Russian spelling
Russian spelling- a set of rules governing the spelling of words in the Russian language.
Modern Russian spelling.
The main principle of modern orthography of the Russian language is the morphological principle (the same morpheme in phonetically different forms of the word is spelled the same). Phonetic and other principles in the Russian language are of much lesser importance and are not the main ones. Simultaneous violations of both principles occur in words like shearless, bad taste.
The Russian alphabet, which is based on the Cyrillic alphabet, is used as the alphabet.
Story
Initially, individual spellings dominated the language. One of the earliest works on the theory of spelling is the work of V. K. Trediakovsky, published in 1748, where the principles for constructing the alphabet and spelling are formulated, which even the modern Russian alphabet corresponds well to. M. V. Lomonosov in the “Russian Grammar”, published in 1755, which was widely used and used for teaching the Russian language for many years, published spelling rules and such fundamental principles as ease of reading for everyone, proximity to the three main Russian dialects, proximity to morphology and pronunciation :12-15. The first academic dictionary of the Russian language was published in 1784-1794.
A fairly complete review of spelling rules in their historical perspective was carried out by J. K. Grot in 1873. He considered the main principle to be morphological in combination, to some extent, with phonetic written forms. Subsequently, the primacy of the morphological principle (as opposed to phonetic) in Russian spelling was pointed out by A. N. Gvozdev, A. I. Thomson, M. N. Peterson, D. N. Ushakov: 17-30.
In 1904, a special commission on spelling was created at the Academy of Sciences. Its subcommittee, which included such famous scientists as A. A. Shakhmatov, F. F. Fortunatov, I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, A. I. Sobolevsky, began preparing a spelling reform. The final draft of the reform was ready by 1912, the proposed changes were implemented six years later, with the Russian Spelling Reform of 1918: 262-263. Until 1918, the Russian alphabet had more letters than now. As a result of the reform of 1918, the letters yat, fita, izhitsa, and decimal were removed from the endings of words.
In 1956, the Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation of 1956 were adopted, which changed the spelling of some words and regulated the use of the letter.
Subsequently, under the leadership of V.V. Lopatin, some changes in the rules were put forward, partially reflected in the spelling dictionary edited by him.
The most important rules
Spelling of vowels at the root of words
Unstressed vowels that can be stressedst about ly - st about l
m about l about doi - m about lodost, they say about daytime
to about ditch, to about role, region a ko, b about lotto
In the roots and - and
C and pk, c and rkul, c and tata, c and nga, c and fra … and other borrowed words
Exception words: c s gan on c s kidneys approached s film and c s yelled: "ts s c".
In suffixes and endings - c s - s
Lisitsyn, Kuritsyn; streets
1) w and, sh and - and
h a, sch a - a
h at, sch at - at
F and know, h a shcha, h at before …
2) After hissing - yo:
H yo rny, w yo light, sh yo lx, h yo mouth ...
Exception words: about w about h, w about roch, capyush about n, krush about n, kryzh about penetrated, sh about ce, sh about colade, w about kay, obj about ra, live about rliv, w about ngler, h about porn, crack about weaving, weaving about ba, sh about mouths, sh about rnik, sh about mpol, sh about vinism, sh about k, w about ra, thicket about ba, h about whipped, h about roll, h about x, h about hom, w about m, f about r, f about x, vech about p, maj about p, maj about rny.
Alternating e - and, o - a at the root of the word1) b e r - b and ra-
t e r - t and ra-
d e r - d and ra-
P e r - p and ra-
m e r - m and ra-
st e l - st and la-
bl e st - bl and become
well e mrs. and ha-
d e ret - sd and breaks
st e pour - zast and layet
mind e p - mind and army
bl e stit - bl and becomes
Exception words: Op. e tânie, op e lingering, word e tânie
2) K about from - to a câ-
l about w - l a ha-
to about sleep - to a sit down
izl about zhenie - izl a goat
Exception word: floor about G
3) P about with - about
R a st - r a sch - a
exp about s, ex a sti, vyr a whelping
Exception words: Raboutstock, Raboutstislav, Raboutstov, raboutseamstress, otrasl
4) M about to - m a to
you m about kick in the rain
m a pour into liquid
5) P about vn - r a ext
R about out - r a clear
(smooth - same)
exp about heed - ur a opinion
Exception word: R a vnina
6) g about r - g a R
zag a r, g about rit
7) h about r - h a R
h a rya, s about ri, s a revo.
Spelling of consonants at the root of words
Deaf and unpronounceable consonants, which can be checked by changing the word or choosing a single-root, in which after the checked consonant there is a vowel or c, l, m, n, p, d1. Table b- table b s
jelly d b - zhelu d and.
2. Gla h ki-gla h threads
ska h ka - ska h points.
3. Zdra in stuy - hello in ie
months t ness - month t about.
Yo and O after sizzling
- Always ё: (n.) bees, bangs, rosaries, acorns, brushes; (adj.) yellow, black, crisp, silky; (vb) walked.
- Exception words: (n.) seam, rustle, hood, gooseberry, shock, shorts, chauvinism, slum, saddler, chokh, pulp, zhor, glutton, burn, ramrod, hood, ratchet, thicket, major; (adj.) gluttonous, prudish, crazy, major; (vb) clink glasses; (adv.) chohom, evening.
In suffix:
- Usually it is written o under stress, without stress - e: (n.) galch onok, hare onok, mouse onok, bear onok, circle OK, wolch OK and bell ek; (adj.) hedgehog ov oh, brocade ov th, canvas ov th and beige ev th; (adv.) hot about, fresh about, good about and smelly e.
- However: (verb) demarcation yov vyvat; (adj.) burn yonn oh, bewitch yonn th.
- Exception word: yet yo.
At the end:
- Usually under stress is written o, without stress - e: (n.) knife ohm, candle oh, doctor ohm and watchman eat, cottages her; (adj.) big wow and good his.
- However: (vb) guard et, live et, oven et.
Difficulties
Among the difficulties of mastering Russian spelling:
- The continuous or separate spelling of nouns with a prefix that turns into adverbs is not regulated by strict rules, but is determined by the dictionary ( satiety, but to death; in half, but thirds; in addition, but Finally, on dry land, but by sea).
- Writing about or yo after hissing and c inconsistently: arson(noun) at set fire to(verb), pot at potter.
- The rule of writing "not" with verbs has many exceptions: to hate, to hate, to dislike, to dislike, to miss and etc.
- Writing forms of the word "go" (root - and-) is only defined by the dictionary: go, but come and I will come. The same with the forms of the root - them-/-eat-/-I-: understand, but I will accept, I'll take and take out.
- Unpronounceable, but verifiable consonants are sometimes written, sometimes not, without a special system: “sun”, “hello”, but “pull”, “led”, “potter”.
- The double consonant at the junction of the prefix and the root is sometimes reflected in the letter, sometimes not, without a special system: “pull”, “ring”, “anticipation”, but “open”, “open”.
- A number of exceptions in the spelling "ci" / "qi" ( number, but chick), conjugation of verbs with alternation a/about fundamentally ( grow, but increased; gallop, but burn down; bow, but to worship), writing double n in full adjectives and participles, etc.
Features of spelling compound words
Some compound words violate the rules of Russian graphics:
- words like "Hitler Youth" and "Inyaz" (read "Hitler Youth" and "Inyaz");
- words like "telavivets", "costutil" and "mezzanine" (it reads "telyavivets", "costutil" and "beletage").
Criticism
The spelling of the Russian language has been repeatedly criticized by various writers and scholars. A number of opinions were collected by J. K. Grot in the book “Controversial Issues of Russian Spelling from Peter the Great to the Present” (1873). Y. K. Grot himself defended the letter yat, considering it important for distinguishing words, despite the fact that such words were not distinguished in the capital dialects of the oral Russian language. The changes in the standard of writing that have been proposed in this book have been very modest, without affecting commonly used cases with already established spellings. However, for relatively rare words (for example, “ham”, “wedding”, “cuttlefish”), a violation of the morphological nature of their spelling was noted (instead of “vyadchina”, “marriage”, “cuttlefish”).
V. V. Lopatin suggested writing in words like laden, dyed, fried, sheared, wounded always the same n regardless of whether they have syntactically subordinate words or not.
see also
Notes
Literature
- Panov M.V. And yet she's good! : A story about Russian spelling, its advantages and disadvantages / USSR Academy of Sciences .. - M .: Nauka, 1964. - 168 p. - (Popular science series). - 35,000 copies.(reg.)
- Grigoryeva T. M. Three centuries of Russian orthography (XVIII - XX centuries). - M .: Elpis, 2004. - 456 p. - 1,000 copies. - ISBN 5-902872-03-0(in trans.)
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There are a lot of articles about errors that piss everyone off. Therefore, I did not write about mistakes, but about rules - they sometimes enrage even more.
1. “On arrival” and “on arrival”, and not “on arrival” and “on arrival”
In the meaning of “after something”, the preposition “by” is used with the prepositional case: upon arrival, upon arrival, upon return.
The preposition "by" is used with the dative case if it indicates:
- on the surface or space (crawls on the table, travels around Europe);
- on the object on which the action is directed (to hit the face);
- to a person or object that they think about or miss (missing you);
- on the reason (for their stupidity);
- on the subject to which the action applies (something needs to be decided on the amendments).
And it is also used with the accusative case, when it points to an object to which the action is limited (to the very tonsils). But if we say that something will happen only after a certain event, then we need to use the prepositional case.
2. "Coffee to go" not "coffee to go"
We use adverbs when we need to describe an object. Take-away coffee is closer to the question “what?”, and not “where?” or "for what?".
In this situation, you need to use an adverb. And the adverb "take away" according to the dictionary is written together.
3. "5.5 rubles", not "5.5 rubles"
Here the proof is easy to find, for example, in Rosenthal or Milchin: with a mixed number, the fraction controls the noun. Therefore: 8.5 meters (eight point five tenths of a meter), 9½ weeks (nine point one second weeks).
Many objections: but when we see "9.5 weeks", we read "nine and a half" and not "nine point five". If you follow the rules, it turns out like this: if you need it to be read as "nine and a half," write "nine and a half."
4. “To how many”, not “to how much”
The word "how much" does not have the form "how much":
5. "Economy class", not "economy class"
The word "economy class", unlike "business class", is complexly abbreviated, not complex: the first stem is abbreviated ("economy" from "economical").
And compound words are written together: dance class (dance class), drama circle (drama circle), economy class (economy class).
6. Illogical hyphen in anglicisms
According to the dictionary, there is no hyphen in the “deadline”, but there is a hyphen in the “food court” and “checklist”.
There are many such examples - it seems that there is no definite system and words fall into the dictionary at random. One gets the feeling that borrowed words must go this way: ordeal without being entered into the dictionary; entry with an inexplicable hyphen; changing the norm to a more logical spelling without a hyphen.
7. Relentless barista
Unlike previously borrowed from the Italian giornalista (“journalist”) and even fascista (“fascist”), “barista” has not yet been assimilated: it has retained the Italian ending and is not inclined. But I think that everything will change: the language lives and changes.
Where are the proofs, Lebowski?
What to do with this information
Here are some options:
- Constantly correct interlocutors and therefore enrage everyone.
- Be furious that these norms are stupid, put into editorial policy options that seem right, and live in peace.
- To twist and prove in the comments that real people don’t say that, so it’s time to redo the norms.
- Speak as usual.
I wrote this post not to expose someone for ignorance or to encourage everyone to write as the rules require. Some of this seems very strange to me. It remains to be hoped that over time the rules will become more logical.
A truly literate person knows the rules of the language and knows how to apply them, and does not just rely on intuition. This skill comes through concentrated study of grammar. shares a detailed guide on how to memorize and apply the rules of the Russian language.
How to learn the rule and learn how to apply it
Read carefully
Things will not move forward if you study with music or with the TV on. Settle in a comfortable place and concentrate on the textbook. Read the rule carefully, paying attention to the highlighted words, examples, and diagrams. If the essence of what was written did not fit into your head right away, read the text again.
comprehend
Do not crammed, but try to understand the essence of the rule. Say each item to yourself. Incomprehensible words and formulations can be found in the dictionary. It is also worth retelling the rule in your own words. Consider the examples carefully. They show how the rule works in practice.
Russian language teacher Viktoria Romanova talks about writing compound nouns, adjectives, and adverbsRemember
By comprehending the rule, you start the process of memorization. It remains only to keep the information in my head. Retelling aloud will help with this. Memorization is hard. Learn to reproduce the theme at home, and you can easily repeat it at the blackboard or to yourself when you encounter a spelling or punctuation problem in the text.
Fix in practice
To bring to automatism the ability to write correctly is possible only in practice.After thoughtfully performed exercises, you no longer have to pronounce the rule every time. So that it does not disappear, periodically return to the theory and tasks on this topic.
What else will help you better understand and remember the rules
Mnemonics
Places in the rules where you need to remember a lot of exception words are stored in memory faster with the help of mnemonic phrases (a way of remembering information using associations). One of these: "Healing the wound, climbed a tree." This line helps to distinguish between words that sound the same in spoken language. Ready-made associations you will find in the book E. A. Lisovskaya "".
Charts and tables
To assemble a large rule into one picture, use diagrams or tables. See also the infographic atpublic Adukar in Russian.
And it’s also good to learn the language from the video. You will find videos according to all the rules that will be useful on the Central Television in our service.
Understanding word structure
To apply the rules correctly, you need to see the structure of the word.It is important to understand the spelling in the root or suffix. The easiest way to parse a lexeme into morphemes is to pick up words with the same root.
Part of speech definition
The spelling often depends on the part of speech to which the word belongs. Learn to clearly distinguish an adverb from a noun with a preposition or an infinitive fromverb in the imperative form.
Syntactic skills
To correctly punctuate, learn to understand the composition of the sentence and highlight its parts. A correctly constructed scheme of an allied sentence will save you from a punctuation error.
If the student is able to parse the sentence by members completely, then this will help him in punctuation. The scheme will come in handy for proposals with different types of communication. You also need to pay attention to the presence of turns (participial, adverbial), interjections, appeals.
Svetlana Pashukevich, teacher of Russian
Reading of books
Reading directly affects literacy. The more times you see a word, the more likely you are to spell it correctly. Even commas will fall into place intuitively if you have seen similar constructions in the text more than once.
By following these tips each time, it will be easier for you to remember the rules. The effort is worth it. In return, you get a high score on the CT, time saved to correct mistakes in important texts, respect for others and self-esteem.
If the material was useful to you, do not forget to put "I like" in our social networks
Read and see also:
Studying the history of rules
Students will better understand and, therefore, remember the rule if they delve into its history, find out who and how first formulated it, how words were written before the spelling rule appeared, why the rule was required in the spelling system at all. For such work, old editions of books on Russian grammar, starting with the works of Lomonosov, will be required. Such publications are easy to find on the Internet. You can also use copies of books from the 18th century for analysis in laboratory work. There is a history of some spelling rules in the "Can Write" website guide. For example, the rules for spelling prefixes.
Selection of words for one rule
Sometimes people remember the rule of the Russian language all their lives and do not suspect that there are only a few words for this rule in the language. Or a few dozen. For example, adverbs with a hissing at the end are only 12: 9 with a soft sign and 3 without a soft sign at the end. 3 adverbs are considered exceptions (more on the spelling rule b after hissing). And remembering the spelling of those particular words is sometimes easier than remembering the rule. But this is not interesting, but the fact that after compiling a complete list of words for the spelling rule, the student remembers this rule forever. When compiling such lists, reverse dictionaries and the search for letter combinations in electronic dictionaries help. You can also methodically write out words from exercises in different textbooks. Students can be offered ready-made lists of words for various rules. In a group of 10 - 15 people, it is easy to play games for memorizing lists. For example, in the game "auction" the winner is the one who says the last word. These methods work great in literacy training. For a class in a regular school, you can give homework to compose a story from words. Stories can be printed and made a bright wall newspaper. Each, after a long creative torment, will read what others have written and thus repeat the words many times.
Well, of course, no one has canceled the traditional dictations with commentary and polls. They should always be in the background.
Learn the rules of the Russian language in a fun way!
58. Principles of Russian spelling, spelling
SPELLING - a system of spelling rules. The main sections of spelling:
- writing morphemes in various parts of speech,
- continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling of words,
- the use of uppercase and lowercase letters,
- hyphenation.
Principles of Russian spelling. The leading principle of Russian orthography is the morphological principle, the essence of which is that morphemes common to related words retain a single style in writing, and in speech they can change depending on phonetic conditions. This principle applies to all morphemes: roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings.
Also, on the basis of the morphological principle, a uniform spelling of words related to a certain grammatical form is drawn up. For example, ь (soft sign) is a formal sign of the infinitive.
The second principle of Russian spelling is phonetic spelling, i.e. words are spelled the way they are heard. An example is the spelling of prefixes on z-s (incompetent - restless) or a change in the root of the initial and on s after prefixes ending in a consonant (play).
There is also a differentiating spelling (cf.: burn (n.) - burn (vb)) and traditional spelling (the letter and after the letters zh, sh, ts - live, sew).
A spelling is a case of choice where 1, 2, or more different spellings are possible. It is also a spelling following the spelling rules.
The spelling rule is the spelling rule of the Russian language, which spelling should be chosen depending on the language conditions.
59. Use uppercase and lowercase letters.
uppercase letter | lowercase letter |
| - It is written at the beginning of a sentence, paragraph, text (I want to go for a walk. When I do my homework, I will go outside.) - It is written at the beginning of a direct speech (She said: "Come in, please.") | - It is written in the middle and at the end of the word (mother, Russia). - It is written in the middle of a sentence if the word is not a proper name or some kind of name (He arrived late at night). |
| Written with a capital letter | Written with a lowercase letter |
Names of institutions and organizations, incl. international (State Duma, United Nations), | - names of ranks, ranks (lieutenant Popov), - the words comrade, citizen, mister, mister, etc. (Mr. Brown, Citizen Petrov) |
60. Word hyphenation rules
- Words are carried by syllables (ma-ma, ba-ra-ban),
- It is impossible to separate the consonant from the subsequent vowel (he-ro "th),
- You can’t put aside on a line or transfer part of a syllable (nothing, nothing - right; empty-yak (wrong),
- You can’t leave one vowel on a line or transfer it, even if it represents a whole syllable (ana-to-miya is right; a-to-mi-ya is wrong),
- It is impossible to tear off b (soft sign) and b (hard sign) from the previous consonant (detour, less),
- The letter and does not come off the previous vowel (rayon),
- When combining several consonants, transfer options are possible (se-stra, ses-tra, sister-ra); in such cases, such a transfer is preferable, in which the morphemes are not parsed (squeeze).
61. Spelling of vowels in the root.
If at the root the vowel is in a weak (unstressed) position, then in writing there is a problem of choosing which letter to write.
- If you can pick up a related word or change the word so that this vowel is stressed, then such a vowel is called tested. For example, pillars - one hundred "lb; reconcile (friends) - mi" r.
- If an unstressed vowel cannot be checked by stress, then such vowels are called unverifiable, and the spelling of words with such vowels must be memorized or checked using a spelling dictionary (potato "fel, elixi" r).
- Russian has a number of roots with alternating vowels. As a rule, the vowel that is heard is written under stress; the choice of a letter in an unstressed position depends on certain conditions:
- from the accent:
Gargor: under stress it is written a (zaga "r, razga" r), without stress - o (tanned "lyy, burnt out), exceptions: you" garki, and "burn, with" burn;
Zar-zor: without stress it is written a (zarni "tsa, illumine" t), under stress - what is heard (zorka, for the "roar"), exception: dawn "t;
Clan-clone: without stress it is written about (bow down, bow down), under stress - what is heard (bow down, bow down);
Creature: without stress, it is written about (create "be, create", under stress - what is heard (your "rchestvo, tva" r), exception: y "creature;
- from subsequent letters or combinations of letters:
Cascos: if the root is followed by a consonant n, then it is written o (to touch, touch), in other cases it is written a (tangential, touch);
Lag lie: before r it is written a (attach, adjective), before w it is written o (application, suggest), exceptions: by "log;
Rast- (-rasch-) - grew up: before st and u it is written a (grow", nara" shchivag), before c it is written o (for "growth, you" grew up), exceptions: o "branch, growth" k, you "rostok, usurers" to. Rosto "in;
Skak-skoch: before k it is written a (jump "be"), before h it is written o (you "jump"), exceptions: jump "to, jump";
- From the presence or absence of the suffix -a- after the root:
Ver-vir-, -der-dir, -mer-mir, -per-feast, -ter-tir, -blest-blist, -zheg-zhig, -stel- became, -chet-chit: before the suffix -a- it is written and (to collect, to light, to lay, to lay), in other cases it is written e (bleat, to light, to), exceptions; to combine, to combine;
Roots with alternation a (i) - im (in): before the suffix -a- it is written im (in) (hush "th, clamp" th), in other cases it is written a (th) (hush "b, clamp" t) ;
- from value:
Mak-mok: -mak- is used in the meaning of "immerse in liquid, make wet" (poppy "to put bread into milk), -mok - in the meaning of" pass liquid "(boots get wet");
Equal-equal: -ravt- is used in the meaning of “equal, identical, on a par” (equal, equal), -equal - in the meaning of “smooth, straight, smooth” (y “level, level”);
- -float-float-float: o is written only in the words pilaf "ts and swimmers" ha, s - only in the word quicksand", in all other cases it is written I (llavu "honor, float" k).
62. Spelling of vowels after hissing and C.
- After the hissing consonants zh, h, sh, u, the vowels a, y, and are written, and the vowels i, u, s (thicket, bold) are never written. This rule does not apply to words of foreign origin (parachute) and compound words in which any combination of letters is possible (Interbureau).
- Under stress after hissing, it is written in, if you can pick up related words or another form of this word, where e is written (yellow - yellowness); if this condition is not met, then it is written about (to clink glasses, rustle).
- It is necessary to distinguish the noun burn and its related words from the past tense verb burn and its related words.
- A fluent vowel sound under stress after hissing is indicated by the letter o (sheath - knife "n").
Spelling of vowels after c.
- At the root after c is written and (civilization, mat); exceptions: gypsies, tiptoe, tsyts, chicks are their cognates.
- The letters i, u are written after ts only in proper names of non-Russian origin (Zurich).
- Under stress after c, it is written o (tso "cat").
Choice of vowels; and or e.
- In foreign words, e (adequate) is usually written; exceptions: mayor, peer, sir and their derivatives.
- If the root begins with the letter e, then it is preserved even after the prefixes or cut by the first part of the compound word (save, three-story).
- After the vowel, e (requiem) is written, after the remaining vowels - e (maestro).
The letter and is written at the beginning of foreign words (iodine, yoga).
63. Spelling of consonants in the root.
- In order to check dubious voiced and deaf consonants, you need to choose such a form or a related word so that these consonants stand in a strong position (before a vowel or sonorant (l, m, and, p)) sound: a fairy tale - to say.
- If a dubious consonant cannot be checked, then its spelling must be remembered or found in a spelling dictionary. ;
- Double consonants are written:
- at the junction of morphemes: prefixes and root (tell), root and suffix (long),
- at the junction of two parts of compound words (maternity hospital),
- in words that need to be remembered or determined from a spelling dictionary (reins, yeast, burning, buzzing, juniper and words of the same root; words of foreign origin (for example, group, class) and derivatives from them (group, class). - In order to check the spelling of words with unpronounceable consonants that have a combination of letters vet, zdn, ndsk, ntsk, stl, stn, etc. it is necessary to choose such a single-root word or change the form of the word so that after the first or second consonant there is a vowel (sad - to be sad, whistle - whistle); exceptions: flash (although "glisten"), stairs (although "ladder"), splash (although "splash"), bottle (although "glass").
64. Spelling prefixes.
- The spelling of some prefixes must be remembered, they do not change under any conditions (to convey, carry, bring, etc.). The prefix s- also belongs to these prefixes, which is voiced in speech before voiced consonants, but does not change in writing (run away, do).
- In prefixes on e-s (without- - demon-, woz (vz) - - sun- (sun-), from- - is-, bottom- - nis-, times- (rose-) - races (ros- ), through- (through-) - worm- (through-)) is written z before eaon-, which consonants or vowels (anhydrous, flare up), and before deaf consonants it is written with (limitless, rise up).
- Of particular difficulty is the writing of prefixes pre- - pre-. Basically, their difference is based on their lexical meaning.
The prefix pre- is used in the meaning:
- a high degree of quality (it can be replaced by the words "very", "very"): exaggerated (= "very enlarged"), preinteresting (= "very interesting");
- “through”, “in a different way” (this meaning is close to the meaning of the prefix re-): transgress (= “cross over”).
The prefix pri- is used in the meaning:
- spatial proximity (suburban, border);
- approaching, joining (approach, sail);
- incompleteness of action (cover up, stop);
- bringing the action to the end (nail, knock);
- committing an act in someone's interests (hide).
In some words, the pre- and pre-prefixes stand out and the spelling of such words must be remembered: stay (meaning "to be in some place or state"), despise (meaning "hate"), neglect, president (the word foreign origin); device, order, charity (meaning "care"), etc.
4. If the prefix ends with a consonant, and the root begins with a vowel and, then instead of and it is written s (pre-June, to play); exceptions:
- compound words (pedagogical institute), -charge,
- prefixes inter- and super- (inter-institutional, super interesting),
- the word "two-pulse", etc.
- foreign prefixes dez-, counter-, post-, super-, trans-, pan- (counterplay, subindex).
65. Spelling of dividing b and b Spelling of dividing b (solid sign).
1. Separating b (solid sign) is written before the vowels e, e, u, i:
- after a prefix ending in a consonant: entrance, detour;
- in words of foreign origin after prefixes ending in a consonant (ab-, ad-, diz-, in-, inter-, con-, counter-, ob-, sub-, per-, trans-) or after a compound particle pan- : adjutant, trans-European;
- in compound words, the first part of which is the numerals two-, three-, four-: two-tier, three-story;
2. This rule does not apply to compound words: children.
Spelling dividing b (soft sign).
Separating b (soft sign) is written:
- inside the word before the vowels e, e, u, i: peasant, blizzard;
- in some words of foreign origin before the letter o: medallion, champignon.
Spelling of vowels after hissing and q in suffixes and endings.
1. In the endings and suffixes of nouns, adjectives and suffixes of adverbs under stress after hissing and q, it is written o, without stress - e (knife "m, big" go, book "nka, end" m, ring "vy-vat; NO ekila "we press, p" look for, red "zhego, merchants" vtsev, ring "th).
2. After hissing under stress, yo is written:
- in the endings of verbs (neighing, lying),
- in the suffix of the verb -yovyva- (uproot),
- in the noun suffix -ёr- (trainee),
- in the suffix of verbal nouns -yovk- (uprooting),
- with the suffix of passive participles -yon (n) - (slain, harnessed),
- in the suffix of verbal adjectives (zhzhёny) and in words derived from these adjectives (zhzhenka),
- in the pronoun about what,
- words and, by no means.
66. Spelling of nouns.
Spelling of endings in nouns:
- in masculine and neuter nouns, in which a vowel is written before the case ending and, in an unstressed position in P.p. the ending -i is written; for feminine nouns, this rule applies to D.l. and P.p.; I.p. militia, genius, blade R.p. militia, genius, blade D.P. militia, genius, blade V.p. militia, genius, blade etc. militia, genius, P.P. blade about the police, about the genius, about the blade
- in neuter nouns ending in -e in P.p. e is written without stress, and under stress - and: about happiness, in oblivion;
- in nouns ending in -ni with a preceding consonant or and in Gen.p. plural ь (soft sign) is not written at the end: bedroom - bedrooms; exceptions: young ladies, villages, hawks, kitchens.
- in nouns with -ov, -ev, -ev, yn, in, denoting Russian surnames, in Tv.p. in the singular, the ending -im is written, and in nouns na-ov, -in, denoting foreign surnames. -end-om: Ivanov, but Darwin.
- nouns in -ov, -ev, -ii, yn, -ovo, -ino, ыно, denoting the names of residential POINTS, have in T.p. ending -om: near Lvov, behind Khotkovo;
- if the noun with the suffix -isch- is masculine or neuter, then the ending -e is written, if it is feminine - -a: a swamp is a swamp, but a hand is a hand;
- animate nouns with suffixes - ushk-, -yushk-, -im-, -ishk- masculine and feminine nouns with the same suffixes in I.l. have an ending-a: dolyushka, grandfather; inanimate masculine nouns and all neuter nouns with these suffixes end in -o: bread, house;
- in neuter nouns, after the suffix -a-, the letter o is written: chisel, and in animate masculine and neuter nouns - a: chisel.
Spelling of noun suffixes:
1. If the suffix -ik- (-chik-) is written in a noun, then it is also preserved in indirect cases, and if the suffix -ek- (-check-) is written, then in indirect cases e alternates with zero sound (cf .: piece - piece, finger - finger);
2. In masculine nouns, the suffix -ets- is written, in feminine nouns - the suffix -its-, and in neuter nouns -ets- is written if the stress falls on the ending and -its- if the stress falls on the syllable before the suffix ( cf .: handsome man (m.r.) - beauty (zh.r.) - letter "(cf.r.) - dress" tie;
3. The diminutive suffix -ink- is written in nouns formed from feminine nouns ending in -ina (scratch - scratch, straw - straw); BUT in words denoting females (for example, a refugee, a Frenchwoman), the combination -eik- is written (there is no diminutive meaning);
4. The combination -enk- is also written in words formed from nouns ending in -na or -nya, and not having ь (soft sign) at the end of the word in the genitive plural (cherry - cherries - cherry);
note: if nouns in -na, -nya have the plural at the end of ь (soft sign) in the genitive case, then the combination -enk- (kitchen - kitchen - kitchenette) is written;
5. In affectionate suffixes -one- (written after hard consonants) and -enk- (written after soft consonants, less often after hard ones) after n is written b (soft sign) (for example, kitty, Nadenka),
note: in modern Russian there are no suffixes -ynye-, -other-, -ank-, words with such suffixes are found only in works of art up to the 19th century inclusive and in folklore (for example, lolosynka, Nadinka; cf. modern striped, Nadenka ), Exceptions: good-bye, hare, good-bye (suffix -other-);
6. The suffix -yshk is written in neuter nouns (sun-sun, feather-feather); the suffix -ushk- is written in masculine and feminine nouns (neighbor - neighbor, head - little head); the suffix-yushk-is written in nouns of all genders, formed from nouns pine into a soft consonant (field - field, uncle - uncle); some masculine nouns are formed with the help of suffixes -yshek-, eshek-, ears- (wedges, peg, spools, pimples, sparrows; pebble, edge; the words sparrow, pebble are used in folk, colloquial speech);
7. With nouns denoting people by the nature of their activity, the suffix -chik- is written before the consonants d, t, a, s, g (translator, lbtchik, defector, etc.), and in all other cases the suffix -chik- is written (compositor, typesetter);
note 1: in some words of foreign origin, after t, the suffix -shchik- (flute player, asphalt worker) is written,
note 2: ь (soft sign) is written before the suffix -shchik- only after the consonant l (roofer),
note 3: if the stem ends with the consonants k, c, h, then before the suffix -chik- they are replaced by the consonant t (distribution - distributor);
8. In many female patronymics, [ishna] is heard, but it is written -ichna (Ilyinichna, Fominichna).
67. Spelling of adjectives. Spelling of the endings of adjectives.
declension of qualitative and relative adjectives; declension of possessive adjectives with a base on j (for example, fox, bearish); declension of possessive adjectives with suffixes -in-, (-th-), -ov- (-ev-): Lisitsyn, mother.
In the plural, the endings of all genera are the same.
| 1 type | ||||
masculine | feminine | neuter gender |
||
| units number | I.p. | cheerful, early | cheerful, early | fun, early |
| pl. number | funny, early | |||
| type 2 | ||||
masculine | feminine | neuter gender |
||
| units number | I.p. | fox | fox | fox |
| pl. number | I.p. | fox | ||
| 3 type | ||||
masculine | feminine | neuter gender |
||
| units number | I.p. | fathers, sisters | father, sister | paternal, sisterly |
| pl. number | I.p. | fathers, sisters | ||
Note: the accusative case of adjectives in the masculine singular coincides with the genitive case if the adjective refers to an animate noun or pronoun, and with the nominative case if the adjective depends on an inanimate noun or pronoun.
- Russian male surnames ending in -ov (-ev), -in (-yn) in the instrumental singular have the ending -ym (like short adjectives): Pushkin - Pushkin.
- Geographical names ending in -ov, -ev, -yno, -ino, -yn, -in, -ovo, -evo, in the instrumental case of the singular have an ending -om: under the city of Pushkin.
- Adjectives out-of-town, internationally-born, sub-native, suburban have in the nominative case of the singular the endings -y (-th, -ov), and the adjective out-of-town-endings - “and (-th, -ov).
- Adjectives in -yny in short form have the ending -"n (slender - well-built), an exception: worthy - worthy;
- It is possible to have a double spelling and pronunciation of the adjective boundless (-ya, -ee) - boundless (-th, -ov).
Spelling of suffixes imvn adjectives:
1. Under stress, the suffix -iv- is written, without stress - the suffix -ev- (cf.
2. With suffixes -chiv-, -liv- is always written and (ugly, arrogant);
3. Suffixes -ovat-, -ov-, -ovit- are written after hard consonants, and after soft consonants, after hissing and c, suffixes -evat-, -ev-, -vvit- are written (cf., greenish, business - glossy , bluish);
4. In adjectives ending in -chi, formed from nouns ending in -shka before h, under stress is written a, without stress - e (cf.
5. The letter u is written before the suffix -or- if the sound that it denotes belongs to one morpheme (for example, board - plank); if in the generating base before the suffix -k- there are letters hell, s, st, sh, then they are preserved in the new word, and k alternates with h (freckle - freckled);
6. If the base ends with ts, and the suffix begins with h, then ts alternates with t (tile - tiled);
7. Spelling of the suffix -sk-:
- if the stem ends in d or t, then before the suffix -sk- they are preserved (flesh - carnal, cattle - bestial);
- if the base ends in k, h, c, then after them the suffix -sk- is simplified and becomes simply -k-, and k and h change to c (fisherman - fisherman, weaver),
note: in some adjectives, the alternation of k, h with c does not occur (tajik - Tajik, Uglich - Uglich):
- if the stem of a word of foreign origin ends in sk, then before the suffix -sk-k it is omitted and the combination sec is obtained (San Francisco - San Francisco),
Exceptions: Basque, Oscan;
- if the stem ends in s, then it is omitted and only the combination of letters ck (Welsh-Welsh) is written,
- if the stem ends in se, then one s is omitted, since in Russian there cannot be a combination of trbx identical consonants (Odessa-Odessa);
- if the stem ends in -н or -р, then before the suffix -sk-b (the soft sign is omitted),
Exceptions: ь (soft sign) is written
- in adjectives formed from the names of the months (July - July),
- in adjectives formed from some foreign geographical names (Taiwanese),
- combined day-to-day,
8. Before the suffix -i-, the final consonants k, c turn into h, and x - into u (boredom - boring, bustle - hectic);
Spelling н and нн in adjective suffixes:
| 1. In adjectives formed with the suffix -in: swan; 2. In adjectives Formed with the help of suffixes -an- (-yan-): leather, silver), Exceptions: wooden, glass, pewter. 3. 8 short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed have -n- (slender - slender). | 1. In adjectives formed with the suffix -enn: straw, 2. In adjectives formed with the suffix -onn: organizational, 3. In adjectives formed with the suffix -n- from the base to n: sleepy, long. 4. In short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed have -in- (long - long). |
Note 1: They are written n in adjectives: spicy, crimson, rye, drunken, ruddy, young, green, windy, porky.
Note 2: Written windy, but windless.
Note 3. It is necessary to distinguish between adjectives oily (for oil, in oil) and oily (soiled, soaked in oil); compare: oil stain - oily hands.
Note 4. It is necessary to distinguish between adjectives windy (day, person), windy (pump) and windy (chicken pox).
68. Spelling compound words.
1. Compound words can be formed using two simple stems connected by a connecting vowel o (written after the stem with a hard consonant) or e (written after the stem with a soft consonant, hissing or c): whirlpool, bird catcher.
2. Spelling of compound words without a connecting vowel:
- it is necessary to distinguish between compound words formed with the help of a connecting vowel (locomotive) and without it (psychasthenia;
- numerals in the genitive case are part of compound words without a connecting vowel (three-story, two-year);
- Prefixes of foreign origin are written together with the root: anti-, arch-, hyper-, inter-, infra-, counter-, post-, sub-, super-, trans-, ultra-, extra-anti-national, ultra-important, counterattack);
- words ending in -fication are not complex; before this combination of letters, and (gasification) is written.
3. Spelling of compound nouns:
a) are written together:
- compound nouns with the first part: auto-, agro-, aero-, bicycle-, helio-, geo-, hydro-, zoo-, io-, cinema-, stereo-, radio-, macro-, etc. (cinema, stereo system, radio station);
- compound nouns with the first part of the verb ending in and (dashmorda, daredevil),
Exception: tumbleweed;
- all compound words (Sberbank, Balt-fleet).
b) written with a hyphen
- compound nouns without a connecting vowel denoting scientific, technical and socio-political terms and names (stop crane, prime minister);
- names of intermediate directions of the world (southeast, northwest);
- complex owl, denoting the names of plants, having in their composition a verb in a personal form or a union (coltsfoot, love-dislike);
- words with foreign elements: ober-, untr-, life-, staff-, vice-, ex- (vice-president, non-commissioned officer).
4. Spelling of complex adjectives: a) are written together:
- adjectives formed from compound nouns written together (stereosystem - stereosystemic);
- compound adjectives formed from phrases where one word is subordinate to another (railway - railway);
- complex adjectives that are scientific and technical terms or belonging to bookish styles of speech (highly paid, thick-skinned, above);
- compound adjectives, the first part of which cannot be used in speech as an independent word;
b) are written with a hyphen:
- adjectives formed from compound nouns written with a hyphen (southeast-southeast);
- compound adjectives formed from a combination of proper names (Jack-Londonovsky, Petr-Petrovichev);
- compound adjectives formed from combinations of words with equal members connected by a coordinating link (convex-concave);
- complex adjectives denoting shades of colors (pale pink, blue-brown);
- compound adjectives denoting geographical or administrative names and having the first part of the word west-, south-, -th-, north-, north-, east- (East European Plain).
69. Spelling of numerals.
- Compound numerals are written together (thirty);
- Compound and fractional numbers are written separately (forty-five, three sevenths);
- Ordinal numbers that end in -thousandth, -millionth, -billionth are written together (thirty-thousandth);
- Numerals five-nineteen and twenty, thirty are written with ь (soft sign) at the end, and numerals fifty - eighty, five hundred - nine hundred b (soft sign) are written in the middle of the word between two bases;
- There are two forms: zero and zero. The second is used in a terminological sense in indirect cases, both forms are found in set expressions.
- The numeral gender is written as part of a compound word
- through a hyphen, if the second part of the word begins with a vowel or with l (half a liter, half a watermelon), or if it is a proper name (half Russia);
- together, if the second part of the compound word begins with a consonant letter (except l): half a kilogram;
- separately, if it has an independent meaning and is torn off from the noun by the definition: half a teaspoon.
Note: the numeral semi- in the composition of complex words is always written together: half-breed, half-dressed.
Spelling of the endings of numerals.
1. Declension of cardinal numbers:
The numeral one is declined in the same way as the adjective in the singular:
Numerals two, three, four have special case endings:
The numerals five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten and the numerals 10 and 2 are declined in the same way as third declension nouns:
| I. p. R. p. D. p. V. p. etc. P. p | six | thirty |
The numerals forty, ninety, one hundred have a special declension (the accusative case coincides with the nominative, in other cases the ending is a):
For quantitative compound numbers, each word is declined:
A special declension for numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred:
3. Collective numbers are declined in the same way as plural adjectives:
4. Declension of ordinal numbers:
Ordinal numbers are declined in the same way as adjectives of the first type:
For compound ordinal numbers, only the last word changes during declension:
70. Spelling of pronouns.
1. Spelling of negative pronouns:
- under stress it is written not, but without stress - neither, (cf., kikto "-not" who, not "only" - not "how much");
- if there are no 48 prepositions in negative pronouns, then they are written together, and if there is, then in three words (cf .: someone - no one, nothing - no reason),
- combinations are none other than, nothing more than oppositions and are written separately, and combinations none other, nothing else have this opposition meaning and therefore are written together (cf .. This can be allowed by none other than the headmaster. - no one else could do it better.).
2. Spelling of indefinite pronouns:
- indefinite pronouns that have in their composition particles some-, some-, -something, -or-, -something are written with a hyphen (someone, something, someone),
- if a preposition follows the particle, then the pronoun is written in three words (with someone, because of someone).
71. Spelling of verbs.
Spelling of verb endings.
1. Depending on personal endings, verbs are divided into two large groups: into verbs of I and II conjugations.
II conjugation includes:
- verbs on -it (except for the verbs to shave, lay, build, which belong to the I conjugation),
- 7 verbs in -et (twirl, see, depend, hate, offend, watch, endure),
- 4 verbs in -at (thief, breathe, hold, hear).
Personal endings of verbs in the present or future past tense:
2. There are several different conjugated verbs that do not belong to any of the two conjugations: want, run, eat, create, give.
| unit 1 face read, take 2 person read, take Z face reads, takes plural | want want want We want | running run run run run run | eat eat eating eat eat eat | create create create Let's create create create create | give give will give Let's give give give give |
3. If the verb with the prefix obez- (obes-) is transitive, then it is conjugated according to the II conjugation, and if it is intransitive, then according to the I conjugation (for example, compare the conjugation of the verbs to weaken (someone) and to weaken (himself).
4. In the verbs of conjugation I, in the form of the future tense, the ending is written - “those”, and in the form of the imperative mood - the ending -ite (cf .: You will send this letter tomorrow. - Send this document urgently.)
b (soft sign) in verb forms.
1. b (soft sign) is written:
- in the infinitive (write, wish, want, wash),
- in the endings of the 2nd person singular of the present or simple future tense (choose, wash, do, wash),
- in the imperative mood (correct, hide), BUT lie down, lie down,
- in the return particle, which is after the vowel (bent, turned, I will return);
2. b (soft sign) is not written:
- in the form of the 3rd person singular of the present or simple future tense (washes, is done).
Spelling of verb suffixes
1. If in the 1st person of the present or simple future tense the verb ends in -th (-th), then in the infinitive and in the form of the past tense, suffixes -ova-, -eva- are written (I manage - manage, managed, fight - fight, fought );
if in the 1st person of the present or simple future tense the verb ends in -yva, -ivay, then the suffixes -yva-, -iva- (I impose - impose, impose) are written in the infinitive and in the past tense.
2. Verbs in -five, -vayu have the same vowel before the suffix -va- as in the infinitive without this suffix (extend - extend).
Exception: if the adjective begins with a vowel, then the preposition в is written separately (open),
- if the nouns from which adverbs are formed are not used independently in modern Russian (locked up, shattered),
- adverbs with a spatial meaning, formed from nouns such as distance, height, beginning, etc. (far away, first)
note: if the sentence contains an explanation for the noun, then such words are no longer adverbs, but combinations of a noun with a preposition and are written separately (from the beginning of the book),
- if it is impossible to put a definition between the prefix-preposition and the noun from which the adverb is formed, but if this can be done, then these words are a combination of a noun with a preposition and are written separately (cf .: exhaust completely - come to the horses of the corridor):
4. Adverbs are written with a hyphen:
- if they are formed with the prefix po- from full adjectives or adverbs ending in -oma, -him, -ni, ii (in my opinion, no-old, in Russian, in cat-like),
- if they are formed using the prefix v- (in-) from ordinal numbers (firstly, secondly, thirdly),
- if they are formed by repeating the same adverb or by adding synonymous words (barely, quietly, quietly);
5. Adverbial combinations are written separately:
- if they consist of nouns with a preposition between them (from gas to eye, shoulder to captivity),
- if they are combinations with prepositions without, before, on, with, etc. (without restraint, on the run, immediately),
- if the noun in this combination has retained some meaning of the case form (abroad, conscientiously),
- if the adjective from which the adverb is formed begins with a vowel, then the preposition в is written separately (in the open).
74. Spelling of prepositions.
The spelling of prepositions must be remembered or checked in a spelling dictionary. Sometimes for the correct spelling of a word it is very important to determine whether it is a preposition or not.
- Complex prepositions iechza, from under, because of, etc. are written through a hyphen. (due to illness, from under steel);
- Such prepositions are written together, as in view of, instead of, like, over, due to (due to absence, like a hole), BUT include in the consequence;
- Such prepositions are written separately, such as in the form, in connection, etc.
- Prepositions continue, during, due to have at the end e (during the lesson), BUT during the river.
75. Spelling unions.
1. They are written together:
- union so that (He asked me to come early.); it is necessary to distinguish between the union so that and the combination of the pronoun and the particle what (Whatever you say, I don’t believe you);
note: remember! through thick and thin,
- unions are also written together (Will you also / also go to the concert?); it is necessary to distinguish between conjunctions also, also with combinations of a pronoun with a particle (the same) and an adverb with a particle (also): if the particle can be omitted or put in another place in the sentence, then these combinations are written separately (you brought the same (same), and me too.);
- particles something, some, something, either-, -something, -ka, -de, -s, -tka, -tko, -the same (yes, somebody, give it, he-de, enough),
Particle spelling NOT with different parts of speech
| Part of speech | apart |
|
| noun | 1. if it is not used without (ignorant, adversity), 2. if you can choose a synonym without not (untruth is a lie, an enemy is a friend), | 1. if there is or is implied opposition; not a friend, but an enemy), 2. in an interrogative predzhenin with a logical underlining of negation (Your father arranged for you here, didn't he? |
| adj. | 1. if the bases are not used (sloppy, nondescript). 2. if you can choose a synonym without not (rather big - big, gvmslodoy - old), 3. if there is a contrast with the union but (the river is not ugly, but cold), 4. with short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed are written in a non-continuously low - low) | 1. if there is or is implied opposition with the union a (not big, small), 2. with relative adjectives (the sky here is southern), 3. with short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed are not written separately (the book is not interesting, but boring) |
| num. | with indefinite and negative pronouns without prepositions (several, no one, something) | always written separately (not three, not the seventh) |
| pronoun | with other categories of pronouns (not in my class, not on our floor) | |
| verb | if without not not used (to hate, to be perplexed) note: verbs such as oversight are written together, since they include a single prefix under-, | with all other verbs (not to know, to cry |
| ger. | if without not not used (hating, perplexed) note: gerunds formed from verbs with a prefix are underwritten together, just like verbs (overlooked) | with all the other participles (not knowing, on crying) |
| participle |
| communion | if full participles do not have dependent words with them (non-coming student) | one . if full participles have dependent words (a student who did not come on time), 2. with short participles (tests not checked), if there is or is supposed to be a contrast (not finished, but only started work) |
| adverb | one . if without is not used (absurdly, carelessly), 2. adverbs in -o, -e, if you can choose a synonym for bel not (not stupid - smart) | 1. adverbs in -o, -e, if there is or is meant to be an opposition (not funny, but sad), 2, adverbs in -o, -e, if they have explanatory words not at all, not at all, far from not at all (not at all funny). 3. if the adverb is written with a hyphen (not in Russian) |
Particle spelling NOT and NI
