in order to immediately violate all genre canons. An example of this is the comedy of A. S. Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”, a “high” comedy, which, according to A. S. Pushkin, is “akin to tragedy”.

It seemed like a start. But a Russian novel appeared, which, as it were, took from the “high” comedy its hero, who is intensely reflecting on the problems of being, striving to rebuild life, and its moral problems, and the “delayed” plot, and the open ending, and the title, which carries a special meaning, and , among other things, the speaking names of the characters.

What is left of Russian comedy? "Vulgarity of a vulgar person." Comedy strictly fit within the framework of the genre, built on the discrepancy between the hero and his idea of ​​himself, real people and the high destiny of a person. But "the merry instantly turned into sadness" as soon as Gogol's "Inspector General" appeared. His comedy, in contrast to "Woe from Wit", tied "by itself, with all its mass, into one big common knot", and caused bewilderment of the audience: both by the absence of a positive hero ("the only positive face of my comedy is laughter"), and mirage intrigue. Contemporaries were able to understand and appreciate the comedy much later, and in order to explain it, the author needed to write not only “Theatrical tour ...” and “Letter to a writer ...”, but also “Dead Souls”. “There is nothing to blame on the mirror, if the face is crooked” - this is how the epigraph to the comedy sounds (we note, by the way, that the epigraph itself seemed to take on the role of the choir from the ancient tragedy, whose task was to explain to the audience the meaning of the action played out on stage, to tune in to the right wave perception). The epigraph will be repeated in the words of the mayor: “What are you laughing at? Are you laughing at yourself?" “Be not dead, but living souls” - essentially the same cherished author's thought was embodied in the poem “Dead Souls”. And again the problem of comedy went into another text, into Russian prose.

Russian comedy for some time exhausted its possibilities, left without heroes and problems, and gave way to vaudeville. The ego is due to the fact that vaudeville does not imply satire, a “formidable weapon” in the fight against vices, but is an entertainment genre, which fully met the needs of society. After all, the theater is a place of secular communication, where “glitter and tinsel” are the main characters both on the stage and in the hall. Only A. N. Ostrovsky was able to return Russian comedy to national soil.

“Number Four” - so, after “Undergrowth”, “Woe from Wit” and “Inspector General”, Belinsky determined the place of Ostrovsky's play “Bankrupt” (“Own people - we will settle!”). Indeed, through a comedic everyday conflict, the young playwright, like his great predecessors, managed to show important all-Russian problems, create recognizable and vivid characters. The combination of "high" with "low" was already in Gogol, so a new genre form was required - drama.

L. Shtein, a researcher of Ostrovsky's work, wrote that in the plays of the playwright there was a process of turning comedy into drama. It's not just that some comedies are comedies in name only. Introducing the term "scenes", Ostrovsky himself freed himself from the obligation to strictly follow the laws of the genre. The main reason for this was reality itself, pushing the stage form of comedy towards drama. This includes the increased need to describe the situation ... life and customs. It leads to the fact that the impetuosity of comedic intrigue is weakened from the very beginning, even in comparison with Gogol's comedy. Ostrovsky's intrigue is closer to life, the element of the exceptional, out of the ordinary is muffled in it. Another reason that brought Ostrovsky's comedy closer to drama was the very appearance of positive characters. In Gogol's comedy, the only positive face was laughter. In most of Ostrovsky's comedies there are positive characters, and the dramatic conclusion to their fate always exists as a possibility. The fact that this remains only a possibility does not remove the underlying trend of the conflict. He gravitates toward drama.

Drama, which did not take root on Russian soil at the beginning of the century (the exception is Lermontov's Masquerade), established itself in the second half of the 19th century, having received both its own problems and its own hero, or rather, the heroine. After all, it was the woman in Ostrovsky's dramas (Katerina in The Thunderstorm, Larisa in The Dowry) who became the main character.

The genre of drama is established on the Russian stage and is developed not only in the work of A. N. Ostrovsky, but also in L. N. Tolstoy: the great prose writer created the folk drama The Power of Darkness and the socio-psychological drama The Living Corpse.

And what is the tragedy? This genre is also developing. Firstly, its reflection clearly falls on Russian drama (for example, Ostrovsky's The Thunderstorm). Secondly, the tragedy receives independent development in the historical trilogy of A. K. Tolstoy (“The Death of Ivan the Terrible”, “Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich”, “Tsar Boris”).

It would seem that each dramatic genre has found its place, but, as the history of Russian literature has shown, for a very short time. In 1896, A.P. Chekhov's "The Seagull" appears, appears to violate all possible canons and overturn readers' ideas about drama as a kind of literature. And staged on stage in 1904, The Cherry Orchard again mixed all genre forms. This is how the theater of the 20th century was born.

The class is divided into groups. The group is given texts of various contents. Each student works independently with the text on his topic, highlights the main thing, compiling a supporting abstract (“Flight Log”) or using one of the graphic forms (for example, clusters, mental maps), etc. At the end of the work, students move to other groups - groups of experts.

2. Work in a group of "experts".

New groups are formed in such a way that in each there are experts on one topic. In the process of exchanging the results of their work, a general presentation scheme of the story on the topic is drawn up (cluster, mental map, etc.).

3. Then the students are transferred to their original groups. Returning to his working group, the expert introduces the other members of the group about his topic, using a common presentation scheme drawn up in the group of “experts”. In the course of the presentations, the rest of the participants fill in the "Pivot Table" (described by J. Bellance)

This technique allows you to describe and study a large amount of information in a short time.

"Pivot Table"

Westerners	Slavophiles	comparison line	soilmen	Revolutionary Democrats
		The journal around which the group has united.
		its leading representatives.
		Idea program.
		aesthetic positions.
		Own judgments about the value and fallacy of the positions of representatives of this direction.
Features of the Russian novel:
Russian dramaturgy of the 19th century. Peculiarities:

In the group there is an exchange of information of all members of the working group. Thus, in each working group, thanks to the work of experts, a general idea is formed on the topic under study.

Reflection stage (option 1)

1. From each working group, a student is selected who will cover one of the questions projected on the board:

1. How do you associate with the second half of the 19th century such concepts as a liberal, a Westerner, a Slavophile, a revolutionary democrat, a “pochvennik”, a populist?

2. How do you understand A. I. Herzen's assessment of the positions of the Slavophiles and Westernizers?

3. When do you attribute the heyday of Russian realism? What authors is he associated with?

4. The philosopher M. Bakhtin said that the novel is a genre that destroys itself. Why do you think the Russian novel has exhausted its potential in just two decades? Or maybe not exhausted?

5. How can one explain the dramatic increase in the number of periodicals and the increasing influence of magazines in the second half of the 19th century?

2. Return to the epigraph of the lesson.

Explain how you understand the words of Alexander Blok: “The nineteenth century, the iron, truly cruel age!Do you agree with the poet?

Reflection stage (option 2)

Reception "Chamomile Bloom".

Each group is invited to formulate questions of a different nature on the topic of the lesson:

Simple questions.These are questions, answering which, you need to name some facts, remember and reproduce certain information.

Clarifying questions.The goal is to give the person an opportunity for feedback on what they have just said. (“So you are saying that…?”, “If I understand correctly, then…?” etc.)

Interpretive (explanatory) questions.They usually start with "Why?"

Creative questions.These are questions that contain an element of assumption, fiction (“What would change in the world/country…..?)

Evaluation questions.They are aimed at identifying criteria for evaluating certain events, phenomena, facts.

Practical questions.Aimed at establishing the relationship between theory and practice (“How would you act/evaluate…..?”, “Where can you…?” in ordinary life).

After formulating the questions, the groups ask them to each other, naming the student of the other group who will answer this question, and evaluate the answers.

Homework.Write an essay on the topic "The influence of the work of writers and poets of the first half of the 19th century on the development of literature in the second half of the century."

1. First quarterXIXcentury- a unique period, the diversity and grandeur of names, trends and genres amaze the modern researcher.

In the first decade, classicism continued to function. Its head was G.R.Derzhavin. A new direction appeared - neoclassicism, associated with the name of the playwright Vladislav Ozerov. In the early 20s. Batyushkov's pre-romanticism appears.

Then a new philosophical and aesthetic system was formed - romanticism, Belinsky called Zhukovsky "Columbus of romanticism". The main category of romanticism is the opposition of dreams, ideals and reality.

Sentimentalism is active. Dmitriev develops the genre of sentimental fable. The first experiments of Zhukovsky are in line with sentimentalism.

At this time, the foundations of a new type of artistic consciousness, realism, were laid.

Genre diversity of the XIX century is amazing. We know that lyric poetry dominated, but drama continues to develop (high, everyday descriptive, salon comedy, sentimental drama, high tragedy), prose (sentimental, historical and romantic story, historical novel), the genre of poem and ballad.

2. In the 30s.XIXcentury Russian prose begins to develop. “The form of time,” Belinsky believes, is the story: romantic stories (Zagoskin, Odoevsky, Somov, Pogorelsky, Bestuzheva-Marlinsky, Lermontov and Gogol), realistic (Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol).

The foundations of the genre of the novel are laid, there are two varieties - the historical novel (Pushkin) and the modern one (Lazhechnikov)

3. In the 40s.XIXcentury in the literary movement, one can single out the emergence, formation and development of the “natural school” as a literary trend. Gogol, Grigorovich is considered the ancestor. This is the beginning of the realistic direction, the theorist of which is Belinsky. The "Natural School" made extensive use of the possibilities of the physiological essay genre - a short descriptive story, a snapshot from nature (collection "Physiology of St. Petersburg"). The development of the genre of the novel, Nekrasov's lyrics

4. In the 60s.XIXcentury there is a flourishing of the genre of the Russian novel. Various genre modifications appear - an ideological novel, a socio-philosophical novel, an epic novel ...). This time can be considered the rise, the heyday of Russian lyrics (poets of the Nekrasov school and poets of pure art). A Russian original theater appears - the Ostrovsky Theater. In dramaturgy and poetry, the principles of realism, as well as romanticism, are established in the verses of Tyutchev, Fet).

5. In the 70s - 80s (90s)XIXcentury the novel develops along the path of synthesis of various tendencies. However, the prose of this time is not determined only by the genre of the novel. The story, short story, feuilleton and other small prose genres are developing. The novel simply did not have time to fix the changes that were taking place. In the 70s - 80s (90s) In the 19th century, there is a powerful influence of prose on dramaturgy and poetry, and vice versa. In general, prose, drama and poetry are a single stream of mutually enriching trends.

findings

This time is characterized by the coexistence of four literary trends. Classicism and sentimentalism still live from the last century. New time forms new directions: romanticism and realism.

The romantic worldview is characterized by an insoluble conflict between the dream, the ideal and reality. The difference between the supporters of romanticism essentially boils down to the meaningful embodiment of a dream (ideal). The character of the romantic hero corresponds to the author's position: the hero is an alter ego.

Realism is one of the new literary trends. If researchers find its elements in previous literary epochs, then as a direction and method, realism took shape in the 19th century. Its very name (realis - material, what you can feel with your hands) is opposed to romanticism (novel-book, romantic, that is, book). Inheriting the problems posed by romanticism, realism renounces the normativity of romanticism and becomes an open system and principle of artistic reflection of life. Hence its diversity in form and content.

In the literature of the 19th century, the dominant role was played by realism - an artistic method, which is characterized by the desire for immediate authenticity of the image, the creation of the most truthful image of reality. Realism involves a detailed and clear description of persons and objects, the image of a certain real scene, the reproduction of the features of life and customs. All this, according to realist writers, is a necessary prerequisite for revealing the spiritual world of people and the true essence of historical and social conflicts. It should be noted that at the same time, the authors approached the realities of life not as impassive registrars - on the contrary, by means of realistic art, they sought to arouse universal human moral aspirations in readers, to teach goodness and justice.

At the turn of the XIX-XX realism is still popular, in line with the realistic method such well-known and recognized authors as Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov, Vladimir Korolenko, as well as young writers Ivan Bunin and Alexander Kuprin create. However, new trends appeared in the realism of that time, which were called neo-romantic. Neo-romantic writers rejected the "prosaic existence" of the townsfolk and sang of courage, exploits and heroic adventures in extraordinary, often exotic settings. It was the neo-romantic works created in the 90s that brought fame to the young Maxim Gorky, although his later works were written more within the framework of traditional realism.

At the same time, moods began to spread in society, which received the name of decadence (from the French decadence - decomposition): hopelessness, a sense of decline, longing, a premonition of the end, admiring the beauty of withering and death. These sentiments had a great influence on many poets and prose writers.

The influence of decadence is noticeable in the work of the writer Leonid Andreev, in whose realistic works pessimistic motives began to sound stronger and stronger, disbelief in the human mind, in the possibility of reorganizing life for the better, a refutation of everything that people hope and believe.

Features of decadence can also be seen in the work of those authors who created the trend of symbolism in Russian literature.

The basis of the aesthetic doctrine of symbolism was the belief that the essence of the world, supratemporal and ideal, is beyond the limits of human sensory perception. According to the symbolists, the images of the true world, comprehended intuitively, could not be conveyed otherwise than through symbols, through the symbolic discovery of analogies between the world of higher realities - and the earthly world. Symbolists tend to turn to religious and mystical ideas, to the images of ancient and medieval art. They also sought to highlight the image of the individual hidden life of the human soul with its vague impulses, indefinite longings, fears and worries. Symbolist poets enriched the poetic language with many new bright and bold images, expressive and beautiful combinations of words and expanded the field of art by depicting the subtlest shades of feelings, fleeting impressions, moods and experiences.

It is customary to distinguish between "senior" and "junior" symbolists. The "elder" (Valery Bryusov, Konstantin Balmont, Fyodor Sologub, Dmitry Merezhkovsky, Zinaida Gippius), who came to literature in the 90s, being more under the influence of decadence, preached intimacy, the cult of the beauty of the passing time, the poet's free self-expression. The "younger" symbolists (Alexander Blok, Andrei Bely, Vyacheslav Ivanov) brought philosophical and religious quests to the fore; they painfully experienced the problem of personality and history in their mysterious connection with the essence of the universal world process. The inner world of the individual was conceived by them as an indicator of the general tragic state of the world, doomed to death, and at the same time a receptacle for prophetic feelings of imminent renewal.

As they comprehended the experience of the Revolution of 1905-07, in which the Symbolists saw the beginning of the realization of their catastrophic forebodings, dissimilarity was revealed in the concepts of the historical development of Russia and in the ideological sympathies of different Symbolist poets. This predetermined the crisis and, subsequently, the collapse of the symbolist movement.

In 1911, a new literary trend arose, called acmeism. The name was formed from the Greek word "acme" (the highest degree of something, color, blooming power), since the acmeist poets considered their work the highest point in achieving artistic truth. The early group of acmeists, united in the “Poet Workshop” circle, consisted of Sergei Gorodetsky, Nikolai Gumilev, Osip Mandelstam, Vladimir Narbut, Anna Akhmatova and others. During the heyday of the group, its literary organ was the Apollo magazine; they also published the almanacs "Workshops of Poets" and (in 1912-13) - the journal "Hyperborea".

Respecting all the achievements of symbolism, the acmeists nevertheless objected to the saturation of literature with mysticism, theosophy and occultism; they sought to free poetry from these incomprehensibility and restore its clarity and accessibility. They declared a concrete-sensory perception of the "material world" and in their poems described the sounds, forms, colors of objects and natural phenomena, the vicissitudes of human relations. At the same time, the acmeists did not at all try to recreate reality - they simply admired things as such, without criticizing them and without thinking about their essence. Hence the tendency of acmeists to aestheticism and their denial of any kind of social ideology.

Almost simultaneously with acmeism, another literary trend appeared - futurism (from the Latin futurum - future), which almost immediately broke up into several groups. The general basis of the Futurist movement was a spontaneous feeling of the inevitability of the collapse of the old world and the desire to anticipate and realize through art the birth of a new world. The Futurists destroyed the existing system of genres and literary styles, developed their own system of versification, and insisted on unlimited word creation up to the invention of new dialects. Futurist literature was also associated with the fine arts: joint performances of poets and painters of the new formation were often organized.

The leading group of Russian futurists was called "Hilea"; however, its participants - Velimir Khlebnikov, David Burliuk, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Alexei Kruchenykh - also called themselves "Budetlyans" and "Cubo-Futurists". Their principles were announced in the manifesto Slap in the Face of Public Taste (1912). The manifesto was deliberately outrageous; in particular, the demand expressed there to “throw Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy off the Steamboat of Modernity” received notoriety. The Cubo-Futurists proposed a remake of the world, which should have begun with a remake of the language. This led to word formation, bordering on abstraction, to onomatopoeia, to the neglect of grammatical laws. In addition, the Cubo-Futurists drastically changed the subject of poetry and began to sing what was previously considered anti-aesthetic, anti-poetic - and this brought vulgar vocabulary, prosaisms of urban life, professional jargon, the language of a document, poster and poster, circus and cinema techniques into poetry.

Another group, called the Association of Egofuturists, was founded by the poets Igor Severyanin and Georgy Ivanov. In addition to the general futuristic writing, egofuturism is characterized by the cultivation of refined sensations, the use of new foreign words, and ostentatious selfishness.

Futurism also included such groups as Poetry Mezzanine (which included Boris Lavrenev), Centrifuge (Nikolai Aseev, Boris Pasternak) and a number of futurist groups in Odessa, Kharkov, Kyiv, Tbilisi.

A special place in the literature of the turn of the century was occupied by peasant poets (Nikolai Klyuev, Petr Oreshin). Peasants by origin, they devoted their creativity to sketching pictures of village life, poetizing peasant life and traditions.

In the poetry of that time there were also bright individuals who could not be attributed to a particular trend - for example, Maximilian Voloshin, Marina Tsvetaeva.

At the turn of the century, satirical literature also experienced its rise. In the 1900s, more than 250 satirical magazines alone were published in Russia - of course, these were publications far from equivalent, differing from each other both in political orientation and in literary and artistic merit. Against this background, the magazine Satyricon stood out (the first issue was published in 1908), which became a real phenomenon in the literary life of Russia. Bold political satire, denunciation of lies and vulgarity in the public life of the country side by side in the magazine with harmless humor. At various times, such authors as Arkady Averchenko, Sasha Cherny, Teffi collaborated in the magazine. realism symbolist futurist acmeist

In 1913, as a result of an internal editorial split and a conflict with the publisher, most of the leading employees left the magazine, headed by Arkady Averchenko, who became the founder and editor of the New Satyricon.

The 19th century is one of the most brilliant periods in the history of Russian literature. At this time, the greatest works of Russian classical literature were created, which received worldwide recognition. And their greatness was determined not only by artistic perfection, but also by the light of liberating ideas, humanism, and the tireless search for social justice. . Sentimentalism arose in the first decade of the 19th century, based on philosophical sources, in particular sensationalism (J. Locke). The views of the sensualists are opposed to the rationalism of Descartes (classicism). Sentimentalism (M. Kheraskov, M. Muravyov, N. Karamzin, V. L. Pushkin, A. E. Izmailov and others) is characterized by an increased interest in the inner world of man. Sentimentalists believed that a person is by nature kind, devoid of hatred, deceit, cruelty, that social and social instincts are formed on the basis of innate virtue, uniting people into society. Hence the belief of sentimentalists that it is the natural sensitivity and good inclinations of people that are the key to an ideal society. In the works of that time, the main place began to be given to the education of the soul, moral improvement. Sentimentalists considered sensitivity to be the primary source of virtue, so their poems were filled with compassion, longing and sadness. The genres that were given preference also changed. Elegies, epistles, songs and romances, letters, diaries, memoirs took the first place. Psychological prose and lyrics or sensitive poetry develop. At the head of the sentimentalists is N.M. Karamzin ("ruler of souls")
Russian romanticism retained a great connection with the ideas of the Enlightenment and accepted some of them - the condemnation of serfdom, the promotion and defense of education, and the defense of people's interests. The military events of 1812 had a huge impact on the development of Russian romanticism. The theme of the people has become very significant for. Russian romantic writers. The desire for nationality marked the work of all Russian romantics, although their understanding of the “people's soul” was different. So, for Zhukovsky, nationality is, first of all, a humane attitude towards the peasantry and, in general, towards poor people. In the works of the romantic Decembrists, the notion of the people's soul was associated with other features. For them, the national character is a heroic character, a national identity. It is rooted in the national traditions of the people. Romantic poets' interest in national history was engendered by a sense of high patriotism. Russian romanticism, which flourished during the Patriotic War of 1812, took it as one of its ideological foundations. The main thesis is a SOCIETY ORGANIZED ON FAIR LAWS. In artistic terms, romanticism, like sentimentalism, paid great attention to depicting the inner world of a person. But unlike the sentimentalist writers, who sang "quiet sensibility" as an expression of "languid and sorrowful heart", the romantics preferred the depiction of extraordinary adventures and violent passions. At the same time, the undoubted merit of romanticism was the identification of an effective, strong-willed principle in a person, the desire for high goals and ideals that lifted people above everyday life. One of the important achievements of romanticism is the creation of a lyrical landscape. It serves as a kind of scenery for romantics, which emphasizes the emotional intensity of the action (master - Bestuzhev). Civil romanticism was formed by Glinka, Katenin, Ryleev, Kyuchemberg, Odoevsky, Pushkin, Vyazemsky, Yazykov. Zhukovsky is considered the founder of Russian romanticism. The period of the late 20s - early 40s of the XIX century in the history of Russian literature, the development of a realistic direction - one of the most significant and fruitful in the artistic life of the country . Realism in Russian literature has come a long way of formation. In the late poetry of Radishchev and Derzhavin, there are features of enlightenment realism. The work of the poet-warrior D. Davydov continued the traditions of enlightenment realism. The heroes of his first poetic works are living people with their daily affairs and worries. In them, "low and high are mixed in Derzhavin's way" - a real description of the life of a hussar, nightly revels with dashing friends and a patriotic feeling, the desire to stand up for the Motherland. Krylov's original and bright talent also developed in line with educational realism. The great fabulist greatly contributed to the establishment of realism in literature.

By the end of the 20s - the beginning of the 30s, enlightenment realism underwent significant changes, due to both the general European situation and the internal situation in Russia. realistic works of a critical nature. A great achievement of the realistic direction was the acquisition of the ability to depict the life of a person or society in their development and in accordance with the spirit of the times. The work of A. S. Pushkin was of great importance in the development of Russian literary realism in the 30s. Pushkin's works, written by him in the second Boldin autumn and in the last years of his life, enriched realism with new artistic discoveries. (“Tales of Belkin” and “Little Tragedies”, the last chapters of “Eugene Onegin” and “The History of the Village of Goryukhin” were completed, as well as a number of poems and critical articles)

The work of N.V. Gogol gave a special focus to Russian literary realism, it contributed to the further development of realism, giving it a critical, satirical character. In the 1930s, his critical condemnation of life around him intensified, his growing indignation at arbitrariness, social injustice

Gogol worked on the novel for five years. In 1840, the first volume of Dead Souls was completed. However, its publication met with great difficulties. Returning to Russia, Gogol turned to V. G. Belinsky, P. A. Pletnev and V. F. Odoevsky for help. It was not until the second half of 1842 that Dead Souls saw the light of day and, according to Herzen, "shook all of Russia."