Activity- this is a specifically human activity, regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at the knowledge and transformation of the external world and the person himself.

The main feature of activity is that its content is not entirely determined by the need that gave rise to it. The need as a motive (motivation) gives impetus to activity, but the very forms and content of activity determined by public goals, requirements and experience.

Distinguish three main activities: play, teaching and work. aim games is the "activity" itself, not its results. Human activity aimed at acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities is called teaching. is an activity whose purpose is the production of socially necessary products.

Activity characteristics

Activity is understood as a specifically human way of an active relationship to the world - a process during which a person creatively transforms the world around him, turning himself into an active subject, and the phenomena being mastered into an object of his activity.

Under subject here we mean the source of activity, the actor. Since, as a rule, a person shows activity, then most often it is he who is called the subject.

object call the passive, passive, inert side of the relationship, on which the activity is carried out. The object of activity can be a natural material or object (land in agricultural activities), another person (a student as an object of study) or the subject himself (in the case of self-education, sports training).

To understand the activity, several important characteristics of it should be taken into account.

Man and activity are inextricably linked. Activity is an indispensable condition for human life: it created man himself, preserved him in history and predetermined the progressive development of culture. Therefore, a person does not exist outside of activity. The reverse is also true: there is no activity without a person. Only man is capable of labor, spiritual and other transformative activity.

Activity is the transformation of the environment. Animals adapt to natural conditions. Man is able to actively change these conditions. For example, he is not limited to collecting plants for food, but grows them in the course of agricultural activities.

Activity acts as a creative, constructive activity: a person in the process of his activity goes beyond the boundaries of natural possibilities, creating something new that did not previously exist in nature.

Thus, in the process of activity, a person creatively transforms reality, himself and his social ties.

The essence of activity is revealed in more detail in the course of its structural analysis.

The main forms of human activity

Human activity is carried out in (industrial, household, natural environment).

Activity- active interaction of a person with the environment, the result of which should be its usefulness, requiring from a person high mobility of nervous processes, fast and accurate movements, increased activity of perception, emotional stability.

The study of a person in the process is carried out by ergonomics, the purpose of which is the optimization of labor activity on the basis of rational consideration of human capabilities.

The whole variety of forms of human activity can be divided into two main groups according to the nature of the functions performed by a person - physical and mental labor.

Physical work

Physical work requires significant muscle activity, is characterized by a load on the musculoskeletal system and functional systems of the body (cardiovascular, respiratory, neuromuscular, etc.), and also requires increased energy costs from 17 to 25 mJ (4,000-6,000 kcal) and more per day.

Brainwork

Brainwork(intellectual activity) is a work that combines work related to the reception and processing of information, requiring tension of attention, memory, activation of thinking processes. Daily energy consumption during mental work is 10-11.7 mJ (2000-2400 kcal).

The structure of human activity

The structure of activity is usually represented in a linear way, where each component follows the other in time.

Need → Motive → Purpose → Means → Action → Result

Let's consider each component of the activity one by one.

Need for action

Need- this is a need, dissatisfaction, a feeling of lack of something necessary for a normal existence. In order for a person to begin to act, an awareness of this need and its nature is necessary.

The most developed classification belongs to the American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and is known as the pyramid of needs (Fig. 2.2).

Maslow divided needs into primary, or innate, and secondary, or acquired. These, in turn, include:

• physiological - in food, water, air, clothing, warmth, sleep, cleanliness, shelter, physical recreation, etc.;
• existential- safety and security, inviolability of personal property, guaranteed employment, confidence in the future, etc.;
• social - desire for belonging and belonging to any social group, team, etc. The values ​​of affection, friendship, love are based on these needs;
• prestigious - based on the desire for respect, recognition by others of personal achievements, on the values ​​of self-affirmation, leadership;
• spiritual - focused on self-expression, self-actualization, creative development and the use of their skills, abilities and knowledge.
• The hierarchy of needs has been changed many times and supplemented by various psychologists. Maslow himself, in the later stages of his research, added three additional groups of needs to it:
• cognitive- in knowledge, skill, understanding, research. These include the desire to discover new things, curiosity, the desire for self-knowledge;
• aesthetic- the desire for harmony, order, beauty;
• transcending— a selfless desire to help others in spiritual self-improvement, in their desire for self-expression.

According to Maslow, in order to satisfy higher, spiritual needs, it is necessary to first satisfy those needs that occupy a place in the pyramid below them. If the needs of any level are fully satisfied, a person has a natural need to satisfy the needs of a higher level.

Motives of activity

Motive - a need-based, conscious drive that justifies and justifies activity. The need will become a motive if it is realized not just as, but as a guide to action.

In the process of forming a motive, not only needs, but also other motives are involved. As a rule, needs are mediated by interests, traditions, beliefs, social attitudes, etc.

Interest is a specific reason for action that determines. Although the needs of all people are the same, different social groups have their own interests. For example, the interests of workers and factory owners, men and women, youth and pensioners are different. So, innovations are more important for pensioners, traditions are more important for pensioners; Entrepreneurs have rather material interests, while people of art have spiritual ones. Each person also has his own personal interests, based on individual inclinations, sympathies (people listen to different music, go in for different sports, etc.).

Traditions represent a social and cultural heritage passed down from generation to generation. We can talk about religious, professional, corporate, national (for example, French or Russian) traditions, etc. For the sake of some traditions (for example, military ones), a person may limit his primary needs (changing safety and security for high-risk activities).

Beliefs- firm, principled views of the world, based on the worldview ideals of a person and implying a person’s willingness to give up a number of needs (for example, comfort and money) for the sake of what he considers right (for the sake of honor and dignity).

Settings- the predominant orientation of a person to certain institutions of society, which are superimposed on needs. For example, a person may be oriented towards religious values, or towards material enrichment, or towards public opinion. Accordingly, he will act differently in each case.

In complex activities, it is usually possible to identify not one motive, but several. In this case, the main motive is singled out, which is considered to be driving.

Activity goals

Target - it is a conscious idea of ​​the result of activity, anticipation of the future. Any activity involves goal setting, i.e. the ability to set goals independently. Animals, unlike humans, cannot set goals themselves: their program of activity is predetermined and expressed in instincts. Man is able to form his own programs, creating something that has never been in nature. Since there is no goal-setting in animal activity, it is not an activity. Moreover, if the animal never presents the results of its activity in advance, then the person, starting the activity, keeps in mind the image of the expected object: before creating something in reality, he creates it in his mind.

However, the goal can be complex and sometimes requires a series of intermediate steps to achieve it. For example, to plant a tree, you need to purchase a seedling, find a suitable place, take a shovel, dig a hole, place the seedling in it, water it, etc. Ideas about intermediate results are called tasks. Thus, the goal is broken down into specific tasks: if all these tasks are solved, then the overall goal will be achieved.

Funds used in activities

Funds - these are techniques used in the course of activity, methods of action, objects, etc. For example, to learn social science, you need lectures, textbooks, assignments. To be a good specialist, you need to get a professional education, have work experience, constantly practice in your work, etc.

The means must match the ends in two senses. First, the means must be proportionate to the end. In other words, they cannot be insufficient (otherwise the activity will be fruitless) or excessive (otherwise energy and resources will be wasted). For example, one cannot build a house if there are not enough materials for it; it is also pointless to buy materials several times more than you need to build it.

Secondly, the means must be moral: immoral means cannot be justified by the nobility of the end. If the goals are immoral, then all activity is immoral (on this occasion, the hero of F.M. Dostoevsky's novel "The Brothers Karamazov" Ivan asked if the kingdom of world harmony is worth one tear of a tortured child).

Action

Action - an element of activity that has a relatively independent and conscious task. An activity is made up of individual actions. For example, teaching activity consists of preparing and giving lectures, conducting seminars, preparing assignments, etc.

The German sociologist Max Weber (1865-1920) singled out the following types of social actions:

• purposeful - actions aimed at achieving a reasonable song. At the same time, a person clearly calculates all means and possible obstacles (a general planning a battle; a businessman organizing an enterprise; a teacher preparing a lecture);
• value-rational- actions based on beliefs, principles, moral and aesthetic values ​​(for example, the refusal of a prisoner to transfer valuable information to the enemy, saving a drowning person at the risk of his own life);
• affective - actions committed under the influence of strong feelings - hatred, fear (for example, flight from the enemy or spontaneous aggression);
• traditional- actions based on habit, often an automatic reaction developed on the basis of customs, beliefs, patterns, etc. (for example, following certain rituals in a wedding ceremony).

The basis of activity is the actions of the first two types, since only they have a conscious goal and are creative in nature. Affects and traditional actions can only exert some influence on the course of activity as auxiliary elements.

Special forms of action are: deeds - actions that have a value-rational, moral value, and deeds - actions that have a high positive social value. For example, helping a person is an act, winning an important battle is an act. Drinking a glass of water is a common action that is neither an act nor an act. The word "act" is often used in jurisprudence to refer to an action or omission that violates legal norms. For example, in the legislation "a crime is an illegal, socially dangerous, guilty act."

Result of activity

Result- this is the final result, the state in which the need is satisfied (in whole or in part). For example, the result of study can be knowledge, skills, the result -, the result of scientific activity - ideas and inventions. The result of the activity can be itself, because in the course of activity it develops and changes.

An activity is a system consisting of individual components. Allocate such components of activity as actions, operations, goals, motives, etc. Each of these components is presented at a certain level of activity.

1. The purpose of the activity is twofold: it is both an objective (reflected) phenomenon, and its reflection - a mental phenomenon. But the goal of activity as a mental phenomenon is an objective goal reworked by the personality, taking into account the determining role of needs. At the same time, the determining role of needs is manifested in the process of developing motives, when choosing ways to achieve an already set goal. The goal as a mental phenomenon is a pre-conscious and planned result of human activity.

If any particular activity is taken as a whole, then the purpose of the activity is one of its substructures. Other substructures of this activity are its motives as incentives for actions, the ways of its implementation and the results as its result. If we are talking about mental activity, then its elements will be the mental phenomena included in it, and in particular those with the help of which this activity is performed. If they mean physical activity (the initial form of which is physical labor), then physiological phenomena, and above all movements, are added to mental phenomena as elements of activity. The concept of "workers' movement" as a physiological one should not be confused with the psychological concept of "action". Consequently, the structure of any activity can be laid down in such a general scheme: goal - motive - method - result. The motives of activity and the needs of the individual are in dialectical unity as one of the manifestations of the unity of consciousness and activity. As it was said, a need is a personal manifestation of an individual's attitude as an attribute of his consciousness. Persistent needs (beginning with vague desires and up to conscious active convictions) are personality traits - forms of its orientation. But these same relationships, needs and properties of orientation, being included in the structure of activity, become its motives.

2. Motive is a mental phenomenon that becomes an incentive to a certain activity. After all, “motif” in French means “incitement”. Mental processes, states, and personality traits can act as motives. The former are spoken of as unstable, situational, sometimes even random motives. The second and especially the third are persistent motives, the last of which are at the same time properties of the substructure of the personality's orientation. They can be simple and complex in their structure, including in their structure and properties of the personality of its lower levels.

Motives and abilities are two mental phenomena and, accordingly, two psychological concepts included both in the concept of personality and in the concept of activity. If a motive is a personal motivation for a certain activity, then an ability is a personal possibility of the quality level of this activity. Therefore, motives, like abilities, can be both potential, not yet included in the structure of the actually performed activity, or actual, included in it. Depending on their persistence, it is necessary to distinguish between the motives of activity and the motives of individual actions. Sometimes they can match, but not always.

3. Action - an element of activity that achieves a specific, not decomposable into simpler, conscious goals. A skill can be immediately defined as an action that automates in the process of its formation and becomes an operation as a component of a more complex skill.

The action has its own psychological dynamic structure, which includes: the goal that gave rise to its need, the desire to achieve it, interest, experiencing difficulty or, on the contrary, ease, and the corresponding degree of volitional tension, and mental acts on the basis of which this action is performed. .

In a person, external conditions that affect him determine his activity, mediated by his internal conditions. The conscious activity of a person is the result of external conditions, mediated by internal conditions and being a personality. In the life of man as an organism, this regularity is common with animals. The mental activity of animals is also mediated by internal conditions, which are the individual psychological characteristics of a given individual.

The unity of activity and personality is most clearly manifested in three groups of mental phenomena - skills, habits and deeds.

Skill is the ability to perform certain activities or actions in new conditions, formed on the basis of previously acquired knowledge and skills. In skills, skills as learned actions have become personality traits and its abilities for new actions. Skills are developed on the basis of knowledge, and on their basis, skills are developed.

Skills are partially automated actions that are formed as a result of exercises. Skills are necessary in any work and human activity. Each profession involves certain skills that make it possible to act quickly and confidently and achieve the best results with minimal energy.

Automated actions are those actions that, as a result of many repetitions, cease to be conscious of us. We write without thinking about how to write this or that letter. But there was a time when each of us learned to write, diligently deduced each element of the letter.

Useful automation of a skill should not be confused with automatisms in labor activity that are beyond the control of consciousness. Even a highly automated work skill remains under the control of consciousness and is a part of conscious activity. Combining with other actions during the exercise, a highly automated skill can cease to be an independent action and becomes a way to perform a more complex action. The psychological criterion for the transition of a skill into a way of performing a more complex skill is the termination of awareness of the previously realized elementary goal and its subordination to the awareness of a more general goal, now becoming elementary.

The formation of skills is associated with the formation of plastic skills, although it is not limited to this. It is a prerequisite and the most important task of mastery formation. The psychological basis of skills is the understanding of the relationship between the purpose of this work activity, the conditions and methods of its implementation. Skill is closely related to creative thinking, as it relies not only on skills, but also on knowledge.

The professional skills acquired by a person not only determine the quality of his work activity and enrich his experience, but also become the qualities of his personality, his skill, and he himself becomes a craftsman. This shows the unity of human activity and personality.

Even more clearly the unity of activity and personality is manifested in actions. An act is an action perceived by the acting personality itself as an act that expresses its certain attitude (to other people, to itself or to work, etc.).

The act manifests the highest level of personality structure - its orientation. Just as activity is made up of actions, so moral activity is made up of actions. The latter is often referred to as "behavior". Behavior is the outward expression of activity, taken into account without its subjective component. Therefore, the term "behavior" can be applied not only to humans, but also to animals and even to robots.

4. Operation - one of the components of the activity, determined by the conditions for performing the action. An operation is a way to perform an action. The same operation can be included in the structure of different actions. For example, you can memorize poems in preparation for a literature lesson (when performing a learning action) or to train memory (when performing a mnemonic action). Similarly, the same action can be performed by different operations: often, in order to prepare for a responsible speech, the speaker uses the method of memorizing the text, but sometimes he uses mnemonic means - the placement method, the keyword method, etc. Operations are formed in two ways: using imitation and by automating actions. Unlike actions, operations are little conscious.

The level of psychophysiological foundations of activity is formed by the features of the course of various mental processes, the specifics of systemic psychophysiology, etc.

The level structure of activity ensures the ambiguity of the subject's interaction with the world. In the process of this interaction, the formation of a mental image takes place, the implementation and change of the relations of a person mediated by it with the objective world

Joint activity is also internally heterogeneous and is divided into subtypes: for example, directly-joint - "activity together" and indirectly-joint - "activity side by side".

more traditional is, apparently, the classification of activities according to their subject area, that is, according to professional affiliation. As a result, all those professions that exist today, as well as specializations within these professions, are distinguished. Thus, there is a classification developed by E. A. Klimov, which distinguishes five main types of professional activity: "man - technology", "man - man", "man - nature", "man - sign", "man - artistic image" .

4. Activities are also divided into executive and managerial (organizational). The first is characterized by the fact that the subject of labor directly affects its object, although it contacts with other subjects. The second (administrative) usually does not provide for such a direct impact. However, it necessarily implies the organization by one subject of the activities of other people, as well as a hierarchy of their subordination.

5. In applied terms, it is important to divide activity into direct and indirect. In the first case, a person directly affects the object and just as directly receives information from it. In the second case, information about the subject of labor is transmitted to a person through intermediate links: in the form of tables on the screen or in any other sign form. Such is, for example, operator-type activity

(according to Andreeva). The specific content of various forms of joint activity is a certain ratio of individual "contributions" that are made by the participants. So one of the schemes proposes to single out three possible forms, or models: 1) when each participant does his part of the common work independently of the others - "joint-individual activity" (an example is some production teams, where each member has his own task); 2) when a common task is performed sequentially by each participant - "joint-sequential activity" (an example is a pipeline); 3) when there is a simultaneous interaction of each participant with all the others - "jointly interacting activity" (example - sports teams, research teams or design bureaus) (Umaisky, 1980, p. 131

forms of joint activity: people do not just communicate in the process of performing various functions, but they always communicate in some activity, "about" it. Thus, an active person always communicates: his activity inevitably intersects with the activity of other people. But it is precisely this intersection of activities that creates certain relations of an active person not only to the object of his activity, but also to other people. It is communication that forms the community of individuals performing joint activities.

Sometimes activity and communication are considered not as parallel interrelated processes, but as two sides of a person's social existence; his way of life Lomov, 1976. S. 130. In other cases, communication is understood as a certain aspect of activity: it is included in any activity, is its element, while the activity itself can be considered as a condition for communication Leontiev, 1975. S. 289. Communication can be interpreted as a special kind of activity. Within this point of view, two varieties of it are distinguished: in one of them, communication is understood as a communicative activity, or the activity of communication, acting independently at a certain stage of ontogenesis, for example, among preschoolers Lisina, 1996. In the other, communication is generally understood as one of the types of activity (meaning primarily speech activity).

In our opinion, the broadest understanding of the connection between activity and communication is expedient, when communication is considered both as a side of joint activity (since activity itself is not only labor, but also communication in the labor process), and as its original derivative.

In real practical human activity, the main question is not so much how the subject communicates, but about what he communicates. People communicate not only about the activities with which they are associated.

Through communication activities are organized and enriched. Building a joint activity plan requires each participant to have an optimal understanding of its goals, objectives, and capabilities of each of the participants. The inclusion of communication in this process makes it possible to carry out “coordination” or “mismatch” of the activities of individual participants Leontiev, 1997. P. 63. Activity through communication is not just organized, but enriched, new connections and relationships between people arise in it.

18) Definition of the concept of "conflict".

"Conflict", like many other concepts, has several interpretations. So, in the broadest sense of the word, conflict is a clash of parties, opinions, and forces. However, according to E. A. Zamedlina, with such an approach, one can assume that conflicts are also possible in inanimate nature. “The concepts of “conflict” and “contradiction” actually become comparable in scope” E. A. Zamedlina. Conflictology. M - RIOR, 2005, from 4..

Based on this, it becomes necessary to single out a narrower definition of conflict, applicable only to living beings, including humans. Melnikova N.A. defines the conflict as "an open clash of opposing positions, interests, views, opinions of the subjects of interaction" N.A. Melnikova. Crib on social psychology. M - Allele-2000, 2005, p.27. In this case, the subject of conflict interaction can be an individual, people or groups of people.

Hence, Zamedlina proposes to narrow the broad understanding of conflict and to consider that conflicts can only arise during social interaction. The essence of the conflict lies not so much in the emergence of a contradiction, a clash of interests, but in the way of resolving the contradiction that has arisen, in the opposition of the subjects of social interaction as a whole.

Based on all of the above, the full definition of this concept can be considered: "conflict is the most acute way to resolve significant contradictions that arise in the process of assistance, which consists in countering the subjects of the conflict and is usually accompanied by negative emotions" E. A. Zamedlina. Conflictology.

Conflicts are manifested in communication, behavior, activities. These are the so-called spheres of counteraction of the subjects of the conflict. Therefore, it is obvious that conflicts are studied not only by social psychology, but also by such sciences as military sciences, history, pedagogy, political science, jurisprudence, psychology, sociobiology, sociology, philosophy, economics, etc.

(for the rest, see conflictology)

19) In any conflict, the main participants are people. They can act as private, official or legal persons, and also unite in groups. Depending on the main participants, the following types of conflicts are distinguished:

* intrapersonal - an acute negative experience caused by a protracted struggle between the structures of the inner world of the individual, reflecting conflicting connections with the social environment and delaying decision making;

* interpersonal -- occurs between two (or more) separate individuals. At the same time, there is a confrontation about the needs, motives, goals, values ​​and / or attitudes of various people;

* personal-group - often occurs in case of inconsistency of the individual's behavior with group norms and expectations;

* intergroup. In this case, there may be a clash of stereotypes of behavior, norms, goals and/or values ​​of different groups.

According to the degree of participation in the conflict (from direct opposition to indirect influence on its course), the following are distinguished:

* the main participants in the conflict (or opposing sides) - subjects that directly perform active (offensive or defensive) actions against each other;

* support groups - forces that, by active actions or by their presence, can fundamentally influence the course and outcome of the conflict;

* other participants - subjects that have an episodic influence on the course and results of the conflict (for example, instigators, mediators, i.e. mediators and judges, organizers of the conflict).

4. The subject of the conflict is an objectively existing or imaginary problem that serves as a source of contention between the parties. This is the main contradiction, because of which and for the sake of the solution of which the parties enter into confrontation.

The object of the conflict is a material, social or spiritual value lying at the intersection of the mutual interests of the parties, which both opponents seek to possess or use.

The nature of any disagreement is essentially determined by the external environment in which the conflict occurs. The most important conditions for the course of the conflict:

* spatio-temporal (the place where the contradiction unfolds and the time during which it must be resolved);

* socio-psychological (the climate in the conflicting group, the type and level of interaction (communication), the degree of confrontation and the state of the participants in the conflict)

* social (involvement in the conflict of interests of various social groups: gender, family, professional, ethnic and national).

Typically, conflict analysis distinguishes four main categories: the structure of the conflict, its dynamics, functions and typology.

Let's briefly consider each of them.

There is a different understanding of the structure of the conflict. Thus, the following concepts are distinguished: the parties (participants) of the conflict, the conditions for its course, the images of the situation, the possible actions of the participants, the outcomes of conflict actions.

There are several components in the psychological structure of conflicts.

1. Cognitive components. Mutual perception of the characteristics of each of the conflicting parties; intellectual abilities of information processing and decision making; the degree of involvement of the individual in a conflict situation at various stages of its development; the level of self-control of the participants in the conflict; experience in working with people and professional readiness; self-awareness, self-understanding and objectivity in assessing one's capabilities.

2. The emotional components of the conflict are a set of experiences of its participants.

3. Volitional components are manifested as a set of efforts aimed at overcoming disagreements and other difficulties arising from the confrontation of the parties, and at achieving the goals pursued by the participants in the conflict.

4. The motivational components of the conflict form its core and characterize the essence of the discrepancy between the positions of the participants in the confrontation.

In addition, the structure of the conflict includes the subject of the conflict, which is understood as everything about which the confrontation arose. The subject of the conflict is characterized by the following features.

First, it can be both material and psychological.

Secondly, it is always significant enough for the participants in the confrontation, although this significance can be purely situational.

Thirdly, from a practical point of view, overcoming significant difficulties in determining the subject in a real conflict is usually justified and compensated by the ability to relatively accurately predict the behavior of the opposing side, since the subject of the conflict is one of the factors that determine this behavior.

The dynamics of the conflict. In the general scheme of the dynamics of the conflict, seven stages of its development are distinguished:

1) pre-conflict stage;

2) the stage associated with the emergence of an objective conflict situation;

3) intellectual stage of development;

4) a critical stage of development;

5) a decrease in tension in opposition;

6) comparison of official and unofficial assessments of behavior;

7) resolution of the conflict or withdrawal from it by one of the parties.

conflict functions. Usually, two functions of conflicts are distinguished: destructive and constructive. When determining the functions of a real conflict, a specific approach is needed, since the same conflict can be destructive in one respect and constructive in another, play a negative role at one stage of development, in some specific circumstances, and a positive one at another stage, in another situation.

Constructive conflict happens when opponents do not go beyond ethical standards, business relations and reasonable arguments. The resolution of such a conflict leads to the development of relations between people and the development of the group (in accordance with one of the laws of dialectics, which states that the struggle of opposites is the source of development).

A destructive conflict arises in two cases: when one of the parties stubbornly and firmly insists on its position and does not want to take into account the interests of the other side; when one of the opponents resorts to morally condemned methods of struggle, seeks to psychologically suppress the partner, discrediting and humiliating him.

Causes of constructive conflicts:

Unfavorable working conditions;

Imperfect wage system;

Shortcomings in the organization of work;

Irritability of work;

overtime work;

Omissions in technology (especially those from which the employee's earnings suffer, and not through his fault);

Mismatch of rights and obligations;

Lack of clarity in the distribution of responsibilities, in particular, ineffective, too vague or outdated job descriptions;

Low level of labor and executive discipline;

Conflictogenic (i.e., contributing to the emergence of conflicts) organizational structures.

A positive resolution of a constructive conflict is, first of all, the elimination of shortcomings, the reasons that led to it. And since these reasons are objective, reflecting the imperfection of management organizations, their elimination means the improvement of the organization itself.

Destructive conflicts are most often generated by subjective causes, which include the wrong actions of the leader and subordinates, as well as the psychological incompatibility of individuals.

ACTIVITY - a dynamic system of active interactions of the subject with the outside world, during which the subject purposefully influences the object, due to which he satisfies his needs; there is the appearance and embodiment in the object of a mental image and the realization of the relations of the subject mediated by it in objective reality.
Each specific activity has its own individual structure, which refines the general structure inherent in any activity. The latter includes: the general goal of the activity, its motives (as motivations), individual actions, including skills (ways to achieve a common goal), and the mental acts included in them, and the results of the activity. The goal is the mental result of the activity (i.e., what a person acts for), and the motive is the motivating force of the action (i.e., why a person acts). So, for example, when performing a specific task (making a tool), the goal is the independent production of this tool, and the motive is mastering the techniques and methods of work that are part of the particular profession being studied.
Any activity, starting with preparation for it and ending with the achievement of the goal, is carried out as a result of many interrelated actions.
The structure of activities includes:
1) motives - prompting the subject to activity;
2) goals - as the predicted results of this activity;
3) operations by means of which the activity is carried out.
In human activity, its external (physical) and internal (mental) sides are inextricably linked. The external side - the movements with the help of which a person influences the external world - is determined and regulated by internal (mental) activity, motivational, cognitive, volitional. On the other hand, all this internal, mental activity is directed and controlled by the external one, which reveals the properties of things, processes, carries out their purposeful transformations, reveals the degree of adequacy (correspondence) of mental models, as well as the degree of coincidence of the results of actions with the expected.
When analyzing activities, three plans for its consideration are distinguished:
1) genetic - in it, the initial form of any human activity is joint social activity, and internalization acts as a mechanism for the development of the psyche, during which there is a transition from external in form of activity to internal activity;
2) structural-functional - the basis of such a consideration of the structure of activity is the principle of analysis "by units": the decomposition of reality into "units" containing the main properties inherent in it as a whole; hierarchical relationships between units of activity are mobile, and depending on the place of the reflected object in the structure of activity, the content of reflection of the mental, the level of reflection (conscious or unconscious) and the type of regulation of activity (voluntary or involuntary) change;
3) dynamic - here, when considering the activity, the mechanisms that ensure the movement of the activity itself are studied: supra-situational activity, which determines the self-development of the activity and the emergence of its new forms; an attitude that determines the stability of purposeful activity in a changing reality.
Activity is carried out on the basis of psychophysiological mechanisms studied in line with the physiology of activity (the concept of levels of construction of movements), the theory of functional systems (acceptor of the results of action) and ideas about the systemic organization of higher mental functions.

31. Game, teaching and work and their psychological characteristics

Play, learning and work - they should be considered as the main activities of people.
A game is a type of activity that does not result in the production of any material or ideal product (with the exception of business and design games for adults and children). Games often have the character of entertainment, they are aimed at getting rest. Sometimes games serve as a means of symbolic relaxation of tensions that have arisen under the influence of the actual needs of a person, which he is not able to weaken in any other way.
There are several types of games: individual and group, subject and story, role-playing and games with rules. Individual games are a type of activity when one person is occupied with the game, group games include several individuals. Object games are associated with the inclusion of any objects in a person's gaming activity. Story games unfold according to a certain scenario, reproducing it in basic detail. Role-playing games allow a person to behave, limited to a specific role that he takes on in the game. Finally, games with rules are governed by a certain system of rules for the behavior of their participants. Often in life there are mixed types of games: object-role-playing, plot-role-playing, story-based games with rules, etc. The relationships that develop between people in the game, as a rule, are artificial in the sense of the word, that they are not taken seriously by others and are not the basis for conclusions about a person. Play behavior and play relationships have little effect on real relationships between people, at least among adults.
Nevertheless, games are of great importance in people's lives. For children, games are primarily of developmental importance, while for adults they serve as a means of communication and relaxation. Some forms of gaming activity acquire the character of rituals, training sessions, and sports hobbies.
Teaching acts as a kind of activity, the purpose of which is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. Teaching can be organized and carried out in special educational institutions. It can be unorganized and occur along the way, in other activities as their side, additional result. In adults, learning can acquire the character of self-education. Features of educational activity are that it directly serves as a means of psychological development of the individual.
Labor occupies a special place in the system of human activity. It was thanks to labor that man built a modern society, created objects of material and spiritual culture, transformed the conditions of his life in such a way that he discovered the prospects for further, practically unlimited development. First of all, the creation and improvement of labor tools is connected with labor. They, in turn, were a factor in increasing labor productivity, the development of science, industrial production, technical and artistic creativity.
In labor, not only the technique of labor is essential, but also the attitude of man to labor. It is in it that the main motives of human labor activity are concluded. This subjective relation of man to labor is due to the objective social relations reflected in the minds of people. Normally, work is a basic human need. To work means to show oneself in activity. In labor, as in the real activity of a person, all aspects and manifestations of his personality participate to one degree or another. Each type of labor has its own more or less complex technique that must be mastered. Therefore, knowledge and skills always play a more or less significant role in labor. No work is possible without knowledge and skills.
Thus, labor occupies a special place in the system of human activity. It was thanks to labor that man built a modern society, created objects of material and spiritual culture, transformed the conditions of his life in such a way that he discovered the prospects for further, practically unlimited development. First of all, the creation and improvement of labor tools is connected with labor. They, in turn, were a factor in increasing labor productivity, the development of science, industrial production, technical and artistic creativity.

The study shows that the higher the evolutionary form of activity, the more complex its structure, apparently, the stronger the differentiation of parts, aspects and elements of this activity should be expressed. If at the inorganic level the isolation of its structural components causes certain difficulties, then at the biological and social levels the difficulty lies in their large number. A large variety of parts, sides and elements does not allow us to clearly and definitely single out the main and leading ones among them. The advantage of the socio-philosophical approach to activity as a universal property of matter lies precisely in the fact that it makes it possible to abstract from this particular diversity and single out only what is characteristic of activity in general, regardless of the specifics of its evolutionary forms.

Structure of activity

Many opinions have been expressed about the structure of activity in the philosophical and sociological literature. Ultimately, they can be divided into two main groups. Some authors reduce the whole problem to the diversity of forms of human activity. So, B. A. Grushin offers three classification series, which includes certain "types" of activity. First of all, according to the nature of the expended energy, he distinguishes between activities associated with the expenditure of predominantly muscular, mental and psychic forces. Then, according to the composition, he differentiates “objective activity”, “information activity” and “the play of physiological or mental forces”. Finally, according to the general character, he distinguishes "production", "consumption" and "communication".

Other authors seek to reveal the inner structure of human activity, but seriously differ among themselves on the question of the composition of its constituent elements. According to M. S. Kvetnoy, for example, the internal, "esoteric" section includes four "constituting elements of any activity": 1) needs and interests, 2) motives and goals, 3) actions and means, 4) products.

M. S. Kagan considers "it is possible to isolate three main elements of activity... the subject, endowed with activity and directing it to objects or other subjects; an object, to which the activity of the subject (more precisely, the subjects) is directed; this activity itself expressed in one or another way of mastering the object by the subject or in establishing the subject of communicative interaction with others ". In turn, E. G. Yudin recognizes the existence of four elements of activity - "goal, means, result and the process of activity itself" . And from the point of view of L Nikolov, it is impossible to talk about activity at all, "if three elements are not distinguished - a producer, an object, a product ...".

As we can see, all the named authors in the proposed structures of activity quite obviously do not distinguish between activity and interaction. They, in essence, identify these phenomena, while activity is just those directed changes in the process of interaction that occur inside the interacting bodies. Activity is a property of each of the parties of interaction. Therefore, when it comes to the activity of a subject or an object, it is necessary to conduct an analysis in a differentiated way: separately investigate the activity of the subject and separately the activity of the object, since both of them are active. And if the subject and object are taken together, and even supplemented by other "elements", then this is no longer an activity, but a certain form of interaction. In addition, it is apparently illogical to single out some other "activity" or "activity" as a special "element" in the structure of activity. An activity cannot include itself as a structural entity.

The conducted general philosophical and general sociological analysis allows us to conclude that activity, being a universal property of matter, has as many forms as there are levels of development of matter and forms of its movement. Obviously, there are five forms of activity: mechanical, physical, chemical, biological and social. All of them are material. However, it is quite clear that each of them has its own characteristics, the study of which is a separate scientific task. These basic evolutionary forms of activity, in turn, are divided into specific classes and types with all sorts of subspecies, which are most closely intertwined with each other.

Each evolutionary form of activity has its own specific laws that determine the way in which certain integral objects (individuals) change. These laws characterize the level of development of matter, as well as the meaningful originality that is characteristic of a given group of phenomena. In any evolutionary form of activity, the specificity of objective interaction is fixed at the corresponding stage of the development of the material world. Since these forms of activity are qualitatively different from each other, the transition from one form to another occurs in leaps and bounds.

These five basic evolutionary forms of activity are not isolated from each other, but are interconnected and exist in such a way that one is the basis for the emergence of another, higher one. For example, physical activity arises on the basis of mechanical activity, chemical activity is formed on the basis of the latter, and so on. There are strictly hierarchical dependencies between them, under the influence of which the lowest form of activity is mechanical, and the highest - social.

At the same time, lower forms of activity can be included in higher ones, but they do not already play a decisive role in them, but are subordinate. Higher forms of activity are of primary, leading importance here. It is they that determine the specifics of the flow of certain processes, the specifics of the connections and relationships that are characteristic of these active objects. However, the higher forms of activity cannot be included in the lower ones. This is explained by the fact that more complex and developed structures are inaccessible to simpler and less developed forms of activity.

Of course, the structure of social activity is extremely complex. But if you try to highlight the main thing, then, ultimately, you can structure it according to at least three criteria: 1) satisfaction of basic social needs, 2) external (exoteric) mechanism of implementation, 3) internal (esoteric) mechanism of implementation (Fig. 3.1) .

If for classification we choose such a criterion as the satisfaction of basic social needs, then four main forms can be distinguished in the composition of social activity: work, rest, life and study. They are mutual

Rice. 3.1.

condition and complement each other. The main and defining among them is labor. He created man not only historically. In reality, each person acquires social significance and necessity only through work. Labor is the main form of human activity.

What is labor? The term "work" is usually used in two senses. In a broad sense - to refer to the process in which a person through his activity mediates, regulates and controls the metabolism between himself and nature. In this sense, labor is an eternal natural condition of human life and therefore inherent in all its social forms. In a narrow sense, the concept of "labor" is used in the conditions of commodity production to refer to any paid human activity. On the wages received for their work, people acquire the necessary material and spiritual benefits that ensure their existence. The concept of "labor" in the narrow sense, in essence, is synonymous with the concept of "labor force".

In the conditions of market relations, labor, like any commodity, has a dual character. On the one hand, it acts as a use value, i.e. in its concrete form - the labor of a grain grower, machine builder, teacher, etc. In use value, the quality of labor is realized - the specialization and level of professional training of the worker, his skill, skill, etc. On the other hand, labor is the bearer of exchange or commodity value. Labor as value also contains abstract human labor. In the latter, differences in useful types of labor expended on the formation and reproduction of a given labor force disappear. The value of labor is also determined by the amount of labor time socially necessary for its formation (reproduction of labor force).

Consequently, the use value of labor characterizes the quality of labor that is expended on the production of labor power, and the value of labor characterizes the amount of labor used for these purposes. The most complete value of labor is expressed in the standard of living of the worker, i.e. the degree of satisfaction of his material and spiritual needs, the provision of consumer goods. Labor, although based on the natural properties (abilities) of a person, is a social property acquired in the process of socialization. Labor as a commodity is created by consuming a variety of goods produced by other labor.

Labor as a paid activity of people is characterized by the same features as social activity in general. It also has a social character, is aimed at performing functions common to any social group, necessarily includes consciousness (ideal) and is carried out by artificially created means.

As a paid social activity, labor is oriented towards the production of goods and services for others. In contrast, rest, life and study of a person are focused on satisfying primarily their own (personal) needs. True, a person satisfies one part of these needs through personal unpaid activities. While the second - at the expense of the paid labor of other people. With the growth of social and personal wealth, people satisfy an increasing part of their needs for recreation, life, and study through the purchase of paid services performed by hired workers. When the financial situation worsens, the standard of living decreases, on the contrary, these needs are satisfied at the expense of their own unpaid activities.

In social science, along with the concept of "public activity", the concept of "public life" is quite often used. How do they relate to each other? It seems that these two concepts have identical content and therefore they should be used as synonyms.

If we take an external (exoteric) mechanism for the implementation of social activity, which is directly and directly related to the final result, then we will get another very specific activity structure. In the most general form, six spheres connected in pairs can be distinguished in social activity: production and non-production, material and spiritual, humanitarian (often called not quite correctly "social") and non-humanitarian. These pairs do not exist in isolation from each other, but are closely intertwined, but in such a way that each retains its own specificity. As a result, in the production and non-production spheres there are material and spiritual, as well as humanitarian and non-humanitarian spheres. And vice versa.

Indeed, material production is divided into the production of people and the production of things, and spiritual production is divided into the spiritual production (education) of people and the production of ideas (social consciousness). In the material and non-productive sphere, one can similarly distinguish between the sphere of material services for people and the sphere of servicing things, and in the spiritually non-productive sphere, the sphere of spiritual service for people and the sphere for servicing ideas (for example, design serves various concepts of technology). Therefore, the material and spiritual production of people, as well as their material and spiritual service, form the humanitarian sphere, and the material production and service of things, together with the spiritual production and service of ideas, form the non-humanitarian sphere (Fig. 3.2).

It should be emphasized that when it comes to the production and service of people (material and spiritual), this

Rice. 3.2.

involves not only and not so much the production and maintenance of an individual (which is also important), but the production and maintenance of social communities (classes, nations, states) defined for each historical period. Each of these spheres, in turn, is subdivided into even smaller ones or combined with others and forms larger ones.

In this regard, the economy of the post-capitalist (and post-socialist) information society is intended to have a clearly expressed humanitarian character. By its very nature, it requires guidelines aimed at ever more complete satisfaction of the comprehensive needs of people. Therefore, the new relations of production must include not only the production and service of things, but also material production and the service of people. The interests and needs of concrete individuals must be placed at the center of the economic activity of Russian society, of all social development.

The selection of these six areas of social activity is extremely important for maintaining social balance at any stage of social movement. The fact is that none of these areas can receive significant advantages in its development, especially for a long time. Between these spheres, a state of equal size, equivalence, social balance should always be established. If this balance is disturbed for any reason, then such a society begins to feverish, sometimes quite significantly. This is exactly what happened to Soviet society, which for more than 75 years focused on the production sector to the detriment of everyone else.

Of particular importance for the essential characteristics of social activity is the analysis of its internal structure, the identification of the main elements, parties, factors, regulators and the establishment of mechanisms for interaction between them. According to the internal (esoteric) mechanism of implementation in the structure of social activity, one can single out, firstly, two initial elements - actual activity and accumulated activity; secondly, two main aspects - theory and practice; thirdly, two factors - social information and social organization; finally, fourthly, there are two regulators - social management and social dismanagement. An analysis of these activity parts will be given in subsequent paragraphs and chapters.

• Questions of Philosophy. 1977. No. 2. S. 29–30.
• Kvetnoy M.S. Human activity: essence, structure, types (sociological aspect). pp. 32–33.
• Kagan M.S. Human activity (experience of system analysis). pp. 45–46.
• Yudin E. G. System approach and principle of activity. S. 268.
• Nicholas L. Structures of human activity. S. 57.

So, we found out that activity is that form of an active attitude to reality, through which a real connection is established between a person and the world around him. Through activity, a person influences nature, things, other people. Consider what elements the activity consists of

In the structure of activity it is necessary, first of all, to distinguish subject and an object activities. Subject - the one who carries out the activity. Individuals, a group of people, an organization, a state body can act as a subject.

An object – this is what the activity is aimed at. Individual objects, processes, phenomena, the internal state of a person can act as an object. For example, a coach influences an athlete (trains him). The object of the artist's activity is the audience in the hall (audience). Finally, the activity of the subject can be directed at himself (a person consciously trains his body, tempers it, educates the will, engages in self-education, etc.). For example, a medieval dyer (subject of activity) affects the fabric; a brigade of builders-finishers can be considered as a subject of a house under construction, and the Ministry of Education - as a subject of managerial activity in relation to all educational institutions of the country

Target – it is a conscious image of the anticipated result, the achievement of which is aimed at. For example, an artist, a potter, or a gunsmith first comes up with an image of what a landscape might be, or a pot, or a blade. His image can be shown in a drawing, a three-dimensional model, but first it appears in the minds of the above professions. A statesman, starting reforms, must have a clear idea of ​​their result. The teacher must be aware of what knowledge and skills students will receive as a result of his pedagogical activity.

So, the goal is what is presented in the mind and expected as a result of a certain way directed activity.

Can a person set any goal he wants? With flint, one can set out to make an arrowhead, but one cannot make a bow out of it. Consequently, the goal of the activity may not be any image of the desired, but only one that corresponds to the real possibilities of the surrounding world and the subject of the activity itself. The goal is determined more precisely, the better the subject of activity knows what are the real means and conditions for achieving it. “Who should be considered smart?” asked the Syrian thinker of the thirteenth century. Abu al-Faraj. And he answered: "The one who strives only for an achievable goal."

When the goal is defined, its achievement or failure of the activity depends on funds . To build a house, building materials, mechanisms, tools and other means of production are needed. To grow a crop, you need seeds, tools, a system of agricultural techniques, etc. To teach students to read and write, you need textbooks, notebooks, effective teaching methods, etc. The means must correspond to the goal. When they say: "Fire sparrows with a cannon," this means that the means do not correspond to the goal. Recall the fable: the bear, in order to save the owner from the mosquito that annoyed him, slammed the first one with a club.

In this regard, the question arises: is the goal achievable by dishonest means? End justifies the means? The Russian writer N. S. Leskov wrote: “No noble goal justifies measures that are contrary to the principles of human happiness.” This means that not any measures are suitable for achieving a noble goal, but only noble ones. A good end cannot be achieved by unworthy, unkind means. Unkind means lead to the fact that the result differs significantly from the goal: it also becomes unkind. The centuries-old experience of mankind convinces us of the validity of these conclusions.

Any activity appears before us as a chain of actions. Recall that action – is a meaningful manifestation of human activity in the external environment. Thus, educational activities include a variety of activities: writing lectures, reading books, solving problems, etc. The activities of astronauts include observing the Earth, adjusting instruments, conducting experiments, repair work, training, etc. The activities of a farmer - plowing, sowing, weeding, harvesting.

German sociologist M. Weber(1864-1920), speaking of social actions, divided actions depending on their motives into goal-oriented, value-rational, affective and traditional.

Purposeful rational action characterized by a rationally set and thoughtful goal. The individual whose behavior is focused on the goal, means and possible side effects of his actions acts purposefully rationally. In this case, the individual rationally considers the relationship of means to the goal and side effects, the conditions for achieving the plan. The inner core of goal-oriented activity is the achievement useful, profitable for the subject result.

Value-rational action It is characterized by the fact that a person adjusts his actions not with considerations of utility or benefit, but with his own ideas about honor, duty, about what is good and what is bad. Such action is subject to principles, commandments, requirements. It is based on a belief in aesthetic, religious or other value certain behaviour.

traditional action It is formed on the basis of following tradition, that is, imitation of certain patterns of behavior that have developed in culture and are approved by it, and therefore are practically not subject to rational comprehension and criticism. Such an action is carried out largely purely automatically, according to established stereotypes, it is characterized by the desire to focus on habitual patterns of behavior that have developed on the basis of one's own experience and the experience of previous generations. Despite the fact that traditional actions do not at all imply the development of an orientation towards new opportunities (and perhaps just for this reason), perhaps it is precisely this that makes up the lion's share of all actions performed by individuals. To some extent, people's commitment to commit traditional serves as the basis for the stability of the existence of society and the predictability of the behavior of its members.

affective action due to the emotional state of the individual - an outbreak of passion, hatred, anger, horror, etc.

So, actions – this is an elementary part of activity in which the simplest goal is achieved, not decomposed into simpler ones. Each action has a beginning and an end, a semantic completion, and is aimed at achieving relatively close goals. Action is always conscious to some extent. deeds called actions that are subject to moral principles, morality. Their social significance is recognized by man. Therefore, the actions of people in their content are noble and unworthy, positive and negative. At the same time, an act is also a way of carrying out any specific action. How many different ways to perform an action, so many different actions can be distinguished.

The unity of actions and deeds performed in the game, learning and work is a human activity. In it, a person is formed and manifests himself as a person with consciousness. To this it should be added that the influence of activity on the formation of the consciousness of a particular person largely depends on his professional orientation.

Mental processes are the most important components of any human activity. But at the same time, they do not just participate in the activity, they develop in it and themselves represent special types of activity. Thus, any activity is a combination of internal and external, mental and behavioral actions and deeds.

Automated, consciously, semiconsciously and unconsciously controlled components of activity are called respectively skills, habits and habits.

Skills– these are elements of activity that allow you to do something with high quality, for example, to accurately and correctly perform any action, operation, series of actions or operations. Skills usually include automatically performed parts called skills, but in general they are consciously controlled parts of the activity, at least in the main intermediate points and the final goal.

Skills- these are fully automated, instinctive components of skills, implemented at the level of unconscious control. If action is understood as a part of an activity that has a clearly defined conscious goal, then a skill can also be called an automated component of an action.

Exercises are of great importance in the formation of all types of skills and abilities. Thanks to them, the automation of skills, the improvement of skills, activities in general. Exercises are necessary both at the stage of developing skills and abilities, and in the process of their preservation. Without constant, systematic exercises, skills and abilities are usually lost, lose their qualities.

Another element of activity is habit. It differs from skills and abilities in that it is a so-called unproductive element of activity. If skills and abilities are associated with the solution of a problem, involve obtaining a product and are quite flexible (in the structure of complex skills), then habits are an inflexible (often unreasonable) part of an activity that is performed mechanically by a person and does not have a conscious purpose or purpose. clearly expressed productive completion. Unlike a mere habit, a habit can be consciously controlled to a certain extent. But it differs from skill in that it is not always reasonable and useful.

Finally, the most important structural element of activity is result , which can be described as the final consequence of a sequence of actions or activity as a whole. It is important to emphasize that the result is closely related to the goal, but not identical to it, since the goal describes desired, but also not achieved result. Moreover, we often face the fact that the end result of our activities does not correspond to the original plan.

Who in our country does not know the phrase thrown by V. Chernomyrdin: “We wanted the best, but it turned out, as always!”

Indeed, often the actions of people lead to other results than those to which they aspire. The philosopher G. Hegel gave such an example. Out of revenge, a person sets fire to the house of another person, the houses standing next to him catch fire, the property of other people perishes, and maybe the people themselves. The criminal did not expect such a result of his actions. The result increased his guilt, and thus he got hit back. The means he used gave rise to completely different circumstances than had been intended.

THINK: What are the reasons for the discrepancy between the goal and the result of the activity