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TURKIC LANGUAGES

Turkic languages- a family of languages ​​spoken by numerous peoples and nationalities of the USSR, Turkey, part of the population of Iran, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Albania. The question of the genetic relationship of these languages ​​to the Altaic languages ​​is at the level of a hypothesis that involves the unification of the Turkic, Tungus-Manchu and Mongolian languages. According to a number of scientists (E.D. Polivanov, G.J. Ramstedt and others), the scope of this family is expanding to include the Korean and Japanese languages. There is also the Ural-Altaic hypothesis (M.A. Kastren, O. Betlingk, G. Winkler, O. Donner, Z. Gombots and others), according to which the Turkic languages, as well as other Altaic languages, together with the Finno-Ugric languages Ural-Altai macrofamily. In the Altaic literature, the typological similarity of the Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungus-Manchu languages ​​is sometimes mistaken for a genetic relationship. The contradictions of the Altai hypothesis are connected, firstly, with the fuzzy application of the comparative historical method in the reconstruction of the Altai archetype and, secondly, with the lack of precise methods and criteria for differentiating primordial and borrowed roots.

The formation of individual Turkic languages ​​was preceded by numerous and complex migrations of their speakers. In the 5th c. the movement of Gur tribes from Asia to the Kama region began; from the 5th-6th centuries Turkic tribes from Central Asia (Oghuz, etc.) began to move into Central Asia; in 10-12 centuries. the range of settlement of the ancient Uighur and Oghuz tribes expanded (from Central Asia to East Turkestan, Central and Asia Minor); there was a consolidation of the ancestors of Tuvans, Khakasses, mountain Altai; at the beginning of the 2nd millennium, the Kyrgyz tribes from the Yenisei moved to the current territory of Kyrgyzstan; in the 15th century consolidated Kazakh tribes.

Subsequently, new schemes were proposed, in each of them there was an attempt to clarify the distribution of languages ​​into groups, as well as to include the ancient Turkic languages. So, for example, Ramstedt distinguishes 6 main groups: the Chuvash language, the Yakut language, the northern group (according to A.M.O. Ryasyanen - northeastern), which includes all Turkic languages ​​and dialects of Altai and adjacent regions; the western group (according to Ryasyanen - northwestern) - Kyrgyz, Kazakh, Karakalpak, Nogai, Kumyk, Karachay, Balkar, Karaim, Tatar and Bashkir languages, the dead Kuman and Kypchak languages ​​are also assigned to this group; the eastern group (according to Ryasyanen - southeastern) - the New Uighur and Uzbek languages; the southern group (according to Ryasyanen - southwestern) - Turkmen, Azerbaijani, Turkish and Gagauz languages. Some variations of this type of schemes are represented by the classification proposed by I. Benzing and K.G. Menges. The classification is based on S.E. Malov is based on the chronological principle: all languages ​​are divided into "old", "new" and "latest".

The classification of N.A. is fundamentally different from the previous ones. Baskakova; according to its principles, the classification of the Turkic languages ​​is nothing more than a periodization of the history of the development of the Turkic peoples and languages ​​in all the diversity of small tribal associations of the primitive system that arose and disintegrated, and then large tribal associations, which, having the same origin, created communities that were different in composition of the tribes and, consequently, the composition of tribal languages.

The considered classifications, with all their shortcomings, helped to identify the groups of Turkic languages ​​that are genetically related most closely. The special allocation of the Chuvash and Yakut languages ​​is substantiated. To develop a more accurate classification, it is necessary to expand the set of differential features, taking into account the extremely complex dialect division of the Turkic languages. The most generally accepted classification scheme for describing individual Turkic languages ​​remains the scheme proposed by Samoylovich.

Typologically, the Turkic languages ​​are classified as agglutinative languages. The root (basis) of the word, not being burdened with class indicators (there is no class division of nouns in the Turkic languages), in it. n. can act in its pure form, due to which it becomes the organizing center of the entire declension paradigm. The axial structure of the paradigm, i.e. such, which is based on one structural core, influenced the nature of phonetic processes (the tendency to preserve clear boundaries between morphemes, an obstacle to the deformation of the very axis of the paradigm, to the deformation of the stem of the word, etc.). The companion of agglutination in the Turkic languages ​​is synharmonism.

The presence of vowel harmony and the associated opposition of front-lingual consonants to back-lingual ones, the absence in the original Turkic words of combinations of several consonants at the beginning of a word, at the junctions of morphemes or in the absolute outcome of a word, a special typology of syllables determine the relative simplicity of the distributive relations of phonemes in the Turkic languages.

More consistently manifested in the Turkic languages ​​is harmony on the basis of palatality - non-palatality, cf. tour. ev-ler-in-de "in their houses", Karachay-balk. bar-ay-ym "I'll go," etc. Lip voicing in different Turkic languages ​​is developed to varying degrees.

There is a hypothesis about the presence of 8 vowel phonemes for the early common Turkic state, which could be short and long: a, k (reduced), o, u, c, i, s, i. It is debatable whether there was a closed /e/ in the Turkic languages. A characteristic feature of the further change in the ancient Turkic vocalism is the loss of long vowels, which covered most of the Turkic languages. They are mainly preserved in the Yakut, Turkmen, Khalaj languages; in other Turkic languages, only their individual relics have been preserved.

In the Tatar, Bashkir and Old Chuvash languages, /a/ in the first syllables of many words has changed into a labialized, pushed back /e/, cf. *kara "black", other Turkic, Kazakh. Kara, but tat. kera; * no "horse", other Turkic, Tur., Azeri, Kazakh. at, but tat., head. no, etc. There was also a transition from /a/ to labialized /o/, typical of the Uzbek language, cf. *bash "head", Uzbek. Bosch The umlaut /a/ is noted under the influence of /and/ of the next syllable in the Uighur language (eti "his horse" instead of ata); a short k has been preserved in the Azerbaijani and New Uighur languages ​​(cf. *kkl- "come", azerb. gkl"-, Uighur. kkl-, etc.). Tatar, Bashkir, Khakass and partly Chuvash languages ​​are characterized by the transition to > and, cf. *kt "meat", Tat.It. In the Kazakh, Karakalpak, Nogai and Karachay-Balkar languages, a diphthongoid pronunciation of some vowels at the beginning of a word is noted, in the Tuvan and Tofalar languages ​​- the presence of pharyngealized vowels.

The consonantism of the Turkic languages ​​can be presented in the form of a table:

so-called. the Oghuz languages ​​allow voiced stops in anlaut; the Kipchak languages ​​allow occlusions in this position, but voiceless occlusions predominate.

In the process of changing consonants in the Turkic languages, sounds with more or less complex articulation were simplified or turned into sounds of a different quality: bilateral /l/ and interdental /z/ disappeared; the velar /q/ in a number of languages ​​has turned into the usual Middle language /k/ or /х/ (cf. *qara "black", Orkhon kara, Kazakh, Karakalp., Karachay-Balk., Uighur qara, but Tur. kara, Chuvash . khur). There are common cases of voicing of consonants in an intervocalic position (characteristic of the Chuvash language and especially of the Turkic languages ​​of Siberia), numerous assimilation of consonants, especially in affixes, transition to > h and t > h before front vowels (cf. dialects of Azeri, Tur. , Uighur languages: Chim< ким "кто"). Наблюдаемое во многих тюркских языках изменение начального й- в аффрикату также объясняется внутренними закономерностями развития тюркских языков. Ср. *йкр "земля", азерб. йкр, кирг. жер (где /ж/ обозначает звонкую аффрикату, хакас. чир, тув. чер. В других случаях изменения звуков могут возникать под воздействием соседних неродственных языков: таковы радикальные изменения тюркского консонантизма в якутском, а также в известной мере в чувашском, появление придыхательных смычных в некоторых тюркских языках Кавказа и Сибири.

The name category in all Turkic languages, except for Yakut, has 6 cases. Them. n. not marked, genus. p. is made out by indicators -yn / -in, wines. n. -s / -i, -ny / -ni, in some languages ​​there are affixes genus. p. and wine. n. with initial -n, dat.-direct. p. -ka / -gk -a / -k, local p. -ta / -tk, -yes / -dk, original p. -tan / -tkn, -dan / -dkn; in languages ​​where assimilation processes are developed, there are variants of the affix genus. n. -tyn / -dyn, wine affix. n. -ty / -dy, etc. In the Chuvash language, as a result of rotacism -з-, variants of the original and local cases -ra and -ran appeared in the intervocalic position; data-vin. n. in this language is combined in one indicator -a / -e, -on / -not.

In all Turkic languages, the plural is expressed with the affix -lar/-lkr, with the exception of the Chuvash language, where the affix -sem has this function. The category of belonging is transmitted using a system of personal affixes attached to the stem.

The numerals include lexical units for designating the numbers of the first ten, for the numbers twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, one hundred, one thousand; for the numbers sixty, seventy, eighty and ninety, compound words are used, the first part of which is the phonetically modified names of the corresponding units of the first ten. In some Turkic languages, a different system for designating tens was formed according to the scheme "the name of the unit of the first ten + he" ten ", cf. Khakass. Alt-on "sixty", Yakut. Tsrtyaon "forty".

Demonstrative pronouns in the Turkic languages ​​reflect 3 plans for the arrangement of objects in space: the closest to the speaker (for example, Tur. bu, Chuvash.ku "this"), more distant (Turk. su, Kirg. oshol "that one"), the most remote (tur. o, kirg. al "that").

The paradigm of personal pronouns includes forms of three persons singular. and many others. hours, with their declension in a number of languages, changes in the vowel of the stem occur in dat.-direct. p. units h., Wed. tour. ben "I", but: bana "me", Kirg. men "I", but magica "me", etc.

There are 2 bases of the interrogative pronoun: cf. Uzbek, Nogai kim "who", kimlar "who" (in relation to persons), nima "what", nimalar "what", Nogai not "what" (in relation to objects).

Reflexive pronouns are based on independent nouns. Eg. tsz "inside", "core" (in most languages), Azeri, Kirg. jiam "I myself"; in Shore, Khakass, Tuv, Alt. and tofalar. languages ​​use the word "body" accordingly, cf. shore call, tuv. bodum, Alt. bojym "I myself", in Yakut. language - the word beeyee "body", cf. Yakut. baem "myself", on tour. and Gagauz. languages ​​- the word kendi, cf. tour. kendim "myself", etc.

In the verb conjugation system, 2 types of personal endings are actualized.

The first type - phonetically modified personal pronouns - appear when the verb is conjugated in the present and future tenses, as well as in the perfect and pluperfect. The second type of endings, associated with possessive affixes, is used in the past tense with -dy and the conditional mood.

The most common form of the present tense is -a, which sometimes has the meaning of the future tense (in Tatar, Bashk., Kumyk, Crimean Tatar languages, in the Turkic languages ​​​​of Central Asia, dialects of the Tatars of Siberia). All Turkic languages ​​have a form of the present-future tense in -ar/-yr. The Turkish language is characterized by the form of the present tense in -yor, for the Turkmen language in -yar. The present tense form of the given moment in -makta/-makhta/-mokda is found in Tur., Azerb., Uzbek, Crimean Tatar, Turkm., Uighur, Karakalp. languages. In the Turkic languages, there is a tendency to create special forms of the present tense of a given moment, formed according to the model "germs in -а or -ып + the present tense form of a certain group of auxiliary verbs".

The common Turkic form of the past tense ending in -dy is distinguished by its semantic capacity and aspectual neutrality. In the development of the Turkic languages, there was a constant tendency to create the past tense with specific meanings, especially denoting a long action in the past (cf. an indefinite imperfect like Karaim. alyr edim "I took"). In many Turkic languages ​​(mainly Kypchak) there is a perfect formed by adding personal endings of the first type (phonetically modified personal pronouns) to participles in -kan/-gan. An etymologically related form to -an exists in the Turkmen language and to -ny in the Chuvash language. In the languages ​​of the Oguz group, the perfect ending in -mysh is common, in the Yakut language, the etymologically related form is ending in -byt. The pluperfect has the same stem as the perfect combined with the forms of the stems of the past tense of the auxiliary verb "to be".

In all Turkic languages, except for the Chuvash language, there is an indicator -yr/-ar for the future tense (present-future). The Oguz languages ​​are characterized by the form of the future categorical tense in -adzhak/-achak, it is also common in some languages ​​of the southern area (Uzbek, Uighur).

In addition to the indicative in the Turkic languages, there is a desirable mood with the most common indicators -gai (for the Kypchak languages), -a (for the Oghuz languages), imperative with its own paradigm, where the pure stem of the verb expresses a command addressed to 2 lit. units h., conditional, having 3 models of education with special indicators: -sa (for most languages), -sar (in Orkhon, other Uyghur monuments, as well as in Turkic texts of the 10-13th centuries from East Turkestan, from modern languages ​​in a phonetically transformed form was preserved only in Yakut), -san (in the Chuvash language); the obligatory mood is found mainly in the languages ​​of the Oguz group.

Türkic languages ​​have real (coinciding with the stem), passive (indicator -l attached to the stem), reciprocal (indicator -sh) and coercive (indicators are diverse, the most frequent are -dyr / -tyr, -t, -yz, -gyz) pledges.

The verb stem in the Turkic languages ​​is indifferent to the aspect expression. Aspective shades can have separate tense forms, as well as special complex verbs, the aspectual characteristic of which is given by auxiliary verbs.

Negation in the Turkic languages ​​has different indicators for the verb (affix -ma< -ба) и имени (слово дейил "нет", "не имеется" для огузских языков, эмес - в том же значении для кыпчакских языков).

The models for the formation of the main types of phrases - both attributive and predicative - are the same in the Turkic languages; the dependent member precedes the principal. A characteristic syntactic category in the Turkic languages ​​is izafet: this type of relationship between two names permeates the entire structure of the Turkic languages.

The nominal or verbal type of a sentence in the Turkic languages ​​is determined by the nature of the grammatical expression of the predicate. The model of a simple nominal sentence, in which predicativity is expressed by analogs of the link (predicative affixes, personal pronouns, various predicative words), is common Turkic. The number of types of verb sentences that unite the Turkic languages ​​with a morphological reference member is relatively small (the past tense form into -dy, the present-future tense into -a); most types of verbal sentences developed in zonal communities (cf. the type of verbal sentence with a formative member in -gan, which was fixed in the Kipchak area, or the type with a forming member in -mysh, characteristic of the Oguz area, etc.). The simple sentence in the Turkic languages ​​is the predominant syntactic structure; it tends to include such substitutes for subordinate clauses, the structure of which would not contradict the rules of its construction. Various subordinating relations are conveyed by participial, participle, verb-nominal constructions.

In the structure of the Turkic languages, conditions were laid for the development of allied proposals. In the development of complex sentences of the allied type, the influence of Arabic and Persian played a certain role. Constant contact of speakers of Turkic languages ​​with Russians also contributed to the development of allied means (eg, in the Tatar language).

In the word-formation of the Turkic languages, affixation prevails. There are also ways of analytical word formation: paired names, reduplication, compound verbs, etc.

The oldest monuments of the Turkic languages ​​date back to the 7th century BC. The writing of all the Turkic languages ​​of the USSR since the late 30s - early 40s. based on Russian graphics. Turkish uses a Latin-based alphabet.

Turkish language

The Turkish language is also known under the names: 1) Ottoman or Ottoman-Turkish, the name "Ottoman" comes from Osman, the founder of the overthrown Sultan's dynasty; At present, Ottoman (osmanlica) is a pre-revolutionary literary language saturated with Arabisms and Farsisms, and 2) Anatolian-Turkish is a name that arose after the All-Union Turkological Congress in Baku (1926) in connection with the proposal of the Turkish delegation to remove the term "Ottoman" from use . About the place T. yaz. among other languages ​​of the same system, see "Turkic languages".

Distribution area T. yaz. - the entire territory of the Turkish Republic (Anatolia, the Turkish part of Rumelia), the northern part of Syria, small settlements on the Balkan Peninsula (Ada-Kale, etc.) and the Adigen and Akhaltsikhe regions of the SSR of Georgia.

T. yaz. over a wide area of ​​its distribution is divided into a number of dialects. These dialects have either not yet been studied at all, or have been studied to a far insufficient degree. Therefore, to talk about any linguistic map of T. yaz. until you have to. Nevertheless, there are descriptions of individual dialects (Erzurum, Trebizond, Kastamunian, Aydin, Karaman, Macedonian, Karamalitsky, Rumelian, Bosnian), produced mainly by European scholars. It can be seen that the dialects of Eastern Anatolia show convergence with Azerbaijani, while the dialects of Central and Western Anatolia gravitate towards the Istanbul dialect, which formed the basis of the literary Turkish language.

The unsatisfactory knowledge of the written monuments of the era of the emergence of the Ottoman Empire does not allow us to draw a complete picture of the origin and development of the written literary language. Its design began under the strong influence of the Arabic and Persian literature of Islam; gushing into T. yaz. A wave of Arabisms and Farsisms changed the face of literary Tajik language beyond recognition. So for example. in some monuments of the 17th, 18th and subsequent centuries, the Turkish layer occupies an insignificant place (approximately 10-15%). Arabic and Persian influences are not limited to numerous lexical data; morphological (Arabic and Persian plural forms, distinction of grammatical genders, etc.) and syntactic (Persian “izafet”, phrase structure) elements are also borrowed.

The volume of these borrowings to some extent can be an indicator of the social differentiation of the Turkish literary language. In the highly stylized language of feudal-clerical circles, we find the maximum number (80-90%) of Arabic-Persian words and whole phrases that are completely alien to the language of other strata of society. Fewer borrowings are observed in the language of the democratic intelligentsia, mainly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and the smallest number of these borrowings falls into the language of the masses.

On the other hand, the cultural, economic and political conditions of Turkey in the XIX-XX centuries. led to contact with Western European countries. These connections are reflected in the presence in the Turkish language of lexical layers of French (to a greater extent), Italian and other European languages.

In 1928, at the initiative of the republican government, a great reform in the field of language building was carried out in Turkey. The Arabic alphabet, completely unsuitable for the Turkish sound system, was replaced by the Latin one. This reform further strengthened the trend already outlined after the revolution to purify the Tajik language from the alien linguistic layers imposed on it. Under the direct leadership of President Kemal Atatürk, a society for the study of Tajik languages ​​was founded. (Türk dili arastirma kurumu), which has already held two congresses. At these congresses, which took place with the participation of Kemal Atatürk, questions about the liberation of the Turkish language were discussed. from unnecessary and hindering the introduction of culture into the broad masses of Arabisms and Farsisms and about their replacement with Turkish equivalents, as well as questions of terminology, grammar, etc. The stubborn struggle, led by the authority of the president, for the implementation of the decisions of the congresses has already yielded results: at present, the use of Arabisms and Farsisms reduced to a minimum, in the newspapers there are articles written exclusively in Turkish and international words; there is reason to believe that the approximation of the Turkish literary language. to the language of the masses will be successfully completed.

Graphics T. lang. Until 1928, the Arabic alphabet was used in Turkish writing with those additional letters that were introduced in the Persian script, and in addition with an additional letter (sarirnun), introduced to denote the “n” of the posterior palate, which, however, coincided, however, in the Constantinople (literary) pronunciation with “n » front-lingual. After the reform of 1928 (cf. above), the Latin alphabet is used in Turkish writing with the following specific letter meanings: c=j, s=h, p=voiced fricative r, e (without a dot)=s, j=zh є=sh.

Uzbek language

The Uzbek language belongs to the languages ​​of the Turkic system and is the state language of the Ukrainian SSR. Uzbek speakers also live outside the Ukrainian SSR (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan).

Modern colloquial U. yaz. is divided into a number of dialects and sub-dialects, which can basically be divided into five groups (Tashkent, Fergana, Kipchak, Khiva or Khiva-Oguz, northern Uzbek). The differences between individual dialects are not so great as to prevent speakers of different dialects from completely understanding each other, and therefore all Uzbeks both inside Uzbekistan and outside it (with the exception of Afghanistan, of course) are successfully served by a single literary language.

The forerunner of modern literary U. yaz. The Chagatai language is rightfully considered, the traditions of which reached the Great October Socialist Revolution and which, to the detriment of the development of the literary Uzbek language, were supported by bourgeois nationalists until the early 1930s.

In its historical development U. yaz. (both literary and colloquial) was influenced by Iranian (Persian, Tajik) and Arabic languages. If this influence, on the one hand, led to an exorbitant clogging of the literary language with Iranianisms and, especially, Arabisms and made it incomprehensible to the broad masses, then, on the other hand, it nevertheless enriched the language with the necessary vocabulary (“school”, “book”, “paper”, “city”, etc.) and, most importantly, conjunctions and subordinate clauses and the form of the adjective.

In the first years of the revolution, the bourgeois nationalists tried to use the past connections of U. yaz. with Arabic in order to combat the penetration into U. yaz. Sovietisms and internationalisms. Even such terms as "communist", "party", "council", "proletarian" and others, firmly established in the language of the broad masses from the very first days of the revolution, were replaced in the literary language by Arabic ones. There were also attempts of the opposite order: to indiscriminately decry and expel Arab-Persian terms. Recently, a correct attitude towards the Arabic-Persian linguistic elements has been outlined: everything contrived, imposed on the language, is discarded, and everything that has grown into the language and is socially valuable is carefully guarded and skillfully used. International terminology no longer meets obstacles and every year it enriches the Uzbek language more and more.

Alphabet and spelling. Before the revolution, the Uzbeks used the Arabic alphabet, which was hardly suitable for transmitting the sounds of the U. language, and Chagatai spelling, far from living pronunciation. Literacy of the population hardly reached 2%. After the revolution, when literacy was to become the property of the masses, there was a need for a reform of writing, for its democratization. The question of the advantages of the Latin alphabet over the Arabic alphabet was fundamentally resolved back in 1922 at the 2nd conference of Uzbek teachers in Tashkent. The Latinized alphabet was finally developed and approved by an act of the government of Uzbekistan in 1926. Its mass practical application began in 1928. With the transition to the new alphabet, printed matter and the literacy of the population began to grow rapidly. To date, according to official figures, literacy reaches 80%. The transition to the Latinized alphabet at first did not lead to fundamental changes in spelling. In 1929, a new spelling was adopted at a language conference in Samarkand. This orthography, built on the consistent implementation of synharmonism, directed the literary language. towards the dialects of remote, backward regions and tore it away from the dialects of the leading centers, where vowel harmony has long been lost. To express synharmonism, three additional letters for vowels were introduced, and their number is as follows. arr. was brought to nine (with six vowel phonemes in the leading Tashkent dialect). This spelling, imposed by bourgeois nationalists, turned out to be extremely inconvenient and was radically changed in 1934 at a language conference in Tashkent. The conference abandoned synharmonic orthography and reduced the number of characters for vowels to six, as was the case in the reformed Arabic alphabet. The current spelling in the Uzbek language is a big step forward compared to the spelling of 1929, but it also has very significant shortcomings.

Currently, preparations are underway for the transition to the Russian alphabet. Despite the mistakes made in the matter of language construction, it can be said that the literary U. yaz. has already taken shape and has become a powerful tool for raising the cultural level of the masses. It is taught in schools, books, magazines, newspapers are published. See "Uzbek Literature".

Tatar languages

Tatar languages ​​is an obsolete term for some Turkic languages. The word "Tatars" is a Mongolian tribal name that historically denoted the Mongolian commanders of various tribes during the so-called "invasion of the Tatars" in Russia. At the same time, apparently, this term was transferred to the Turkic people, who were part of these troops and settled in the Middle and Lower Volga region. Now under T. yaz. is understood ch. arr. Volga-Tatar (see below); in addition, there are: Crimean Tatar, Lithuanian-Tatar, Tobolsk-Tatar. In medieval Russia, "Tatars" called all the peoples that were part of the state of the Golden Horde or those that replaced it (Crimean Khanate, Kazan Khanate), hence such a broad understanding of the term. The name is Azeri-Tatar language. was discarded (existed in the 19th and 20th centuries) and replaced successively by the terms: Turkic, Azerbaijani-Turkic and Azerbaijani. The term Astrakhan-Tatar did not hold out either, since this is essentially not a language, but one of the dialects of the Volga-Tatar. The term Kasimov-Tatar (essentially one of the dialects of the Meshcheryatsky, or Misher language) is sometimes used even now.

Tatar language. The Volga region, more precisely - the Volga-Tatar, historically goes back to the language of the so-called Dzhuchiev Ulus or the Golden Horde. Until the beginning of the 20th century. colloquial Volga-Tatar language. masses was very different from the feudal bookish language, which was oriented towards Chagatai and Turkish and was supported by the Muslim school; among the population was known under the name "Turks". At one time, clerical correspondence of the Volga Tatars with the Russian authorities was conducted on it. At the end of the XIX century. Kayum Nasyri, studying folklore and ethnography, for the first time raises the question of the approach of the Volga-Tatar literary language. to the masses. In 1905, in the Volga-Tatar language. a fairly significant literature was created, the language of which, compared with the previous period, approaches the colloquial.

But the real flourishing of the Volga-Tatar language. was able to achieve only after the Great October Socialist Revolution. As a result of the implementation of the Leninist-Stalinist national policy, Tataristan took one of the first places among the republics and regions of the Union in terms of language building. According to the last division proposed by the researchers of the Turkish language, it is divided into three dialects: central, western and eastern. K T. yaz. adjoins Meshcheryatsky, or Mishersky, that is, the language of the Meshcheryaks living in the former Ryazan (this includes the "Kasimov Tatars"), Penza, Tambov, Ulyanovsk, Saratov provinces, in the former Buinsky, Chistopolsky and Spassky cantons of the TASSR, Gorky Territory and, partly in Bashkiria; The "Tatar" population of Moscow and Leningrad is also usually Meshcheryak. Outside this division, there remains a little-studied dialect of the Perm, or, more precisely, the Glazov Tatars. The differences between the dialects come down to the facts of the dictionary (for example, the Meshcheryatsky dialect before the revolution was distinguished by a larger percentage of borrowings from Russian than others), phonetics (cf. the presence of the sound ts in the Meshcheryatsky, which was absent in others, the indistinguishability of the phonemes q and k, p and g -- again, as opposed to others) and partly morphology (the formation of the 3rd person singular of the present tense in positive and negative forms: almas (he does not take) or almüs, etc.). The main features of the Volga-Tatar language, characteristic of both dialects and the literary language created after the revolution, and distinguishing it from other Turkic languages, lie in the field of vocabulary, morphology and phonetics. The Volga-Tatar language has a very special type of vocalism, which Radlov sometimes called a kind of "Turkic movement of sounds", chronologically placing the completion of this process in the 14th century. "Wide" vowels o and ts of other Turkic languages ​​in the Volga-Tatar language. correspond to "narrow" u and y (un - ten, kyz - eye - with Kazakh on and koz); "closed" e of other languages ​​in the Volga-Tatar language. corresponds to i (bir -- come on -- with Kazakh ber, kil -- come -- with Kazakh kel). Sounds u and y of other languages ​​in the Volga-Tatar language. correspond to specific vowels (there are still in the Bashkir language) o and o, the sound meaning of which is completely special, as you can see in the special literature listed below (toz - salt - in Kazakh tuz, ton - night - in Kazakh tyn ). The specific reduced vowel (conditional "e") corresponds to the sound i of other Turkic languages ​​(et - dog - in Kazakh it). At present, in connection with the assimilation of the sounds e and o in international words (in their usual pronunciation), the signs o and e perform a double function in Tatar orthography. The sound a in colloquial speech (especially the Ural-Tatar dialect) is pronounced with labialization (= e), which weakens as you move away from the 1st syllable and is absent in the final open syllable (balalaqa - “for children” - read beleleqa, etc.). d.). Recently, a new type of initial syllable (єkaf, stakan, etc.), stress (not at the end) (for example: trbktor), as well as some new morphological categories, have appeared. In the terminology and dictionary of the Volga-Tatar language. internationalisms now occupy a very important place.

The Tatar language of the Crimea, more precisely - the Crimean Tatar. Historically, it goes back to one of the local national languages ​​that originated on the territory of the Dzhuchiev ulus (otherwise the Golden Horde). In the XVI-XVII centuries. was subjected (especially in the southern Crimea) to the strong influence of the Turkish (Ottoman) language. Kipchak element of the Crimean Tatar language. due to the significant role of the steppe Turkic nomads (Nogais) in the life of the Crimean Khanate. The feudal language of the era of the Khanate (the former center - Stary Krym, the later - Bakhchisaray) differed sharply from the language of the masses. In the 2nd half of the XIX century. the nationalist Crimean Tatar I. Gasprinsky began publishing the newspaper Terdzhiman, in which he tried to develop (on the basis of Turkish and Crimean Tatar) a common language for the Muslims of "old Russia". This trend was liquidated after the Great October Socialist Revolution. After the Sovietization of Crimea, work began on the creation of a literary Crimean Tatar language, which was not an easy task, due to the strong differences in the dialects of individual regions where the influence of other languages ​​\u200b\u200bis felt (Greeks, Genoese, Armenians in the south, etc.). About the modern flourishing of the Crimean Tatar literary language - see "Tatar-Crimean Literature". To the linguistic features of the Crimean Tatar language. belong in the field of phonetics: the disappearance of h at the beginning and at the end of words (Asan instead of Hasan, saba instead of sabah) "hardening" of q and y after the middle language k and g (i.e. in this position q> o, a y> u, for example koj - village, kun - day) and others; in the field of morphology - the coincidence of the categories of predicate and belonging (for example, oza-m means: 1) “I am a teacher” and 2) “my teacher”, etc. Modern Crimean Tatar language. presents vivid examples of shifts as a result of the rapid restructuring of the economy and life: the dictionary is replenished due to internationalisms and sovietisms, which, displacing lexical Arabisms and Farsisms, simultaneously produce fundamental changes in grammar, such as: the assimilation of international phonemes (c, v, f) and a new type of stress in phonetics, the formation of a feminine category in morphology and the development of a new, freer word order in syntax (in the latter case, it is not so much about the influence of other languages, but about the result of an internal process in the Crimean Tatar language itself).

Tatar language of Western Siberia, otherwise - Tobolsk-Tatar. A little studied language of the Turkic system (see "Turkic languages"). It has quite significant linguistic features (for example, the presence of the sound ts in accordance with ћ of other Turkic languages) - and in particular, a kind of dictionary.

The Tatar language is so called. Lithuanian Tatars, otherwise - Lithuanian-Tatar language. Geographically refers to Poland, where the descendants of those who emigrated in the XIV-XV centuries live. Crimean Tatar clans to Lithuania. At present, the “Lithuanian Tatars” themselves and their language have completely assimilated with the surrounding population. Lithuanian-Tatar language. interesting only as a historical phenomenon.

KYRGYZ LANGUAGE

The Kyrgyz language (Kyrgyz homey, Kyrgyzcha, Kyrgyz tili, Kyrgyzca) is the language of the Kyrgyz, one of the Turkic language. Along with Russian, it is the state language of Kyrgyzstan. Distributed in Kyrgyzstan and, partially, in China (Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region), Afghanistan, Turkey, Pakistan (Chitral), Russia, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan. The total number of speakers is about 3.5 million. It has several groups of dialects.

Phonetic features of the Kyrgyz language: the distinction of vowels according to the chasokilkist (long and short), consistent vowel harmony, at the beginning of the word the affricate w / j is characteristic, which corresponds to / w / d in other Turkic languages.

Morphology is typical for Turkic languages. Demonstrative pronouns have, as a rule, two forms - with and without final-l: bul / bu "this". The transcendental aspect of the verb is expressed with the affix -ba-, but in some cases the word emes can be used transcendentally.

The vocabulary of the literary language has a significant number of borrowings from Arabic, Farsi and Russian.

In 1924, writing was developed on the basis of the Arabic script, after 1926 - on the basis of the Latin alphabet, and from 1940 to the present, the Cyrillic alphabet has been used in Kyrgyzstan and the Arabic alphabet has been changed in China.

Place of the Kyrgyz language among the Turkic languages

The Kyrgyz language has much in common with the Ugrian-Altaic languages, possibly being an Eastern Turkic language in origin; but in its present state it is still closer to the Kypchak languages, forming within them a separate Kirghiz-Kypchak subgroup.

The emergence of written sources in the Kyrgyz language

Written sources of the Central Asian Mongol rulers have been known since the 15th century. Their language was Chagatai (davnyouzbekska), while local dialects were used in oral communication, some of which later formed the Kyrgyz language. Numerous folklore texts remained from this period, the processing of which is far from complete.

Although the Kyrgyz language is genetically part of the same branch as the Altaic and other languages ​​northeast of Kyrgyzstan, due to convergence with Kazakh in recent times, when the new language is partially similar to Kazakh, and both languages ​​are sometimes considered to be part of the Nogai group of the Kipchak and part of the Turkic languages. However, despite the Kazakh influence, Kyrgyz remains much closer to the Altaic languages ​​than to Kazakh.

The new Kyrgyz language did not have a standardized written form in 1923, in which the Arabic alphabet was introduced. Then there was a change to the Latin alphabet, under the leadership of Kasym Tinistanov in 1928 and to the Cyrillic alphabet in 1940. During the years of independence, the subsequent alphabet was discussed, but the result is zero, perhaps because the Kyrgyz Cyrillic alphabet is relatively simple and especially appropriate for the language.

One important difference between Kyrgyz and Kazakh is that Kyrgyz is almost universal while Kazakh has no linguistic national identity. In the early 1990s, Askar Akaev pursued an aggressive policy of introducing Kyrgyz as the state language, forcing the European population left to use Kyrgyz in social situations themselves. 1992 threatening to resign to dramatize the pressure of "kyrgyzification" of the non-native population. The 1992 laws called for the transfer of all public business, which was converted entirely to Kyrgyz until 1997. But in March 1996, the Kyrgyz parliament passed a decision that makes Russian the state language on a par with Kyrgyz. Substantial pressure from Russia was a strong factor in this change, which was part of a general renewal of friendly relations with Russia.

Bibliography

Turkic language phrase written

1. Melioransky P.M. Arab philologist about the Turkish language. SPb., 1900.

2. Bogoroditsky V.A. Introduction to Tatar linguistics. Kazan, 1934; 2nd ed. Kazan, 1953.

3. Malov S.E. Monuments of ancient Turkic writing. M.-L., 1951.

4. Research on the comparative grammar of the Turkic languages. Ch. 1-4. M., 1955-1962.

5. Baskakov N.A. Introduction to the study of Turkic languages. M., 1962; 2nd ed. M., 1969.

6. Baskakov N.A. Historical and typological phonology of the Turkic languages. M., 1988.

7. Shcherbak A.M. Comparative phonetics of Turkic languages. L., 1970.

8. Sevortyan E.V. Etymological dictionary of Turkic languages. T. 1-3. M., 1974-1980.

9. Weil G., Grammatik der osmanisch-türkischen Sprache, B., 1917.

10. Deny J., Grammaire de la langue turque (dialecte osmanli), P., 1921 (with extensive bibliography).

11. Gordlevsky Vl., Grammar of the Turkish language, M., 1928.

12. Dmitriev N., Materials on Ottoman dialectology, Zap. College of Orientalists, vol. III (L., 1928) and vol. IV (L., 1930) (with an extensive bibliography).

13. Mukhlinsky A., Research on the origin and condition of the Lithuanian Tatars, St. Petersburg, 1857.

14. Alexandrovich J., Lithuanian Tatars (published by the Society of Explorers of Azerbaijan, 1926, No. 2).

15. Aristov N. A., Notes on the ethnic composition of the Turkic tribes and nationalities and information about their numbers (“Live Antiquity”, 1896, issue III and IV and ott., St. Petersburg, 1897).

16. Bogoroditsky, V. A., Introduction to Tatar linguistics in connection with other Turkic languages, Kazan, 1934.

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The Emergence and Evolution of the Turkic Languages ​​- 2009

The emergence and evolution of the Turkic languages

Aydin Shemi-zade

We already have an idea of ​​what the history of the development of languages ​​is. The language breaks up into separate dialects, then these dialects become separate languages, which in turn break up into separate dialects, which then become separate languages, etc.
The less time has passed since the collapse of the common proto-language of the languages ​​under consideration, the closer their relationship. If the parent language collapsed a thousand years ago, then its descendant languages ​​had only a thousand years to accumulate differences, but if the parent language collapsed 12 thousand years ago, then few similarities remain in the descendant languages ​​during this time.
About 10 thousand years ago, the Nostratic community split up, and in one separated tribe, which went north from the lands of Southwest Asia, a language developed over time, which we call the common Altai proto-language.
The members of this tribe lived all together in a habitable environment in the Sayan-Altai, but 7 thousand years ago this tribe began to disintegrate, speaking a single language. And separate groups in search of living space began to disperse in all parts of the world, and sometimes they went very far. Thus, the united once Altaic proto-language fell apart.
Now we clearly understand what is hidden in the concept of "language collapsed." This means that some group has isolated itself, has ceased to contact with other parts of the original tribe. As a result, after some time, the language of this isolated group can already be called “foreign” (do you remember that one thousand years is enough for the language in the isolate to change to the point of incomprehension?). We know that those who speak a language we do not understand are foreigners to us, strangers.
And so it happened that from one tribe, where everyone spoke a certain single Altaic language, due to the emergence of a demographic crisis, groups of once related individuals began to leave peacefully or with a scandal. And some found a convenient clearing near a river rich in fish and began to breed and multiply there. And another group found a rich game valley among the mountains. And the third, stopped at the sea coast, and for some reason even moved to the nearest islands. And all the others have found more or less suitable places to continue living. But although each tribe already had its own speech, some words, albeit in a modified form, were preserved.
The Altaic family of languages ​​separated from the Nostratic community 10 thousand years ago and began to disintegrate 7 thousand years ago, that is, the tribe lived compactly for three thousand years.
The Altai family was divided into three branches - western, central, eastern. Thus, three proto-languages ​​arose.
The western branch gave the Turkic-Mongolian community;
The central one gave rise to the closely related Tungus-Manchu languages;
The eastern branch broke up 4.5 thousand years ago into Proto-Korean and Proto-Japanese languages. The tribes dispersed - some went to the peninsula, others generally to the islands.
It is assumed that from the early common Turkic tribe as early as the 5th millennium BC. a group of passionaries separated, which went southwest and settled in the valley of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, becoming the basis for the Sumerians. But let's talk about the Sumerians another time.
The pra-Turkic and pra-Mongolian tribes, and, therefore, the languages, diverged. So 5.5 thousand years ago the first ancient Turkic language appeared.
5 thousand years ago, the Proto-Turkic language split into eastern and western branches.
The eastern branch gave rise to the Tuvan, Khakass, and Yakut languages.
In the western branch, tribes with closely related languages ​​arose, which later received the names of Bulgar, Karluk, Oguz, Kypchak.
From the western branch, the Bulgar languages ​​stood out earlier than others (these included the language of the Huns and the Khazars, their living descendant is the Chuvash language).
After the breakaway of the "Bulgars", the rest of the Turks continued to remain in the territory close to their ancestral home until the 6th century AD.
For five thousand years, the ancient Turks lived in the steppes of Central Asia, in the Altai and Sayan mountains, in the foothills of the Tien Shan, in Western Mongolia, in Transbaikalia, on the banks of the Yenisei, Ob, Angara. They fought with their neighbors, settled on a vast territory (half the area of ​​modern Canada) - there was enough to do.
Due to the residence, although on a vast, but common territory, the Kypchak, Oguz, Karluk languages ​​retained their proximity.
I note that the Uzbek language belongs to the Karluk.
Having won a number of victories over neighboring peoples (of Mongolian and Iranian origin), the tribal union of the Turks formed the confederation of the Turkic Khaganate. During the period of greatest expansion (the end of the 6th century AD), the Turks controlled the territories of Northeast China (Manchuria), Mongolia, Altai, Central Asia, and the North Caucasus. In 575, Iran and Byzantium united against the Turks. In response to this, in 576, the Turkic troops defeated the Byzantine troops on the shores of the Cimmerian Bosporus (Kerch Strait) and settled in the Crimea and the North Caucasus. At the end of the 6th century, its eastern part separated from the Turkic Khaganate. Since then, the Western and Eastern Khaganates began to exist independently of each other. The Western Khaganate included Kazakhstan, Central Asia, the North Caucasus, Crimea and the Volga region. Almost all modern Turkic peoples have their origins in the period of the Turkic Khaganate, when a certain ideological and cultural closeness of the Turkic peoples began to take shape. The formation of the tribal unity of the Turkic-speaking peoples and their consolidation are associated with the era of the Turkic Kaganate.
The Khazar Khaganate separated from the Western Turkic Khaganate and existed for several centuries, which controlled the territory of Ciscaucasia, the Lower and Middle Volga regions, modern northwestern Kazakhstan, the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov, and the eastern part of Crimea. But here there was no change of peoples, the ruling tribes were either one or another Turkic tribe, only the ethnonym (name) changed.
Why did the Khazars "disappear without a trace"? Then you have to ask yourself. Why did the Turks “disappear without a trace” in the Khazar Khaganate? Yes, because only the ethnonym disappeared, the people could not disappear (it was much later that the generals of the state that arose in the north destroyed the peoples cleanly, and were proud of it). Starting from the 4th century and later, a vast territory from the Amur in the east to the Danube was subject to Turkic-speaking ethnic groups with different names.
But let us return to the history of the Turkic languages. I must say that I did not mention in this article a considerable number of ancient Turkic tribes. But it must be said about the Saks tribe, because in 1970 in Kazakhstan, in a Saka burial, a disk with ancient Turkic writings from about the 5th century BC was discovered. Prior to this, it was believed that the ancient Turkic runic writing originated in the 8th century AD (Orkhon-Yenisei inscriptions). However, it turned out that writing arose among the Turks much earlier, only two hundred years later than among the ancient Greeks.
For some reason, in Soviet historical science, they adhered to the opinion expressed by Herodotus about the Iranian-speaking Saks. At the same time, under the pressure of facts proving the Turkic-speaking of the Saks, today their Iranian-speaking is denied by most researchers. Even the reading of the names of the Saka kings by Herodotus speaks in favor of their Turkic origin: Targitai, Lipoksai, Arpaksai, Kolaksai. Some strange tendency to belittle the history and culture of the Turkic peoples took place in past years.
Let me remind you that runes are syllabaries. Each rune has a name, denotes a syllable or word. And this is precisely the difference between the runes and the alphabet.
The earliest in the history of mankind was Sumerian writing - it dates back to 4 thousand BC. Egyptian hieroglyphics originated around 2900 BC.
As already mentioned, in the expanses of Central Asia, the ancient Turkic tribes lived in the neighborhood for many centuries. Most of the Turkic tribes separated only at the beginning of our era, that is, 2 thousand years ago. There was no complete isolation of these tribes, so the linguistic differences did not become very significant.
The languages ​​that arose in close tribes developed, changed, strengthened in their perfection. And today the main Turkic languages ​​are unusually close to each other.
The rate of change in the Turkic languages ​​in the last millennium is lower than in many others - this is explained by the antiquity of the Turkic speech. The language of the thousand-year-old text from “Divanu lugat-it Turk” by Mahmud Kashgari or the text from the poem “Khikyat-i Yusuf ve Zuleikha” by Mahmud Kyrymly, who lived in the second half of the 12th century, is quite understandable to today's Turkic-speaking readers.
According to Mahmud Kashgari, the Kypchak language was a "pure Turkic language" - "basic" in today's terminology. “Basic” means “basic, fundamental”.
I will give an example from a later time: the Kypchak language of the text from the poem “Togay Bey”, written in the middle of the 17th century by Bakhchisaray’s Edip-Effendi, does not differ from today’s Crimean Tatar language:

Yigit kholunda kamchy bar, "Men!" degenge jeza bar.
Hey, oglanlar, toplashyn, tesden bizge sefer bar!

Al kylychny askydan, check kayrakny yuzyune,
Kylychyn eger ak bolsa, kara tyushmez kozyunye.

Bizler kypchak oglumyz, chamurgya batar chykarmyz,
Kunesh chyksa kurutyr, suv tapyls chaikarmyz.

Compare the text of the Russian story "On Ulyaniya Osorgina", written in the middle of the same 17th century, with the modern Russian language:
“And I need to eat and drink early; but she did not give in to their will, but she accepted everything with thanksgiving and departed in silence: having obedience to every person. Bebo from childhood is meek and silent, unbuoyant and not majestic, from laughter and all kinds of games otgrebasheshsya.
Some hundred years pass, and the once common “monster oblo, huge, stozevno and layyai” requires explanation in the notes. And after a thousand years, you won’t understand at all what the author wanted to say, who wrote “Is it not absurd to beat us ...”.
The agreement between various Turkic tribes and clans occupied an important place in the process of formation of the Turkic peoples. A good-neighborly agreement united these tribes into a single whole.
The branching of the Kypchak-Oguz tribes, and, therefore, the languages, began to occur from the 1st century AD.
We have already said that the Turkic tribes appeared in Eastern Europe at least in the 4th century. At the end of the 9th century, the Pechenegs appeared in the Eastern European steppes.
The advance of the Kypchaks to the west is dated 1018-1050. The Kypchaks formed as an ethnic group in Central and Eastern Kazakhstan in the 8th century as a result of the unification of several tribes with the same languages. At the same time, this association received the name of the Kypchaks.
Within the vast Kipchak union of tribes, there were separate tribal groups - the prototypes of the future Turkic peoples with the Kipchak languages.
From the 11th century, the Great Steppe from the Danube to the Irtysh was called Desht-i-Kypchak - the Kypchak steppe, the Polovtsian Steppe. Desht-i-Kypchak was inhabited mainly by the peoples of the Kypchak group.
The Kypchaks were not only nomadic cattle breeders, but also city dwellers. A number of large cities were located in their possessions: Sygnak, Dzhent, Barchynlykent - on the Syr Darya, Kangly-kent - on Yrgyz, Saksin - in the lower reaches of the Yedil River, Tamatarkhan (Tmutarakan of Russian Chronicles) - on the Taman Peninsula and Sharukhan - not far from modern Kharkov. In addition, the Kipchaks made up a significant percentage of the population of Yasa, Otrar, Urgench and the cities of Crimea.
At the beginning of the 13th century, the Golden Horde became another Turkic power on the territory of Desht-i-Kipchak. If the creators of this state were a small number of the Mongolian elite, then its indigenous population were Turkic-speaking peoples.
…Now the Great Desht-i-Kypchak steppe is divided between Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan.
In the Crimea, the first Turkic tribes of the Huns appeared in the 4th century. At the beginning of the 11th century, the Kypchaks appeared in the Crimea, with time their number increased. At the same time, the Kipchaks converted to Islam, whose followers appeared in the Crimea as early as the 7th century. With the advent of the Kypchaks, the bulk of the Crimean population became Turkic-speaking. It is no coincidence that the dictionary of the Kypchak languages ​​"Code Cumanicus" was created in the Crimea at the end of the 12th century.
Today's three Crimean Tatar dialects were formed mainly during the Middle Ages on the basis of the Kypchak and Oguz dialects of the Turkic-speaking population of Crimea. The existing differences between the dialects are explained by the fact that the process of the ethnogenesis of the Crimean Tatars is very complex, and many both Turkic and non-Turkic peoples took part in it.
Let me briefly summarize the above:
1. The human monolanguage arose 45-50 thousand years ago.
2. Even 20 thousand years ago there was a proto-language, which included the language macrofamilies Nostratic, Afro-Asiatic, Sino-Caucasian.
3. The Nostratic family broke up into major groups 10,000 years ago.
4. Ancestors of the future Turks 7 thousand years ago spoke the common Proto-Altaic language, which emerged from Nostratic. The future Japanese spoke the same language.
5. The Proto-Turkic and Proto-Mongolian tribes who spoke the western branch of the Altaic language dispersed. So 5.5 thousand years ago, the Proto-Turkic language arose.
6. The Proto-Turkic language broke up into eastern and western branches 5 thousand years ago.
7. In the western branch, tribes with closely related languages ​​arose, which later received the names of Bulgar, Karluk, Oguz, Kypchak.
8. For five thousand years, the ancient Turks, speaking similar languages, lived in the territories adjacent to the steppes of Central Asia.
9. The separation of the Kipchak and Oghuz languages ​​took place starting from the 1st century AD.
10. In the VI century, a tribal union of Turkic tribes formed the Turkic Kaganate, which eventually spread to the Crimea and the Volga region.
11. In the 11th century, the territory from the Irtysh to the Danube became known as Desht-i-Kypchak, and from the beginning of the 13th century, the Turkic state of the Golden Horde arose on this territory.
12. The first Turks (Huns) appeared in the Crimea in the 4th century. Since the 11th century, the Kipchaks have become the main population of the Crimea.
NOTE:
I think that the reader immediately noticed that the Turkic languages, it turns out, are related to Japanese. Did you think Japanese is related to Chinese? Nothing like this! The Chinese language is related to the language of the Abkhazians, Circassians - this follows from the works of S. A. Starostin, J. D. Bengtson, M. Roulen, Vitaly Shevoroshkin and other Linovists. By the way, the Adyghe (Circassian) language is the second most difficult language in the world after Chinese.
Such complex connections are established by linguists not only because of the presence of common roots of words, but also on the basis of the proximity of grammatical structures.
Here are some similarities between Japanese and Turkic languages:
Synharmonism is the likening of vowels within one word. For example: kitaplar (books), but kalemler (pens).
In the languages ​​under consideration, there are practically no prefixes, but sequences of suffixes are actively used to form grammatical forms. For example: kitap-lar-dan (book - books - from books); ket-e-yat-qan-da-n (leave - leaves - starts to leave - leaving - when he left - as soon as he started to leave).
Even in Japanese and Turkic languages ​​there is no division into masculine, feminine, neuter genders.
In addition, there is a significant amount of general vocabulary.
The work of linguists is not easy. For example, the outstanding linguist of our time S. Starostin wrote that he, together with A. Dybo and O. Mudrak, “finally finished and passed the comparative Altai dictionary - Turkic, Mongolian, Tungus-Manchu, Korean, Japanese. They've been doing it for fifteen years."
15 years of work, presentations at seminars and conferences, criticism of colleagues and your own analysis of mistakes in the wake of this criticism, making corrections - these are the necessary stages of scientific work! And also articles in scientific journals, criticism of reviewers, discussion of already published articles by the scientific community, and again amending the proposed concept ...

LECTURE 3

1. Dictionary of Mahmud of Kashgar "Divanu-lugat-it Turk"

2. Yusuf Balasaguni's poem "Kutadgu bilig"

4. The study of the grammatical structure of the Turkic languages. Research on comparative grammar of Turkic languages. The most important Turkological schools in Russia: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan Turkological schools.

5. Leading Turkologists, their main works. (M.A. Kazembek, V.V. Radlov, S.E. Malov, A.N. Samoilovich, B. Chobanzade, V.A. Bogoroditsky, A.E. Krymsky, N.K. Dmitriev, N. .A. Baskakov, E.V. Sevortyan and others)

Information about the Turkic peoples came to Europe both from ambassadors and travelers who visited various regions subject to the Seljuk Turks, Mongols, Turks and other Turkic peoples, and from Europeans who visited the East as captives.

Orkhon-Yenisei inscriptions became important sources for studying the history of the Turkic languages ​​and creating their classification (see. Orkhon-Yenisei inscriptions language), ancient Uyghur monuments, works of medieval Arabic-speaking, Persian-speaking and Turkic-speaking authors. Important information about the Turkic tribes and their languages ​​was first presented in the work of the Turkic philologist Mahmud Kashgari "Divanu lugat it-Turk" ("Dictionary of Turkic languages") of the 11th century. The forerunner of Kashgari was Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Tarkhan ibn Uzlag al-Rex (Al-Farabi), on whose work "Diwan al-adab fi" bayan lugat al-"arab" ("Collection of literary works in the language of the Arabs") relied on al-Biruni. The Turkic names of medicines in Biruni and Kashgari are the same. Mahmud, along with an excellent Arabic-philological education, also has a thorough knowledge of all areas of medieval Muslim science.

The famous book of Mahmud al-Kashgari "Divani lugat at-Turk" is an encyclopedia. It collected and summarized extensive historical, cultural, ethnographic and linguistic material. "Divani" al-Kashgari is a monument of Turkic culture, perpetuating the ethical values ​​and norms of behavior, the specific worldview of the Turkic peoples in the 11th century. In the book, along with the ancient Zoroastrian-shamanistic worldviews, the basic elements of Islam and such a branch of it as Sufism are captured.

Kashgari introduced a comparative method and a historical approach to the study of languages, laying the foundations of what we now call Turkology. "Dictionary of Turkic dialects" was compiled by Mahmud Kashgari in 1072-1078. Here he presented the main genres of Turkic-speaking folklore - ritual and lyrical songs, fragments of the heroic epic, historical legends and legends (about the campaign of Alexander the Great in the region of the Chigil Turks), more than 400 proverbs, sayings and oral sayings. "Divan" ("Dictionary") by Mahmud Kashgari is the only monument of Turkic dialectology of the early period, which gives an idea of ​​phonetic and morphological phenomena and the specifics of dialect forms. "Dictionary" also contains texts of oral-poetic creativity of the Turkic tribes and peoples of Central Asia, East Turkestan, the Volga region, the Urals. The work of Mahmud Kashgari, written using the scientific methods of Arabic philology, is still of exceptional value for linguists, folklorists and literary critics today.

Yusuf Balasaguni's poem "Kutadgu bilig" as an ethical and didactic work is an example of a major heritage of the spiritual culture of the Turkic-speaking peoples, in the form of edification for rulers and sovereigns. The author was not only a talented poet, but also an outstanding thinker, a prominent scientist of his era. The creative heritage of Yusuf Balasaguni reflects the spiritual values ​​and heritage of the Turkic tribes, family problems, government, rights, moral issues, his work is present. They contain deep reflections of the thinker about the phenomena of nature, about the life of society and man, about the mind, morality of people. Yusuf Balasaguni tried to comprehend the rules of public administration and politics, the meaning of life for every person, the scientific approach to the problems of exact sciences, mathematics, and astronomy. The circle of ideological problems touched upon in the poem "Kutadgu bilig" is extremely wide and varied. The thinker in his poem widely and rationally used folk wisdom, Turkic folklore, proverbs, sayings, winged words. It also touches on the issues of being, thinking, the meaning of life, death and immortality, the origin of the Universe, its structure. They were considered by the thinker through the concepts of "God" and "world", which in the philosophy of the Muslim Middle Ages were interpreted as theologically oriented and philosophically oriented trends. The poem "Kutadgu bilig" opens the history of classical, Turkic poetry, created on the basis of the Arab-Persian literary traditions and the theory of meter, rhyme and poetic figures developed and formulated by that time in detail. Being an ethical and didactic treatise by design, reminiscent to a certain extent of the works of the Chinese sage Confucius, Yusuf's poem is an outstanding work of fiction. It is saturated with various elements of artistic representation: comparisons, epithets, allegories, metaphors.

Codex Cumanicus(lat. Codex Cumanicus,"Dictionary of the Kypchak languages") is a well-known written monument of the Cuman (Old Kipchak) language of the late 13th - early 14th century (1295-1303), the only list of which is kept in the library of St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice.

Compiled by missionaries on the basis of the spoken language of the western branch of the Kypchaks. The manuscript consists of Italian (Latin-Persian-Cuman dictionary) and German (Cuman-German dictionary) parts. Contains about 1300 words. The authors of the monument for the first time make an attempt at a linguistic analysis of the Turkic languages, provide information about the conjugation of verbs, declension and change of pronouns, adjectives and nouns.

The main purpose of the "Code" was practical: for the study of the Kypchak language by missionaries and the acquaintance of the population of the Golden Horde with Christianity.

The "Code" was written in the Crimea, so the language of this book has a strong Oghuz influence of the South Crimean Turkic dialect.

The Code contains the earliest ever collection of 47 Turkic riddles and the first translated into the language of the Kypchaks-Kumans-Polovtsy "God's Ten Commandments", fragments from the "Book of Parables" of Solomon, the Gospel, the writings of the theologians of Sts. Gregory the Theologian (329/330-389/390), Ambrose (339-397), Jerome (340/345-420), Augustine (354-430), Creed, Our Father and Hail Mary (Hail Mary)", hymns by Caelius Sedulius (d. 450), Venantius Fortunatus (530/540-600), Theophilus of Saint-Aubin (XII-XIII centuries) and other Latin poets - "Hail, door of paradise", "Jesus, Our Ransom", "The Word Made Flesh", "The Banners of the Tsar", "Remembering the Priceless Blood", "From the Corner of Sunrise" and original Cuman sermons.

To transmit the Kypchak language, the compilers used the Latin script.

Western Europe became directly acquainted with the Turks in the 11th-13th centuries, during the struggle of Byzantium and the crusaders against the Seljuk Turks; interest in them increased after the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks (1453) and the threat of their further invasion of Europe. With the growth of the territory and influence of the Ottoman Empire, interest in the history, geography and culture of the Turkish state and the main language of the subjects of its Sultan increased markedly. The works of John de Plano Carpini, Wilhelm Rubruck, Marco Polo and other Europeans who visited the 13th-15th centuries are reprinted many times. in various regions of the Turkic world. By the 14th-17th centuries. include descriptions of Turkey made by Europeans who returned from Turkish captivity, as well as travelers and ambassadors: the Venetian Marco Polo, the Russian Athanasius Nikitin, the Saxon Adam Olearius and others. At the end of the 16th century, as well as in the 17th-18th centuries. the study of the Ottoman Empire was the main direction of Turkology in Western Oriental studies and pursued mainly practical political goals: one of the first objects of study in Europe (up to the 2nd half of the 19th century it was practically the only one) was Turkish language; schools of translators were organized in Istanbul, Venice, Paris, Vienna, and other cities, and grammars and dictionaries of the Turkish language were published: in 1533, the first handwritten manual by the Florentine Philippe Argenti appeared, and in 1612, the first printed grammar by I. Megizer. The first handbook on the study of the Turkish language that has come down to us in manuscript was compiled in 1533 by Philip Argenti, secretary of the Florentine mission in Constantinople. The first grammar of the Turkish language was compiled by the Italian monk Pietro Ferraguti (1611 manuscript). The first scientific grammar of the Turkish language was published in Leipzig in 1612 by Hieronymus Megizer.

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the study of the Ottoman Empire in Western Oriental studies was the main direction in Turkology and pursued mainly practical goals - to clarify the reasons for the political and military power of the Ottoman Empire. This was especially evident in France, where the largest Turkologists of that time worked - Luigi Ferdinando Marsigli (1658-1730), who wrote the book "The military state of the Ottoman Empire with its growth and decline", published in 1732 in Italian and French and translated into 1737 into Russian, and Muraja d`Osson (1740-1807) - an Armenian by nationality, who wrote a multi-volume work on the Ottoman Empire, its administrative structure, fiscal system, the main provisions of the legislation, the life of the Sultan's court, etc. , published in 1788-1824. In Russian translation, this work was called "The Complete Picture of the Ottoman Empire ...". It was published from 1795 and was not completed.

These and a number of other works on the Turkish (Ottoman) language, especially the Turkish grammar and dictionary of Francis Meninsky (1680; the grammar was revised under the editorship of A. F. Kollar and republished in three volumes in Vienna in 1756, the dictionary was revised and republished there in 1780 ), paved the way for the scientific study of the Turkic languages ​​in Western Europe and Russia. Starting from the 18th century. Ottoman studies developed especially successfully in France (J. B. D. Golderman, A. Pave de Courtey and others); Turkish was also studied by L. Bonelli, E. Rossi and others in Italy, J. Hammer-Purgstahl in Austria, A. L. Davids, J. W. Redhouse and others in Great Britain, T. Zenker, W. Bang and others in Germany (where the Seminar of Oriental Languages ​​was founded in Berlin in 1887), A. Pann, A. Cotula, and others in Rumania. Only from the 2nd half of the 19th century. Western European scholars pay attention to other Turkic languages: Chuvash, Kazan-Tatar, Kumyk (Z. Gombots, B. Munkachi, V. Pröle, and others in Hungary), Uighur (G. Raquette, then G. Jarring in Sweden); problems of Turkology were developed in connection with the Ural-Altaic linguistics by M. A. Kastren, G. J. Ramstedt, A. M. O. Ryasyanen in Finland. In Denmark, W. Thomsen in 1893 found the key to reading the ancient Turkic runic inscriptions.

In the XV-XVII centuries, the main direction of Turkology was the study of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish language. Under Peter I, a systematic study of Siberia began, including the collection of materials from the Turkic languages, which, after the creation of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1725, acquired a systematic character. A significant role was played by the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences organized in the 18th century. expeditions to study Siberia, the Volga region, the Caucasus, Central Asia, especially the Second Academic Expedition of 1769-74. "A Comparative Dictionary of All Languages ​​and Dialects..." (vols. 1-4, 1790-91) included words from 279 languages, including lexical material from 19 Turkic languages ​​and dialects. The dictionary has incorporated materials from numerous handwritten dictionaries (for example, "Russian-Tatar Dictionary" by S. Khalfin, 1785; "Damaskin Dictionary", 1785; anonymous handwritten "Dictionary of the Chuvash Language", which included about 30 thousand words, 1785, and others ). From the 2nd half of the 18th century. secondary educational institutions appeared in which the Tatar language was taught (Kazan, Astrakhan, Moscow, Omsk, Tobolsk). “The ABC and Grammar of the Tatar Language...” by Ibragim Khalfin (1809) was, along with the “Grammar of the Tatar Language...” by I. I. Giganov (1801), one of the first textbooks of this kind in Russia; during the 19th century. the grammatical structure (mainly morphology) of the Chuvash, Tatar, Turkish, Azerbaijani, Kumyk, Uzbek, Altai, Kazakh, Tuvan, Tofalar languages, the language of a number of monuments was described.

The formation of Turkic studies in Russia began in the 18th century. The lexicon of Academician PS Pallas "Comparative dictionaries of all languages ​​and dialects" (1787), published in St. Petersburg, contains lexical material from the Tatar, Mishar, Nogai, Bashkir and other Turkic languages.

As an independent discipline, Turkology was formed in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. A major role in its formation and development was played by the studies of M.A. Kazembek ("Grammar of the Turkish-Tatar language", 1839), O.N. Betlingk ("Grammar of the Yakut language", 1851), P.M. about the Turkish language", 1900), A.N. Samoilovich ("Experience of a brief Crimean Tatar grammar", 1916), N.N. Ilminsky, I.N. Berezin, L.Z. Budagov, V.D. Smirnov and other scientists. Scientists of Turkic-speaking nationalities made a great contribution to the development of domestic Turkology: Ch.Ch.Valikhanov, K.Nasyri, M.Umetbaev, M.F.Akhundov, I.Altynsarin, N.F.Katanov; Bogoroditsky, S.E.Malov, N.I.Ashmarin, E.D.Polivanov, B.Chobanzade, K.K.Yudakhin, N.K.Dmitriev, I.A.Batmanov, S.Amanzholov, B.M. Yunusaliev, J.G. Kiekbaev, A.M. Shcherbak, M.Sh. Shiraliev, E.R. Tenishev, A.N. Kononov, N.A. Baskakov, A.A. Significant work was carried out on the study of dialects and dialects of the Turkic languages, the grammatical system of the Turkic languages ​​was developed, scientific grammars were published. The achievement of recent years is the creation of comparative phonetics and morphology and syntax of the Turkic languages. Turkic lexicography has received great development in Turkology: national-Russian and Russian-national multi-volume explanatory, as well as terminological, dialectological dictionaries have been compiled and published. The problems of Turkology are also developed in Bulgaria (G. Galybov, N. Todorov), Hungary (D. Nemeth, D. Khazai, A. Rona-Tash), Poland (V. Zayonchkovsky, E. Tryyarsky), Turkey (R. Arat, B. Atalay, A. Dilachar), Germany (A. von Gaben, G. Dorfer), Sweden (G. Yarring, L. Johanson), USA (K. G. Menges) and other countries.

In the 60s. 19th century The scientific activity of V. V. Radlov began, whose name is associated with a fundamentally new stage in the development of domestic and world Turkic studies. At that time, not only all living and dead Turkic languages ​​were involved in the orbit of scientific research, but their systematic comparative study began, including the study of ancient and middle Turkic written monuments, the compilation of general Turkic dictionaries was undertaken, etc. In 1859 -1871 Radlov was engaged in the study of languages, folklore, ethnography, archeology of the peoples of Altai and Western Siberia; in 1866, the first volume of the series Samples of Folk Literature of the Northern Turkic Tribes was published; in 1882-1883 "Comparative Grammar of the Northern Turkic Languages, Part 1. Phonetics" was published in German. Since 1859, the scientist has been working on the fundamental work "The Experience of the Dictionary of Turkic Dialects", which included the vocabulary of all the Turkic languages ​​​​and dialects known to science of that time (v. 1 was published in 1888, the publication was completed in 1911, 24 issues were combined into 4 volumes). Radlov made a great contribution to the study of the monuments of ancient Turkic writing: in 1894-95, 1897, 1899 he published the series "Ancient Turkic inscriptions from Mongolia", which contains the texts of the monuments, their translation, dictionary and grammatical essay. In the history of the study of ancient Turkic monuments, a special place is occupied by the works of Radlov's student P.M. Melioransky, who, unlike the Turkologists S.E. Malov, A.N. . With the name of V.V. Barthold associated with a qualitatively new stage in the study (from the end of the 19th century) of the history of the peoples of Central Asia; he raised important problems of social and economic history, introduced into scientific use many scientific historical sources in the languages ​​of the peoples of the Middle East. In the 19th - early 20th centuries. individual scientists - representatives of the Turkic-speaking peoples (Ch. Ch. Valikhanov, Kayum Nasyri, M. F. Akhundov, I. Altynsarin, Katanov, A.-K. Bakikhanov and others) begin to participate in the development of Turkic studies.

The history of scientific Turkology in Russia is closely connected with the centers of teaching Turkic languages: at the beginning of the 19th century. they were studied at St. Petersburg and Kazan universities. The chair of the Turkish-Tatar language at Kazan University was headed from 1828 by A.K. Kazem-Bek, the author of "Grammar of the Turkish-Tatar language ..." (1839), which for many years determined the development of Turkic grammatical traditions in Russian Turkology. Later, the department was headed by a student of Kazem-Bek, I. N. Berezin, then Ilminsky, one of the first researchers of the Kazakh language. At St. Petersburg University, the Turkish language was taught by O. I. Senkovsky, then by A. O. Mukhlinsky, Berezin, V. D. Smirnov, Samoylovich. In 1855, the Faculty of Oriental Languages ​​(FYA) was established at the university and the range of Turkic languages ​​taught gradually expanded: from 1845, the Azerbaijani language was taught by L. Z. Budagov, the author of the 2-volume Comparative Dictionary of Turkish-Tatar Dialects (1869-71); also taught Chagatai, Kazakh (Melioransky, author of "A Brief Grammar of the Kazakh-Kyrgyz Language", parts 1-2, 1894-97), Uzbek (Samoilovich). In 1919, FVYa became a member of the Faculty of Social Sciences of the 1st Petrograd University; In 1920, the Central Institute of Living Oriental Languages ​​was organized in Petrograd (since 1924 the Leningrad Institute of Living Oriental Languages, since 1927 the Leningrad Oriental Institute, which in 1938 merged into the Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies). In 1944, the Oriental Faculty with the Department of Turkic Philology was recreated at Leningrad State University. Turkish and Uzbek languages ​​were also taught at the Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages ​​in Moscow (1815-1918), where the department of the Turkish-Tatar language was headed from 1850 by L. E. Lazarev, the author of Turkish grammar; late 19th - early 20th centuries F. E. Korsh, A. E. Krymsky, and V. A. Gordlevsky worked here and made a significant contribution to the development of Turkic studies. The Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies was established on the basis of the Lazarev Institute (1921-54). In 1943, an eastern department was created at the philological faculty of Moscow State University, headed by N. K. Dmitriev and in 1958 transformed into the Institute of Asian and African Countries at Moscow State University.

Soviet Turkology, differing from the pre-revolutionary new methodological basis, new tasks, at the same time preserves the best traditions of domestic oriental studies. An important role in the continuation of these traditions was played by the active participation in the creation of a new Turkology of such scientists as Smirnov, V. A. Bogoroditsky, Samoilovich, S. E. Malov, N. I. Ashmarin, Krymsky, P. A. Falev, Gordlevsky, who , having begun their activities in pre-revolutionary Russia, continued it in Soviet times.

In 1926, the All-Union Turkological Congress was held in Baku, which was of great importance for determining the tasks of Soviet Turkic studies and its development. Intensive work began on language construction - the creation of alphabets that corresponded to the phonetic structure of the Turkic languages, the development of terminology and spelling, and the training of local linguistic specialists. In the 1920s Soviet scientists N. F. Yakovlev, L. I. Zhirkov, Samoilovich, B. V. Choban-zade, E. D. Polivanov, A. A. Palmbach, A. M. Sukhotin, K. K. Yudakhin and others, those who took part in the activities All-Union Central Committee of the New Alphabet, the scientific foundations of new alphabets and spellings for the Turkic languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR were developed. During this period and later, phonetics, grammatical structure, vocabulary of little or no studied languages ​​were studied, and textbooks for Turkic-speaking schools were created. A significant contribution to domestic Turkology, including the study of the structure of the Turkic languages, was made by Choban-zade, N. K. Dmitriev, A. P. Potseluevsky, I. A. Batmanov, Yudakhin, Kh. Zhubanov, N. T. Sauranbaev, S. Amanzholov, V. G. Egorov, B. M. Yunusaliev, L. N. Kharitonov, A. K. Borovkov, A. P. Dulzon, J. G. Kiekbaev, V. V. Reshetov, E. I. Ubryatova, M. Sh. Shiraliev, E. R. Tenishev, A. M. Shcherbak, N. A. Baskakov, A. N. Kononov and others.

From the 40s. along with the study of modern Turkic languages ​​and their dialects, the study of historical and comparative historical phonetics, grammar begins, lexicology and lexicography, dialectography and dialectology are widely developed, from the 50s. - linguistic study of the monuments of Turkic writing. The texts of the monuments, as well as the generalizing work “Monuments of the Ancient Turkic Writing” (1951), were published by S. E. Malov. The Etymological Dictionary of the Turkic Languages ​​by E. V. Sevortyan (vols. 1-3, 1974-80, work on the next volumes continues at the Institute of Linguistics of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR), the Ancient Turkic Dictionary (1969), and the Historical and Comparative Dictionary of the Turkic Languages ​​were published. » E. N. Nadzhipa (1979), in Tashkent the Explanatory Dictionary of the Language of Alisher Navoi’s Works was published (vols. 1-3, 1983-84), explanatory dictionaries of modern Kazakh, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Uzbek, Tatar languages ​​were published.

Soviet journalism has achieved outstanding success in the field of literary criticism (the works of Smirnov, Samoilovich, E. E. Bertels, Gordlevsky, V. M. Zhirmunsky, M. Auezov, M. Rafili, G. Arasly, M. Gainullin, L. Alkaeva, and others). .). The history, ethnography, and archeology of the Turkic-speaking peoples of the USSR were widely developed in the works of Bartold, A. Yu. Yakubovsky, P. P. Ivanov, S. I. Rudenko, A. N. Bernshtam, N. P. Dyrenkova, A. A. Popov , S. V. Kiseleva, V. A. Shishkin, M. E. Masson, S. P. Tolstova, L. P. Potapova, A. P. Okladnikova, S. M. Abramzon, Ya. G. Gulyamova, A Kh. Margulan, T. A. Zhdanko, S. I. Vainshtein, L. N. Gumilyov, A. D. Grach, L. R. Kyzlasov, and many others. of all Turkic-speaking peoples of the Soviet Union and monographic studies of the socio-economic problems of the Middle Ages, modern and recent times: agrarian history, the social structure of society, classes and class struggle, the experience of socialist construction, etc. (works by M. Abduraimov, A. Alizade, R. Mukminova, S. G. Klyashtorny, O. D. Chekhovich and others).

A characteristic feature of Soviet Turkology is the creation of numerous scientific centers in the republics and regions of the Turkic-speaking peoples of the USSR, where national cadres of scientists work. The problems of linguistic Turkology in the USSR are studied at the IVAN of the USSR in Moscow and in its department in Leningrad, the Institute of Linguistics of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, in the oriental institutes and departments of the Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, in the Kazan, Bashkir and Dagestan branches of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, in special research institutes of Karakalpakia, Tuva, Chuvashia, Gorno-Altai, Khakass autonomous regions, at the Institute of History, Philology, Philosophy of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the Yakut branch of this branch, as well as at the institutes of the Academy of Sciences of Armenia and Georgia. Training of specialists in Turkology is carried out at the Institute of Asian and African countries at Moscow State University, at the Eastern Faculty of Leningrad State University, at the universities of Alma-Ata, Ashgabat, Baku, Kazan, Nalchik, Samarkand, Tashkent, Tbilisi, Ufa, Frunze, Cheboksary, Yakutsk and some others educational institutions.

To improve the coordination of scientific research in the field of Turkic studies, as well as to strengthen international contacts and scientific cooperation with Turkologists from foreign countries, in 1973 the Soviet Committee of Turkologists was created at the Department of Literature and Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Modern Turkology does not go beyond linguistic and philological research, the use of translation material. At the same time, issues of history, economics, spiritual culture, military affairs, art, source studies, onomastics, geography, etc. could be studied within it.

Competition in the globalizing world cannot but affect the issues of Turkic studies. Turkological science has recently received significant development in Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Germany. The development of this branch of domestic science is a requirement of the time.

To date, the most urgent problem is the study of modern Turkic languages, comparing with the facts of development and in the formation of the ancient Turkic language and establishing their relationship.

The fate of the Turkic written literature is similar to the fate of the Turkic language. The related literature of the Turks that existed in the early period has not been studied. At the same time, the surviving songs and legends of the Huns who lived in northern China and translated into ancient Chinese are known. Researchers of the history of Chinese literature admit that these works were once written in the language of the Huns. Hence the obvious need to study the written literature of the Turks since the time of the Huns.

Modern foreign Turkology]

In a number of countries of Eastern Europe, Turkology traditionally develops in the areas of historical and philological studies, less often in linguistic studies proper. In Hungary, the problems of Turkic studies were developed and are being developed by D. Nemeth, L. Ligeti, D. Khazai, A. Rona-Tash, J. Kakuk, D. Kara, E. Schutz, I. Vashari; in the NRB - G. Gylybov, B. Nedkov, N. Todorov and others; in Romania - M. Guboglu, V. Drymbe; in the SFRY - G. Elezovich, A. Shkalich, E. Djindjic, H. Shabanovich; in the GDR - P. Zieme, Z. Kleinmichel and others; in Czechoslovakia - J. Blashkovich, J. Kabrda and others; in Poland - A. Zayonchkovsky, V. Zayonchkovsky, A. Dubinsky, E. Tryyarsky and others. The Turkological institutions of the PRC are concentrated in Beijing and Urumqi.

The main directions of modern Turkic studies in Turkey developed after 1928; in the 1920s in Turkey, language construction was widely developed, including the reform of the alphabet in 1928. In 1932, the Turkish Linguistic Society - TLO (Türk Dil Kurumu) was created in Ankara, which actively pursued a policy of replacing obsolete or borrowed vocabulary with Turkish neologisms, published a number of different dictionaries, grammars, and studies on history and dialectology of the Turkish language, as well as monuments of Turkic writing (R. R. Arat, T. Banguoglu, M. A. Agakay, B. Atalay, A. Dilyachar, O. A. Aksoy, A. S. Levend and others) . In 1983, the Higher Society of Culture, Language and History was established in Ankara. Ataturk (Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu), which included TLO (Türk Dil Kurumu). The centers of Turkic studies in modern Turkey are also the Faculty of Literature of Istanbul University, the Institutes of Turkic Studies and Islamic Studies at this University, the Faculty of Language, History and Geography of Ankara University and the Turkological Institute attached to it, Erzurum University and other universities in Turkey.

Turkology is represented in Austria, Great Britain, Denmark, Italy, France, Finland, Switzerland, Germany, Sweden and other countries. A. von Gaben, G. Dörfer (Germany), A. Titze (Austria), K. G. Menges (USA), P. Aalto (Finland), L. Bazin, J. L. Boke-Grammont and others (France) ), A. Bombachi, R. Fakkani (Italy), Jarring, L. Johanson (Sweden) deal with both general problems of Turkic studies and the history of Turkic languages, historical grammar. Turkology originated in the USA in the 1930s. 20th century, began to develop rapidly in the 50s-60s, mainly due to the involvement of Turkologists from Europe and Turkey; with their help, the teaching of Turkic languages ​​was organized at Columbia University, Harvard University and the Center for Middle Eastern Studies attached to it, the University of Los Angeles, the University of Indiana and others. Since 1960, Indiana University has been publishing the Uralic and Altaic series, in which textbooks on the Uralic and Altaic languages, including Turkic, are published. Turkology in Japan, which had a long tradition, revived after the 2nd World War. Japanese orientalists unite in the Institute of Culture, founded in 1947 with branches in Tokyo and Kyoto.

The main periodicals on T. (in addition to the general oriental periodicals): "Soviet Turkology" (Baku, 1970-); "Turkological collection" (M., 1970-); "Asia Major" (L., 1949-); "Türk Dili Belleten" (Ist., 1933-); "Türk Dili Araştirmalar yillg Belleten" (Ankara, 1953-); "Türkiyat Mecmuas" (Ist., 1925-); “Turk tarih Kurumu. Belleten" (Ankara, 1937-); "Tarih Dergisi" (Ist., 1949-); "Tarih Araştirmalar Dergisi" (Ankara, 1963-); "Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher" (Wiesbaden, 1922-); "Turcica" (P., 1969-).

The Turkic languages ​​are a family of related languages ​​of the Altaic macrofamily, widely spoken in Asia and Eastern Europe. The distribution area of ​​the Turkic languages ​​extends from the Lena River basin in Siberia southwest to the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The total number of speakers is more than 167.4 million people.

Traditionally, the Turkic languages ​​are included in the Altaic family, within which they show a closer relationship with the Mongolian languages. Inclusion in the Altaic family is not recognized by some Turkologists and is the subject of scholarly debate.

grammatical characteristic

Typologically, they belong to agglutinative languages; they are also characterized by synharmonism.

Writing

In the VIII-X centuries. in Central Asia, for records in the Turkic languages, the ancient Turkic runic writing (Orkhon-Yenisei writing) was used.

In writing, modern Turkic languages ​​​​use mainly the Latin, Cyrillic and Arabic alphabets.

On the territory of Russia and the countries of the near abroad, the Turkic languages ​​occupy the second place in terms of prevalence and the number of speakers (after Slavic). Turkic peoples and languages ​​are common in Western and Eastern Siberia, Central Asia (including Kazakhstan), the Volga region, the Caucasus and Dagestan. The most common of the Turkic languages ​​are Uzbek, Tatar, Kazakh, Azerbaijani, Chuvash, Turkmen, Bashkir, Kyrgyz.

Turkology has a number of classification schemes proposed by various scientists and built on different principles. It is generally recognized that the Bulgar and the Turkic (general Turkic) groups are opposed - their separation took place at the turn of BC. e., probably in the II century. n. e. Scientific discussions on the belonging and correlation of languages ​​and their dialects within the Turkic languages ​​do not cease.

79. Linguistics as a science. The place of linguistics in the system of sciences.

Linguistics (linguistics, linguistics; from Latin lingua - language) is a science that studies languages. This is the science of natural human language in general and of all the languages ​​of the world as its individual representatives, studied. essence, structure and functions of the language.

Linguistics in the broadest sense of the word (knowledge of the language and the transfer of the results of this knowledge to other people) is divided into:

theoretical linguistics: scientific, involving the construction of linguistic theories;

applied linguistics: specializes in solving practical problems related to the study of language, as well as in the practical use of linguistic theory in other areas;

practical linguistics: is the area where linguistic experiments are actually carried out, with the aim of verifying the provisions of theoretical linguistics and testing the effectiveness of the products created by applied linguistics.

General linguistics - studies the properties inherent in any language, i.e. universal.

Private language - explores the structure and features of individual languages ​​or kinship groups. Yaz.

Philosophy = Philosophy of language, Philosophical questions of linguistics, Cognitive link, General semantics

Natural sciences -> physics -> acoustics = speech acoustics

Biology -> Physiology -> Articulatory phonetics, Perceptual phonetics

Neurophysiology > Neurolinguistics

At the intersection of linguistics and psychology - psycholinguistics, cognitive linguistics.

At the intersection of linguistics and sociology - sociolinguistics.

At the intersection of linguistics and history - linguistic paleontology.

At the junction of linguistics and genealogy - anthroponymy.

At the junction of linguistics and geography - toponymy.

At the intersection of linguistics and the methodology of science - the methodology of linguistics.

At the intersection of linguistics and mathematics - mathematical linguistics.

At the intersection of linguistics and logic, see: linguistics and logic, logical direction in linguistics.

At the intersection of linguistics and statistics, see: quantitative linguistics, linguistic statistics.

At the intersection of linguistics and methods of history, see: historical linguistics.

At the intersection of linguistics and methods of geography, see: areal linguistics, linguistic geography = linguogeography, linguistic mapping.

At the intersection of linguistics and methods of psychology, see: experimental linguistics, experiment in linguistics. At the intersection of linguistics and methods of sociology, see: questioning in linguistics. At the intersection of linguistics and engineering, see: engineering linguistics, linguistic design. At the intersection of linguistics and computing, see: computational linguistics, computational linguistics, machine translation.

TURKIC LANGUAGES, a language family spread over the territory from Turkey in the west to Xinjiang in the east and from the coast of the East Siberian Sea in the north to Khorasan in the south. Speakers of these languages ​​live compactly in the CIS countries (Azerbaijanis - in Azerbaijan, Turkmens - in Turkmenistan, Kazakhs - in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz - in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbeks - in Uzbekistan; Kumyks, Karachays, Balkars, Chuvashs, Tatars, Bashkirs, Nogais, Yakuts, Tuvans, Khakass, Mountain Altaians - in Russia; Gagauz - in the Transnistrian Republic) and beyond its borders - in Turkey (Turks) and China (Uighurs). At present, the total number of speakers of Turkic languages ​​is about 120 million. The Turkic family of languages ​​is part of the Altai macrofamily.

The very first (3rd century BC, according to glottochronology) the Bulgar group separated from the Proto-Turkic community (in other terminology - R-languages). The only living representative of this group is the Chuvash language. Separate glosses are known in written monuments and borrowings in neighboring languages ​​from the medieval languages ​​of the Volga and Danube Bulgars. The rest of the Turkic languages ​​(“Common Turkic” or “Z-languages”) are usually classified into 4 groups: “Southwestern” or “Oghuz” languages ​​(main representatives: Turkish, Gagauz, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Afshar, Coastal Crimean Tatar) , "North-Western" or "Kipchak" languages ​​(Karaim, Crimean Tatar, Karachay-Balkarian, Kumyk, Tatar, Bashkir, Nogai, Karakalpak, Kazakh, Kyrgyz), "South-Eastern" or "Karluk" languages ​​(Uzbek, Uighur), "North-Eastern" languages ​​- a genetically heterogeneous group, including: a) the Yakut subgroup (Yakut and Dolgan languages), which separated from the common Turkic, according to glottochronological data, before its final collapse, in the 3rd century BC. AD; b) the Sayan group (Tuvan and Tofalar languages); c) the Khakass group (Khakas, Shor, Chulym, Saryg-Yugur); d) Gorno-Altai group (Oirot, Teleut, Tuba, Lebedinsky, Kumandin). The southern dialects of the Gorno-Altai group are close in a number of parameters to the Kyrgyz language, constituting with it the "central-eastern group" of the Turkic languages; some dialects of the Uzbek language clearly belong to the Nogai subgroup of the Kypchak group; Khorezm dialects of the Uzbek language belong to the Oguz group; part of the Siberian dialects of the Tatar language is approaching the Chulym-Turkic.

The earliest deciphered written monuments of the Turks date back to the 7th century. AD (steles written in runic script found on the Orkhon River in northern Mongolia). Throughout their history, the Turks used the Turkic runic (ascending, apparently, to the Sogdian script), Uighur script (later passed from them to the Mongols), Brahmi, Manichaean script, and Arabic script. At present, writings based on Arabic, Latin and Cyrillic are common.

According to historical sources, information about the Turkic peoples for the first time emerges in connection with the appearance of the Huns on the historical arena. The steppe empire of the Huns, like all known formations of this kind, was not monoethnic; judging by the linguistic material that has come down to us, there was a Turkic element in it. Moreover, the dating of the initial information about the Huns (in Chinese historical sources) is 4-3 centuries. BC. – coincides with the glottochronological definition of the time of the allocation of the Bulgar group. Therefore, a number of scientists directly connect the beginning of the movement of the Huns with the separation and departure to the west of the Bulgars. The ancestral home of the Turks is placed in the northwestern part of the Central Asian plateau, between the Altai mountains and the northern part of the Khingan Range. From the southeast side they were in contact with the Mongol tribes, from the west their neighbors were the Indo-European peoples of the Tarim Basin, from the northwest - the Ural and Yenisei peoples, from the north - the Tungus-Manchus.

By the 1st century BC. separate tribal groups of the Huns moved to the territory of modern South Kazakhstan, in the 4th century. AD the invasion of the Huns to Europe begins, by the end of the 5th century. In Byzantine sources, the ethnonym "Bulgars" appears, denoting a confederation of tribes of Hunnic origin, which occupied the steppe between the Volga and Danube basins. In the future, the Bulgarian confederation is divided into the Volga-Bulgarian and Danube-Bulgarian parts.

After the breakaway of the "Bulgars", the rest of the Turks continued to remain in the territory close to their ancestral home until the 6th century. AD, when, after defeating the Zhuan-Zhuan confederation (part of the Xianbei, presumably the proto-Mongols who defeated and ousted the Huns in their time), they formed the Turkic confederation, which dominated from the middle of the 6th to the middle of the 7th century. over a vast territory from the Amur to the Irtysh. Historical sources do not provide information about the moment of separation from the Turkic community of the ancestors of the Yakuts. The only way to connect the ancestors of the Yakuts with some historical messages is to identify them with the Kurykans of the Orkhon inscriptions, which belonged to the Teles confederation absorbed by the Turks. They were localized at that time, apparently, to the east of Baikal. Judging by the references in the Yakut epic, the main advance of the Yakuts to the north is associated with a much later time - the expansion of the empire of Genghis Khan.

In 583, the Turkic confederation was divided into Western (with its center in Talas) and Eastern Turks (in other words, “blue Turks”), the center of which was the former center of the Turkic empire Kara-Balgasun on Orkhon. Apparently, the disintegration of the Turkic languages ​​into the western (Oghuz, Kipchak) and eastern (Siberia; Kirghiz; Karluk) macrogroups is connected with this event. In 745, the Eastern Turks were defeated by the Uighurs (localized to the southwest of Lake Baikal and presumably at first non-Turks, but by that time already Turkicized). Both the Eastern Turkic and the Uyghur states experienced a strong cultural influence of China, but the Eastern Iranians, primarily Sogdian merchants and missionaries, had no less influence on them; in 762 Manichaeism became the state religion of the Uighur empire.

In 840 the Uyghur state centered on the Orkhon was destroyed by the Kyrkiz (from the upper reaches of the Yenisei; presumably also at first not a Turkic, but by this time a Turkicized people), the Uyghurs fled to Eastern Turkestan, where in 847 they founded a state with the capital Kocho (in the Turfan oasis). From here the main monuments of the ancient Uighur language and culture have come down to us. Another group of fugitives settled in what is now the Chinese province of Gansu; their descendants may be Saryg-Yugurs. The entire northeastern group of Turks, except for the Yakuts, can also go back to the Uyghur conglomerate, as part of the Turkic population of the former Uyghur Khaganate, which moved northward, deeper into the taiga, already at the time of the Mongol expansion.

In 924, the Kyrgyz were ousted from the Orkhon state by the Khitans (presumably Mongols in language) and partly returned to the upper reaches of the Yenisei, partly moved westward, to the southern spurs of the Altai. Apparently, the formation of the central-eastern group of Turkic languages ​​can be traced back to this South Altai migration.

The Turfan state of the Uyghurs existed for a long time next to another Turkic state dominated by the Karluks, a Turkic tribe that originally lived to the east of the Uyghurs, but by 766 moved to the west and subjugated the state of the Western Turks, whose tribal groups spread in the steppes of Turan (Ili-Talas region , Sogdiana, Khorasan and Khorezm; at the same time, Iranians lived in the cities). At the end of the 8th c. Karluk Khan Yabgu converted to Islam. The Karluks gradually assimilated the Uighurs who lived to the east, and the Uighur literary language served as the basis for the literary language of the Karluk (Karakhanid) state.

Part of the tribes of the Western Turkic Khaganate were Oghuz. Of these, the Seljuk confederation stood out, which at the turn of the 1st millennium AD. migrated west through Khorasan to Asia Minor. Apparently, the linguistic consequence of this movement was the formation of the southwestern group of Turkic languages. Approximately at the same time (and, apparently, in connection with these events) there was a mass migration to the Volga-Ural steppes and Eastern Europe of tribes representing the ethnic basis of the current Kypchak languages.

The phonological systems of the Turkic languages ​​are characterized by a number of common properties. In the field of consonantism, restrictions on the occurrence of phonemes in the position of the beginning of a word, a tendency to weaken in the initial position, restrictions on the compatibility of phonemes are common. At the beginning of the primordial Turkic words are not found l,r,n, š ,z. Noisy plosives are usually contrasted by strength/weakness (Eastern Siberia) or deafness/voicedness. At the beginning of a word, the opposition of consonants in terms of deafness/voicedness (strength/weakness) exists only in the Oguz and Sayan groups, in most other languages ​​at the beginning of a word, labials are voiced, dental and back-lingual are deaf. Uvular in most Turkic languages ​​are allophones of velar with back vowels. The following types of historical changes in the consonant system are classified as significant. a) In the Bulgar group in most positions there is a voiceless fricative lateral l coincided with l in sound in l; r and r in r. In other Turkic languages l gave š , r gave z, l and r preserved. In relation to this process, all Turkologists are divided into two camps: some call it rotacism-lambdaism, others - zetacism-sigmatism, and this is statistically associated, respectively, with their non-recognition or recognition of the Altaic kinship of languages. b) Intervocalic d(pronounced as interdental fricative ð) gives r in Chuvash t in Yakut d in the Sayan languages ​​and Khalaj (an isolated Turkic language in Iran), z in the Khakass group and j in other languages; respectively, talking about r-,t-,d-,z- and j- languages.

The vocalism of most Turkic languages ​​is characterized by synharmonism (the likening of vowels within one word) in row and roundness; the vowel system is reconstructed for the Proto-Turkic as well. Synharmonism disappeared in the Karluk group (as a result of which the opposition of velar and uvular was phonologized there). In the New Uighur language, a kind of synharmonism is again built - the so-called "Uyghur umlaut", the leading of wide unrounded vowels before the next i(which ascends both to the front *i, and to the rear * ï ). In Chuvash, the whole system of vowels has changed a lot, and the old vowel harmony has disappeared (its trace is the opposition k from a velar in an anterior word and x from the uvular in the back row word), but then a new synharmonism lined up in a row, taking into account the current phonetic characteristics of vowels. The opposition of vowels by longitude/shortness that existed in the Proto-Turkic was preserved in the Yakut and Turkmen languages ​​(and in a residual form in other Oghuz languages, where the voiceless consonants sounded after the old long vowels, as well as in the Sayan languages, where short vowels before voiceless consonants receive the sign of "pharyngealization") ; in other Turkic languages ​​it disappeared, but in many languages ​​long vowels reappeared after intervocalic voiced omissions (Tuvinsk. so"tub"< *sagu and under.). In Yakut, primary wide long vowels have turned into ascending diphthongs.

In all modern Turkic languages ​​- a power stress, which is morphonologically fixed. In addition, tonal and phonation oppositions were noted for the Siberian languages, however, they were not fully described.

From the point of view of morphological typology, the Turkic languages ​​belong to the agglutinative, suffixal type. At the same time, if the Western Turkic languages ​​are a classic example of agglutinative ones and have almost no fusion, then the Eastern ones, like the Mongolian languages, develop a powerful fusion.

The grammatical categories of the name in the Turkic languages ​​are number, belonging, case. The order of affixes is: base + aff. numbers + aff. accessories + case aff. Plural form h. is usually formed by adding an affix to the stem -lar(in Chuvash -sem). In all Turkic languages, the plural form hours is marked, the form of units. hours - unmarked. In particular, in the generic meaning and with numerals, the singular form is used. numbers (kumyk. men at gerdyum " I (actually) saw horses."

Case systems include: a) the nominative (or main) case with a zero indicator; the form with a zero case indicator is used not only as a subject and a nominal predicate, but also as an indefinite direct object, an adjectival definition and with many postpositions; b) accusative case (aff. *- (ï )g) - case of a certain direct object; c) genitive case (aff.) - the case of a concrete-referential applied definition; d) dative-directive (aff. *-a/*-ka); e) local (aff. *-ta); e) ablative (aff. *-tin). The Yakut language rebuilt the case system along the lines of the Tungus-Manchu languages. Usually there are two types of declension: nominal and possessive-nominal (declension of words with affixes of the 3rd person; case affixes take a slightly different form in this case).

The adjective in the Turkic languages ​​differs from the noun in the absence of inflectional categories. Receiving the syntactic function of the subject or object, the adjective acquires all the inflectional categories of the noun.

Pronouns change by case. Personal pronouns are available for 1 and 2 persons (* bi/ben"I", * si/sen"you", * bir"we", *sir"you"), in the third person demonstrative pronouns are used. Demonstrative pronouns in most languages ​​distinguish three degrees of range, for example, bu"this", Su"this remote" (or "this" when indicated by the hand), ol"that". Interrogative pronouns distinguish between animate and inanimate ( Kim"who" and ne"what").

In the verb, the order of affixes is as follows: the stem of the verb (+ aff. voice) (+ aff. negation (- ma-)) + aff. inclination/view-temporal + aff. conjugations for persons and numbers (in brackets - affixes that are not necessarily present in the word form).

Voices of the Turkic verb: real (without indicators), passive (*- il), return ( *-in-), mutual ( * -ïš- ) and causative ( *-t-,*-ir-,*-tyr- and some etc.). These indicators can be combined with each other (cum. ger-yush-"see", gyor-yush-dir-"to force to see" jaz-hole-"force to write" yaz-hole-yl-"to be compelled to write").

The conjugated forms of the verb fall into proper verbal and improper verbal forms. The former have personal indicators that go back to the affixes of belonging (except for 1 lit. plural and 3 lit. plural). These include the past categorical tense (aorist) in the indicative mood: verb stem + indicator - d- + personal indicators: bar-d-im"I went" oqu-d-u-lar"they read"; means a completed action, the fact of the implementation of which is beyond doubt. This also includes the conditional mood (verb stem + -sa-+ personal indicators); desired mood (verb stem + -aj- + personal indicators: pra-Turkic. * bar-aj-im"let me go" * bar-aj-ik"let's go"); imperative mood (pure stem of the verb in 2 l singular and stem + in 2 l. pl. h.).

Non-proper verbal forms are historically gerunds and participles in the function of the predicate, decorated with the same indicators of predicability as nominal predicates, namely, postpositive personal pronouns. For example: other Turkic. ( ben)beg ben"I'm Bek" ben anca tir ben"I say so", lit. "I say so-I." Present participles (or simultaneity) are distinguished (stem + -a), indefinite future (base + -VR, where V– vowel of different quality), precedence (stem + -ip), desired mood (base + -g aj); participle perfect (stem + -g an), behind-the-eyes, or descriptive (stem + -mus), definite-future tense (stem + ) and many others. etc. The affixes of gerunds and participles do not carry collateral oppositions. Verbs with predicative affixes, as well as gerunds with auxiliary verbs in proper and improper verbal forms (numerous existential, phase, modal verbs, verbs of motion, verbs "take" and "give") express a variety of committed, modal, directional and accommodative meanings, cf. Kumyk. bara bulgaiman"Looks like I'm going" go- dep. simultaneity become- dep. desired -I), ishley goremen"I am going to work" ( work- dep. simultaneity look- dep. simultaneity -I), language"sleep (for yourself)" ( write- dep. precedence take). Various verbal names of action are used as infinitives in various Turkic languages.

From the point of view of syntactic typology, the Turkic languages ​​belong to the languages ​​of the nominative system with the prevailing word order "subject - object - predicate", preposition of the definition, preference for postpositions over prepositions. There is a folded design – with the indicator of membership at the defined word ( at bas-i"horse head", lit. "the horse's head is hers"). In a composing phrase, usually all grammatical indicators are attached to the last word.

The general rules for the formation of subordinating phrases (including sentences) are cyclical: any subordinating combination can be inserted as one of the members into any other, and the connection indicators are attached to the main member of the built-in combination (the verb form turns into the corresponding participle or gerund). Wed: Kumyk. ak sakal"white beard" ak sakal-ly gishi"white-bearded man" booth-la-ny ara-son-yes"between the booths" booth-la-ny ara-son-da-gye yol-well orta-son-da"in the middle of the path passing between the booths", sen ok atganing"you shot an arrow" sen ok atganyng-ny gerdyum"I saw you shoot an arrow" ("you shot an arrow - 2 l. singular - vin. case - I saw"). When a predicative combination is inserted in this way, one often speaks of the "Altai type of a complex sentence"; indeed, the Turkic and other Altaic languages ​​show a clear preference for such absolute constructions with the verb in the impersonal form over subordinate clauses. The latter, however, are also used; for connection in complex sentences, allied words are used - interrogative pronouns (in subordinate clauses) and correlative words - demonstrative pronouns (in main sentences).

The main part of the vocabulary of the Turkic languages ​​is native, often having parallels in other Altaic languages. Comparison of the general vocabulary of the Turkic languages ​​allows us to get an idea of ​​the world in which the Turks lived in the period of the collapse of the Proto-Turkic community: the landscape, fauna and flora of the southern taiga in Eastern Siberia, on the border with the steppe; metallurgy of the early Iron Age; economic structure of the same period; transhumance cattle breeding based on horse breeding (with the use of horse meat for food) and sheep breeding; farming in a subsidiary function; the big role of developed hunting; two types of dwellings - winter stationary and summer portable; quite developed social dismemberment on a tribal basis; apparently, to a certain extent, a codified system of legal relations in active trade; a set of religious and mythological concepts characteristic of shamanism. In addition, of course, such “basic” vocabulary as the names of body parts, verbs of movement, sensory perception, etc. is being restored.

In addition to the original Turkic vocabulary, modern Turkic languages ​​use a large number of borrowings from languages ​​with whose speakers the Turks have ever come into contact. These are, first of all, Mongolian borrowings (there are many borrowings from the Turkic languages ​​in the Mongolian languages, there are also cases when a word was borrowed first from the Turkic languages ​​into Mongolian, and then back, from the Mongolian languages ​​into Turkic, cf. other Uighur. irbi, Tuvan. irbis"bars" > mong. irbis > Kirg. irbis). There are many Tungus-Manchurian borrowings in the Yakut language, in Chuvash and Tatar they are borrowed from the Finno-Ugric languages ​​of the Volga region (as well as vice versa). A significant part of the “cultural” vocabulary has been borrowed: in the Old Uyghur there are many borrowings from Sanskrit and Tibetan, primarily Buddhist terminology; in the languages ​​of the Muslim Turkic peoples there are many Arabicisms and Persianisms; in the languages ​​of the Turkic peoples that were part of the Russian Empire and the USSR, there are many Russian borrowings, including internationalisms like communism,tractor,political economy. On the other hand, there are many Turkic borrowings in Russian. The earliest are borrowings from the Danube-Bulgarian language into Old Church Slavonic ( book, drop"idol" - in the word temple“pagan temple”, etc.), who came from there to Russian; there are also borrowings from Bulgar into Old Russian (as well as into other Slavic languages): serum(Common Turk. *jogurt, bulg. *suvart), bursa"Persian silk fabric" (Chuvashsk. porcin< *bar and un< Wed-Pers. *aparesum; trade of pre-Mongol Rus with Persia went along the Volga through the Great Bulgar). A large amount of cultural vocabulary was borrowed into Russian from the late medieval Turkic languages ​​in the 14th–17th centuries. (during the time of the Golden Horde and even more later, during the time of brisk trade with the surrounding Turkic states: ass, pencil, raisin,shoe, iron,Altyn,arshin,coachman,Armenian,ditches,dried apricots and many others. etc.). In later times, the Russian language borrowed from Turkic only words denoting local Turkic realities ( snow leopard,ayran,kobyz,sultana,village,elm). Contrary to a common misconception, there are no Turkic borrowings among the Russian obscene (obscene) vocabulary, almost all of these words are Slavic in origin.