Organization of scientific research work

Specificity and rules of the formative experiment

teacher-psychologist: Naskina E.A.

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...3

Chapter 1

Pedagogical research………………………………………….5

1. The essential characteristic of the psychological and pedagogical

Research………………………………………………………………5

Research……………………………………………………………8

Chapter 2

Research………………………………………………………..12

2.2 The specifics and rules of the organization of the forming

Experiment……………………………………………………… 17

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….25

References……………………………………………………………...26

Introduction

The changes taking place in our country in the political and economic spheres have also affected the education sector. The functions of education as an important factor of social stability, the continuity of culture, the preservation of moral,

physical and mental health of youth, education of creative,

free, active and responsible person. Achieving this goal

requires the development of new functions and new content of education, search

and introduction of progressive technologies and flexible organizational forms,

revision of some principles of education and upbringing.

At the present stage, educational institutions can choose

own version of the curriculum, introduce additional education

educational services, teachers are given the opportunity to develop original programs and courses, and in order to

research work was successful for education specialists

it is necessary to know well the methodology of organizing and conducting psychological

Psychological and pedagogical approaches in the work of general education, professional educational institutions and institutions of additional education, as well as the forms of organization themselves, types of institutions, the system and methods of work in them - all this is now dynamically updated, requires search, clarification, adjustment depending on the type of microenvironment, features of the situation, requests and opportunities of the population. The renewal of education is not a short-term campaign, it is ongoing. Pedagogical activity is essentially non-prescription, it must contain an element of searching for the best, optimal for a particular situation, options for its implementation.

The foregoing determines the need to master the principles and methods of psychological and pedagogical research not only by scientists who study this area, but also by a wide range of psychologists and teachers. This will make it possible to better understand the new goals and objectives of education and upbringing, to master progressive technologies, flexible organizational forms, to find ways to organically combine pedagogical, psychological and other (medical, social and rehabilitation) methods, to revise even some principles of education and upbringing.

Purpose of the study:studying the features of organizing and conducting a formative experiment.

Tasks:

Analyze the idea, structure and logic of the psychological and pedagogical research

To study the features of the psychological and pedagogical experiment as a research method;

To study the specifics of organizing a formative experiment.

Object of study:methodology for organizing and conducting psychological

pedagogical research.

Subject of study:features and stages of the formative experiment.

Theoretical foundations of the study:in the study, we relied on the provisions and conclusions made regarding the features of the

psychological and pedagogical research in the works of Yu.K. Babansky, N. M. Borytko, B. F. Lomov, Yu. M. Zabrodin, V. I. Zagvyazinsky and others.

Research methods:theoretical analysis of literature, synthesis of the obtained information.

Chapter 1. The idea, structure and logic of the psychological and pedagogical research

1. Essential characteristic of psychological and pedagogical research

Research in the field of psychology and pedagogy is a complex process of scientific and cognitive activity aimed at identifying, testing and using new methods, means and techniques in pedagogical practice that improve the system of education, training and human development. This is a difficult path of creative search, which includes a number of interrelated stages of work, each of which solves its own specific tasks. The optimal sequence of these stages, leading to obtaining reasonable results, i.e., the methodology of psychological and pedagogical research, is due to its design.

The concept of the study is the main idea that links together all the structural elements of the methodology, determines the organization and procedure for conducting the study, its stages. In the design of the study, the goal, objectives, research hypothesis, and its criteria are lined up in a logical order. Indicators of the development of a particular psychological and pedagogical phenomenon are correlated with specific research methods, the sequence of application of these methods, the procedure for managing the course of the experiment, registration, accumulation and generalization of empirical material are determined. The purpose of the research determines the structure, logic and its main stages.

The development of the concept and logic of the study, embodying the search strategy, is a complex process that not only precedes, but also accompanies the entire study, because the nature and sequence of its stages are largely determined by the results obtained already in the course of the work and the difficulties that have arisen. Nevertheless, the main work on the development of the concept and logic of pedagogical research must be done at the beginning of the work, based on the principle of modeling the final result and hypothetical ideas about those stages of research that provide

chat his achievement.

Usually, the process of psychological and pedagogical research in a generalized form consists of the following stages:

Selection, formulation and justification of the research topic;

Development and preparation of a working plan for the study, the choice of methods and the development of a methodology for its implementation;

In-depth study of scientific and scientific-methodical literature, dissertations, research and term papers related to the problem under study;

Analysis of psychological and pedagogical practice, past and present experience, both positive and negative;

Collection, processing and systematization of own research materials;

Experimental verification of the research results;

Formulation of the main conclusions based on the results of the study;

Drawing up a plan-project of scientific work, determining its structure;

Literary and technical design of scientific work (language, style, editorial tour, compliance with GOST requirements).

Often in the practice of research work, only a few major stages are singled out. Usually, the first stage includes the choice of a problem and topic, the definition of an object and subject, goals and objectives, and the development of a research hypothesis. The second stage of the work includes the choice of methods and the development of a research methodology, hypothesis testing, formulation of preliminary conclusions, their testing and refinement, substantiation of final conclusions and practical recommendations. The logic of the third stage is based on the implementation of the results obtained in practice and the literary design of the work.

The first stage usually begins with the choice of an area, a field of study. This choice is determined both by objective factors (relevance, novelty, prospects, etc.) and subjective (experience, scientific and professional interests, abilities, mindset of the researcher, etc.). To conduct research, it is important to clearly define in which area of ​​psychology or pedagogy the research work will be carried out: training, education, pedagogical culture of the teacher, the formation of personality traits, etc.

In order to clarify the research methodology, to specify its goals and objectives, one more stage is sometimes singled out - a trial (pilot) study - which comes second and precedes the development of the research methodology.

In the process of studying what has already been studied in the chosen subject area, one should not limit oneself to simply listing the names of the authors and the main areas of their research, it is necessary to conduct a qualitative analysis, to give their own assessment of their scientific psychological and pedagogical concepts. To do this, it is important to carefully study all the scientific, popular science and scientific and methodological sources available to the researcher. In carrying out this work, it is advisable to pay special attention to the basic concepts that will be used in the study. They must be clear, unambiguous and understandable, without double interpretation.

Having chosen the direction of scientific work, the researcher determines the problem and topic of research. In fact, the topic itself should contain a problem, therefore, in order to consciously define and, moreover, clarify the topic, it is necessary to identify a research problem.

The problem of research is understood as a category, meaning something still unknown to science that has to be discovered, proved. Sometimes a problem is also understood as a new solution to an actual scientific psychological or pedagogical problem. However, unlike the answer to a question, the solution to the problem is not contained in existing knowledge and cannot be obtained by transforming the available scientific information. Wanted to find

way to obtain new information and implement it.

That is why it is important to clearly and accurately define the problem of research, i.e., to identify the contradiction (contradictions) that objectively exists in the chosen subject area, the resolution of which the scientific work will be devoted to. To do this, you need to find out - what exactly is unknown, what needs to be proved, what scientific knowledge is necessary for this, is this knowledge available in science today? If they are, how complete and sufficient are they? In other words, the researcher must be convinced that he is starting work on a truly unexplored "field" of scientific research.

The problem in its characteristic features is reflected in the research topic. Its relevance is determined by its priority (topicality), scientific significance, prospects and underdevelopment. A successful, semantically accurate, maximally concise formulation of the topic clarifies the problem, outlines the scope of the study, specifies its main idea and content, thereby creating the prerequisites for the success of the work as a whole.

The further process of research involves the definition of its object and subject.

2.1 The structure and logic of the psychological and pedagogical

research

In psychological and pedagogical research, an object is that set of connections and relationships, properties that exists objectively in theory and practice and serves as a source of information necessary for research. The subject matter is more specific. It includes only those connections and relationships that are subject to direct study in this work, set the boundaries of scientific research, and are the most significant for this study.

In psychological and pedagogical research, the objects of study are usually the processes of formation of personality traits, the processes of training and education, the activities of various officials in managing these processes, etc.

The subject of research can be specific aspects, aspects of the object of study. As a rule, these are specific qualities of a person's personality, content, forms and methods of pedagogical activity; ways to enhance the cognitive activity of students; methodical system of training a particular type of specialists; forecasting, improvement and development of the educational process; features and trends in the development of pedagogical science and practice, etc.

Based on the name of the scientific work, its object and subject, the purpose and objectives of the study are determined. The goal is formulated briefly and extremely precisely in terms of meaning, expressing the main thing that the researcher intends to do.

The goal is concretized and developed in the tasks of the study, which act as steps through which you can achieve the intended goal. Clarification of specific tasks is carried out in a creative search for solutions to particular research issues, without which it is impossible to realize the idea, to solve the main problem. For this purpose, special literature is studied, the existing points of view and positions are analyzed; the issues that can be solved with the help of existing scientific data, and those whose solution represents a breakthrough into the unknown, a new step in the development of science and, therefore, requires fundamentally new approaches and knowledge that anticipate the main results of the study, are highlighted. In other words, a research hypothesis is formed and formed, which is nothing more than a scientifically sound assumption, a prediction of its course and result.

Hypothesis formation is a complex and little-studied process. Much here depends on the abilities of the researcher, such personal qualities as creative thinking, problem vision, intuition, constructive and design skills, etc. All these qualities make it possible to discover the necessary facts, ensure the completeness of their study and, on this basis,

identify the discrepancy (contradiction) of the accumulated actual material

ala explanations existing in science.

The second stage - the development of a research methodology has a pronounced individualized character, and therefore does not tolerate rigidly regulated rules and regulations. The research methodology is considered as a set of techniques and research methods that determine the order of their application and the interpretation of the results obtained with their help. It depends on the nature of the object of study, the methodology, the purpose of the study, the methods developed, the general level of methods and the general qualifications of the researcher.

It is impossible to substantiate the research methodology, firstly, without understanding in what external phenomena the studied is manifested, what are the indicators, criteria for its development; secondly, without correlating research methods with various manifestations of the phenomenon under study. Only under these conditions can we hope for reliable, scientific conclusions.

A psychological or pedagogical experiment, provided by the methodology within the framework of the search-transforming stage of the study, is the most complex and lengthy part of the work. To conduct the experiment, a special program is developed, in which all stages of the researcher's activity are prescribed in sufficient detail:

- selection and justification of the goal and particular tasks, the technique of conducting the experiment, variable and non-variable conditions for its implementation, dependent and independent variables, the basis of experimental work, the features of the choice of experimental and control groups, etc.;

- planning the required number of observations, the procedure for using research tools (methods and methodological techniques), the mathematical model of the experiment, forms and methods for collecting and recording results, etc. ;

– analysis and processing of experimental data; calculation of statistical

which variables are needed to test the hypothesis; interpretation of the results of the study.

Facts are the building material of research. They must be accurate, novelty and meaningful. A scientific fact, in contrast to a fact in general, is not limited only to the external side of a phenomenon, but to some extent reveals its internal connections, driving forces, and the mechanism of this movement. , stable in the phenomenon itself, or between separate phenomena. The scientific approach to the analysis of facts requires considering them comprehensively, in all respects, in the variety of dialectical connections within them and between them.

The implementation of the research methodology makes it possible to obtain preliminary theoretical and practical conclusions. When formulating conclusions, it is important to avoid two common mistakes: a kind of marking time, when very superficial, partial, limited conclusions are made from a large and capacious empirical material, or excessively broad generalizations, when illegally significant conclusions are drawn from insignificant factual material.

Preliminary conclusions are specified and verified by experimental work. This element of research methodology cannot be underestimated. Unfortunately, it is not uncommon for a researcher to rush to present the first results as final, complete, especially if they are formulated in the form of ready-made unambiguous solutions. Only after checking the results of the study, it becomes possible, on the basis of theoretical conclusions, to put forward practical recommendations, to determine the conditions for their successful implementation. It is important that these recommendations follow from the material of the study, be specific and realistic for psychological and pedagogical practice.

Chapter 2

2.1. Psychological and pedagogical experiment as a method

research

One of the significant methods of research in psychology and pedagogy is the experiment.

According to V.I. Zagvyazinsky, the experiment is "the central empirical method of scientific research, which has become widespread in educational psychology" . An experiment is a research strategy in which a purposeful monitoring of a process is carried out in a situation of regulated changes in its individual characteristics and flow conditions.

An experiment is an active method of cognition, since the experimenter not only asks questions to nature, but also forces her to answer them. The form of such "coercion" is a systematic and purposeful impact on the object of study, which allows measuring its various states. This operation is called experimental exposure.

Experiment, along with observation, is one of the main methods of scientific knowledge in general and psychological research in particular. This is the most complex complex method, including, but not limited to, observation and measurement procedures as necessary components. The experiment differs from observation primarily in that it involves a special organization of the research situation and the active intervention of the researcher in it, systematically manipulating one or more variables (factors) and recording concomitant changes in the “behavior” of the object under study. To conduct an experiment, to experiment means "to study the influence of an independent variable on one or more dependent variables".

The experiment assumes relatively complete (total) control over the introduced variables. If observation often fails to foresee significant changes, then in experiment they can not only be predicted, but also planned, consciously caused. The ability to manipulate variables is one of the important advantages of the experimenter over the observer.

A distinction is made between a laboratory experiment (under special conditions, with apparatus, etc.) and a natural experiment carried out under ordinary conditions of study, life, work, but with their special organization, the influence of which is being studied.

Depending on the position of the experimenter, the experiment is distinguished ascertaining . In it, the research task is reduced to discovering and ascertaining the structures and connections that take shape in the course of individual development.

One of the most effective and widespread in recent decades (especially in domestic educational psychology) forms of natural experiment isformative (training) experiment.In its course, changes in the level of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, in the level of mental and personal development of students under targeted educational and educational influence are studied.

Control experimentis carried out in order to test any dependencies on the so-called control group of subjects, which, due to certain characteristics, is not sensitive to the action of the factor under study.

A natural experiment is “a research strategy first proposed by A.F. Lazursky in 1910.

In an experiment as a research method, the subject is unaware of its purpose. The experimenter, on the other hand, not only determines the purpose of the study and puts forward a hypothesis, but can also change the conditions and forms of the study. The results of the experiment are strictly and accurately recorded in special protocols, where the name of the subject, the necessary information about him, date, time, and purpose are noted.

Experimental data are processed quantitatively (factorial, correlation analysis, etc.), subjected to qualitative interpretation. The experiment can be individual, group, short-term or long-term.

A special variety is field an experiment involving the use of a minimum of equipment in a situation as close as possible to natural (experimenting in the field is carried out, in particular, in ethnopsychology when studying the features of the “national character”, cross-cultural differences, forms of interethnic communication).

It should be noted that some researchers (E. B. Kurkina and others) call a pedagogical experiment a complex research method that includes a number of particular methods and techniques, theoretical and practical stages. The concept of "experiment" is used in the sense of a pedagogical search aimed, according to N. A. Yashkina, "to build a new practice of education in the process of this practice itself with the help of its purposeful, meaningful transformation."

Thus, among the most common methods of psychological and pedagogical research is the pedagogical experiment - the central empirical method of scientific research. An experiment is a research strategy in which a purposeful monitoring of a process is carried out in a situation of a regulated change in its individual characteristics and flow conditions. The experiment is an active method of cognition, since the experimenter not only asks questions to nature, but also forces her to answer them, the main method of scientific cognition in general and pedagogical research in particular. This is a complex complex method that includes observation and measurement procedures as necessary components, but is not reduced to them. The experiment involves a special organization and must meet certain requirements.

2.2. Specifics and rules for organizing a formative experiment

A psychological and pedagogical experiment is a complex research method that provides a scientific, objective and evidence-based verification of the correctness of the hypothesis justified at the beginning of the study. It allows you to check the effectiveness of certain innovations in the field of education and upbringing, compare the significance of various factors in the structure of the pedagogical process and choose the best (optimal) combination for the respective situations, identify the necessary conditions for the implementation of certain pedagogical tasks. The experiment makes it possible to detect repetitive, stable, necessary, essential connections between phenomena, i.e. to study the patterns characteristic of the pedagogical process.

Yu.K. Babansky essence of the experiment lies in the active intervention of the researcher in the psychological and pedagogical process in order to study it in pre-planned parameters and conditions. In the experiment, the methods of observation, conversation, surveys, etc. are used in combination. In the course of the experiment, the researcher voluntarily creates certain psychological and pedagogical phenomena in various, predetermined conditions (which in most cases are also under his influence). The experiment allows you to vary the factors that affect the processes and phenomena under study, reproduce them repeatedly. Its strength lies in the fact that it makes it possible to create new experiences in exactly the right conditions.

In psychology and pedagogy, there are several main types of experiment. First of all, a distinction is made between natural and laboratory experiments. A natural experiment is carried out in real conditions of activity for the subjects, but at the same time, the phenomenon that should be studied is created or recreated. This type of experiment, due to the fact that it is carried out under the normal conditions of the activity of the subjects, makes it possible to disguise its content, goals and at the same time preserve the essence, which lies in the activity of the researcher in changing the conditions for performing the activity under study.

In the case of a laboratory experiment, a group of subjects is allocated in the educational team. The researcher works with them using special research methods - conversations, testing, individual and group training and monitors the effectiveness of their actions. After the completion of the experiment, the previous results are compared with the newly obtained results.

In psychological and pedagogical research, ascertaining and formative experiments are also distinguished. In the first case, the researcher experimentally establishes only the state of the pedagogical system under study, states the facts of the presence of cause-and-effect relationships, the dependence between phenomena. The obtained data can serve as a material for describing the situation as existing and recurring, or be the basis for studying the internal mechanisms of the formation of certain personality traits or qualities of pedagogical activity. This provides the basis for such a construction of the study, which makes it possible to predict the development of the studied properties, qualities, and characteristics. When the researcher applies a special system of measures aimed at developing certain personal qualities in the subjects, increasing the effectiveness of educational or labor activity, we are talking about a formative experiment.The latter is focused on studying the dynamics of development of the studied psychological properties or pedagogical phenomena in the process of the researcher's active influence on the conditions for performing the activity. Therefore, the main feature of the formative experiment is that in it the researcher himself actively and positively influences the phenomena under study. This manifests the scientist's active life position, which implements the principle of the unity of theory, experiment and practice.

Probing and verification experiments. The first one is close in its tasks to the ascertaining one, and the second one involves checking the put forward proposals, particular hypotheses, for which it is necessary to obtain or clarify individual facts. Among other types of experiment, he singles out comparative and cross experiments.

We are talking about a comparative experiment in those cases when the researcher selects the most optimal conditions or means of pedagogical activity by comparing the control and experimental objects with each other. Groups of students or educators can act as such objects. As a rule, in this case, special pedagogical changes are organized in the experimental groups, which, in the opinion of the researcher, should lead to positive results. In the control groups, no such changes were made. In this case, it is possible to compare the obtained results. There is another way to conduct a comparative pedagogical experiment, when there is no control object, but several experimental options are compared with each other in order to select the best one.

A crossover experiment is carried out when the researcher does not have the opportunity to equalize the composition of the control and experimental groups (determined by preliminary control sections). The way out of this situation is that the control and experimental groups change places in each subsequent series of experiments. If a positive result is obtained in experimental groups of different composition, then this indicates the effectiveness of the innovation used by the researcher.

From the point of view of the logical structure of V.P. Davydov distinguishes two main types of pedagogical experimentation - classical and multifactorial pedagogical experiments.

The first type is a classic experiment -involves isolating the phenomenon under study from the influence of secondary, insignificant influences; repeated production of the process in strictly fixed, controllable and accountable conditions; systematic change, variation, combination of various conditions in order to obtain the desired result.

The essence of the classical experiment and its main functions are to test hypotheses about interdependencies between individual factors of psychological and pedagogical influence and its results, their cause-and-effect relationships. The experimenter identifies certain factors that are involved in the process under study. He changes conditions to determine the consequences of their change, tries to establish how they affect the final result. The new input conditions are called independent variables, and the changed factors are called dependent variables. The effect of the changes made is judged by the results obtained.

In a classical experiment, after the control and experimental groups are formed, the latter is exposed to a new factor or, conversely, is isolated from the influence of any factor. At the same time, it is important that other factors affecting the control and experimental groups remain relatively unchanged. This achieves the purity of the experiment. In practice, this is very difficult to achieve, since certain factors always vary in the process of research, in any case, if it is long enough. Therefore, in order to prove that the effect obtained in the experiment is not random, it is planned using special statistical methods for processing the results obtained.

Mathematical theory expands the possibilities of the experiment, gives it an analytic-synthesizing character. In this case, the experiment is called, in contrast to the classical one, multifactorial. In modern psychological and pedagogical theory and practice, there are processes, the mechanism of which cannot be studied directly, since many different elementary processes interact in them, which in real conditions cannot be limited. This is where a multivariate experiment is needed. The researcher in this case approaches the task empirically - varies with a large number of factors on which, as he believes, the course of the pedagogical process depends. He tries to find the optimal conditions for this process in terms of its result. In this case, as a rule, the wide use of modern methods of mathematical statistics is envisaged.

Psychological and pedagogical formative experiment solves a number of problems:

1. At the formation of non-random relationships between the influence of the researcher and the results achieved in this case; between certain conditions and the resulting efficiency in solving pedagogical problems.
2. With comparing the productivity of two or more options for psychological and pedagogical influence and choosing the optimal one according to the criteria of effectiveness, time, effort, tools and methods used.
3. O detection of causal, regular relationships between phenomena, their presentation in qualitative and quantitative forms.

Among the most important conditions for the effectiveness of a formative experiment can be distinguished:

• preliminary, thorough theoretical analysis of the phenomenon under study, its history, the study of mass pedagogical practice for the maximum narrowing of the field of experiment and its tasks;
• concretization of the hypothesis in terms of its novelty, unusualness, inconsistency in comparison with the usual attitudes, views;
• a clear formulation of the objectives of the experiment, the development of signs and criteria by which the results, phenomena, means, etc. will be evaluated;
• correct determination of the minimum necessary but sufficient number of experimental objects, taking into account the goals and objectives of the experiment, as well as the minimum necessary duration of its implementation;
• the ability to organize during the experiment a continuous circulation of information between the researcher and the object of experimentation, which prevents projecting and one-sidedness of practical recommendations, difficulties in using the conclusions. The researcher gets the opportunity not only to report on the means and methods, the results of their application, but to reveal possible difficulties in the course of psychological and pedagogical influences, unexpected facts, important aspects, nuances, details, dynamics of the studied phenomena;
• proof of the availability of conclusions and recommendations made from the materials of the experiment, their advantages over traditional, familiar solutions.

Conducting a formative psychological and pedagogical experiment involves three main stages of work.

The first stage is preparatory. It includes solving the following problems: formulating a hypothesis, that is, a statement whose conclusions about the correctness should be checked; choosing the required number of experimental objects (the number of subjects, study groups, educational institutions, etc.); determination of the required duration of the experiment; development of methods for its implementation; the choice of specific scientific methods for studying the initial state of the experimental object - a questionnaire survey, interviews, peer review, etc.; checking the availability and effectiveness of the developed experimental methodology on a small number of subjects; determination of signs by which one can judge changes in the experimental object under the influence of appropriate pedagogical influences.

The second stage is the direct conduct of the experiment.. This stage should answer questions about the effectiveness of new ways, means and methods introduced by the experimenter into psychological and pedagogical practice. Here an experimental situation is created, the essence of which lies in the internal and external conditions of the experiment, when the studied dependence, regularity manifests itself most purely, without the influence of random, uncontrolled factors.

At this stage, the following tasks : the study of the initial state of the conditions in which the experiment is carried out; assessment of the state of the participants in pedagogical influences; formulation of criteria for the effectiveness of the proposed system of measures; instructing participants in the experiment about the procedure and conditions for its implementation; implementation of the system of measures proposed by the author to solve a certain experimental problem; fixing data on the course of the experiment based on intermediate cuts characterizing the changes occurring in the object under the influence of the experimental system of measures; indication of difficulties and possible typical shortcomings in the course of the experiment; assessment of the current costs of time, money and effort.

The final stage - summing up the results of the experiment: description of the results of the implementation of the experimental system of measures; characterization of the conditions under which the experiment gave favorable results; description of the features of the subjects of experimental exposure; data on the costs of time, effort and money; indication of the limits of application of the system of measures tested during the experiment.

It should be pointed out that when conducting psychological and pedagogical research, a more complex method of conducting a pedagogical experiment is also possible. This method involves testing two or even three options for measures in order to choose the one that gives the best results in the shortest time.. Experiment to test the optimality of the proposed system of measuresincludes the following steps:

• formulating criteria for the optimality of the proposed system of measures in terms of its effectiveness, time, money and effort;
• selection of possible options for solving the problem set for the experimenter;
• the implementation of the selected options in approximately the same conditions;
• evaluation of performance for each of the variants of the experiment;
• comparative evaluation of all variants of the experiment;
• choosing from among the options one that gives the best results at a lower cost of time, money and effort, or a more efficient option at the same cost.

Thus, the formative experiment is an important part of the psychological and pedagogical research, it is focused on studying the dynamics of the development of the studied psychological properties or pedagogical phenomena in the process of the researcher's active influence on the conditions for performing the activity. Therefore, the main feature of the formative experiment is that in it the researcher himself actively and positively influences the phenomena under study. This manifests the scientist's active life position, which implements the principle of the unity of theory, experiment and practice.

Conclusion

Psychological and pedagogical approaches to work in educational

institutions, as well as the forms of organization themselves, the types of institutions, the system

and methods of work in them - all this is now dynamically updated, requires

search, refinement, correction. This situation determines the need

the possibility of mastering the principles and methods of psychological and pedagogical research not only by scientists who study this area, but also by a wide

circle of psychologists and educators. This will allow you to better understand new goals.

and tasks of education and upbringing, to master progressive technologies,

flexible organizational forms, find ways to organize pedagogical and other (medical, social and rehabilitation) methods, rewrite

even some principles of upbringing and education.

Research in the field of psychology and pedagogy is a complex process of scientific and cognitive activity aimed at identifying, testing and using new methods, means and techniques in pedagogical practice that improve the system of education, training and human development. This is a difficult path of creative search, which includes a number of interrelated stages of work, the observance of which ensures successful

conducting research.

An important role in the organization of psychological and pedagogical research is played by a formative experiment, which allows you to get a complete picture of the effectiveness of various psychological and pedagogical methods and activities, as well as track the dynamics of qualitative psychological changes in the object of study.

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An experiment in psychology is the main method of scientific knowledge. With its help, changes in the behavior of a person (or a group of persons) are studied in a situation of systematic management of those factors that determine it. To achieve the goal, the researcher needs to create specific conditions for their appearance.

An essential feature of the experiment is a clear and rigid selection of a specific factor under study. A prerequisite is the registration of emerging changes.

But in psychology, of course, it is impossible to achieve absolute isolation. That is why the selection of the factor is carried out only by selection, as well as by comparing and studying two groups of respondents, two situations, and so on.

Types of experiments

Several parameters can be distinguished, on the basis of which different types of this psychological and pedagogical method are distinguished.

First, the natural and laboratory experiment is distinguished by the form of organization. The second type is usually carried out under artificial conditions, which are designed to ensure the exceptional purity of the results obtained.

A natural experiment is carried out, as a rule, under normal, standard conditions for the test subject. Its essential disadvantage is the obligatory presence of uncontrollable factors. But their influence cannot be established, nor can it be quantified.

Secondly, according to the goals, a formative and ascertaining experiment is distinguished. Let's try to understand the main nuances of their separation.

An ascertaining experiment is one that establishes the existence of a certain and obligatory phenomenon or fact. But to achieve this goal, it must meet certain requirements. Thus, an experiment can become ascertaining only if the researcher is faced with the task of identifying the existing state, as well as the level of formation of a certain property, or the factor being studied. Consequently, the current level in the development of the selected parameter in the respondent, or in the group of subjects, becomes a priority for study. This is what defines this method. The ascertaining experiment has the following purpose: measuring the existing level of development, as well as obtaining initial material for organizing further research, a formative experiment.

This method is also called teaching and transforming, which aims at the active formation of certain parameters in the mental development of a person, levels of activity, and so on. Formative experiment is usually used in the study of certain paths. This is provided by the complex sciences. So, for example, when raising a child, a synthesis of psychological knowledge with pedagogical searches will be necessary.

The purpose of the formative experiment is: teaching knowledge and skills; development of skills and certain personality traits.

But in order for it to have a positive result, specific requirements will be imposed on the experimenter and the method itself:

• A theoretical development of ideas about the psychological parameters identified in the study, which, in fact, will be formed, is necessary.
• The course and program of the experiment must be clearly planned.
• In the process of work, it is necessary to fully take into account the existing factors in real learning that influence the formation of the studied phenomena in the psyche.

A scientist must be able to choose the right method in accordance with the method that he needs: a stating experiment, laboratory, formative, or natural.

FORMATIVE EXPERIMENT IN CHILD AND PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

Formation as an experimental genetic method

The requirement to objectively investigate the development of mental processes can be realized by at least two different methods. Thanks to one of them, psychic phenomena are studied in the form in which they appear before us in their more or less established forms. This path has been planned for a long time and is so widespread that it seems at first glance the only possible one. Usually there is no doubt about its value. Its history has many different forms: from the first attempts at an objective study of mental processes, begun by Wundt, Ebbinghaus and others, to modern methods of research, which are enriched by numerous methods of mathematical data processing. Since its inception, the research method has already established forms of the psyche not only spread to the study of various mental processes, but also acquired new properties. He became genetic. Gradually, a new field of science was formed - genetic psychology. This term should not be confused with another - psychogenetics. Genetic psychology in the sense is research genesis, i.e., the development and formation of the studied psychological reality. Researchers began to realize that seeing things unfold is the best way to explain them. The research methods of psychology have changed in a similar way to the methods of any natural science. So, for example, while studying botany, Goethe said that the works of nature can be known only by studying them in their formation, and when they are ripe and ready, they cannot be understood. However, having become genetic, the method of psychology continued to be a method of studying already established forms at different age stages of the development of the mental process. The most striking example of this path of research is the method and theory of the intellectual development of the child, created by J. Piaget.

Another method of studying psychic phenomena, which is gaining more and more recognition, is the active, controlled formation of new mental processes. The difference in understanding how governance and formation is carried out requires a distinction between the formative method and the experimental one (in the narrower sense of the term, when the control of the independent variable is implied). Forming method new process is generally characteristic of the life sciences. So, protein synthesis - the creation of living things - allows us to solve many questions about the origin of life, about the very process of life. And how many laws of brain physiology were discovered by IP Pavlov with the help of the method of forming new neural connections! We owe the introduction to child psychology of the strategy of formation to L. S. Vygotsky. He applied his theory of the indirect structure of higher mental functions to form his own ability to remember. According to eyewitnesses, L. S. Vygotsky could demonstrate to a large audience the memorization of about 400 randomly named words. For this purpose, he used auxiliary means: he connected each named word with one of the cities in the Volga river basin. Then, following the river mentally, he could reproduce each word in the city associated with it.

The method named by L. S. Vygotsky experimental genetic, makes it possible to reveal the qualitative features of the structure of higher mental functions, their difference from natural processes. The author wrote: "... the method we use can be called an experimental genetic method in the sense that it artificially causes and genetically creates the process of mental development." And further: “The main task in this case is the return of the process to its initial stage, or, in other words, the transformation of a thing into a process. An attempt at such an experiment is to melt each frozen and petrified psychological form, to turn it into a moving, flowing stream of separate, replacing each other moments. In short, the task of such an analysis is to present experimentally any higher form of behavior not as a thing, but as a process, to take it in motion. To go not from a thing to its parts, but from a process to its individual moments” (Vygotsky, 1983, p. 95).

The experimental genetic method makes it possible artificially, under laboratory conditions, to evoke and create the genetic process of psychological development. Strategy formation mental processes, outlined by L. S. Vygotsky, has become widely known in Russian psychology and has become widespread. Today, there are several ideas for implementing this strategy, which can be summarized as follows. In the cultural and historical concept of L. S. Vygotsky himself, the experimental genetic method was used to study the development of attention, memory, and scientific concepts. However, the author and [his collaborators failed to reveal the full path the transformation of external objective activity into a proper mental process, unravel the mystery of the "rotation of the sign." According to activity theory A. N. Leontiev, in the course of development, an expanded activity turns into a conscious action, then acts as an operation, and as it forms, it becomes a function. In this case, the movement is carried out from top to bottom - from activity to function. The theory of the formation of the psyche in deaf-blind-mute children, known as the "theory of initial humanization", developed by I. A. Sokolyansky and A.I. Meshcheryakov, allows you to reveal some important patterns of general psychology. Referring to the psychology of deaf-blind-mutes, S. L. Rubinshtein wrote that the study of pathological phenomena is of particular importance in cases where violations are not only ascertained, but also corrected. Therefore, "of exceptional interest for general psychology should be the study of deaf-blind-mutes who are included in the pedagogical process, which opens up opportunities for normal general mental development" (Rubinshtein, 1973, p. 132). The most surprising thing in this pedagogical process was noted by A. N. Leontiev. He said: “They formed reflexes, but they got a soul.”

The method of formation of mental actions and concepts in the concept of P. Ya. Galperin

Theory phased-planned formation of mental actions, proposed by P. Ya. Galperin, is the most theoretically substantiated and developed the concept of a formative experiment. According to this theory, in order for the psyche to fulfill its vital function - orienting the subject's behavior, its structure must necessarily include images and ideal actions with the objects represented in them. In the images before us open objects that make up the field of our action. However, mental life, limited by the presence of images alone, would be useless for behavior. In reality, objects exist not only by themselves. The subject always makes certain changes with them, transformations carried out with the help of material action. This means that actions are also possible with objects that are revealed in images as forms of mental reflection of the external world. But they will be ideal: for example, trying on former ways of behavior in order to adapt them most appropriately to the situation. So perfect action and there is that decisive element without which images cannot fulfill their purpose. However, this is only one side of the matter. Another is the most important fact (long noted in psychology) that the images themselves are built only on the basis of action. That is why the formation of new ideal actions in the subject is of particular importance for testing and protecting the method of studying mental processes through experimentally induced genesis. The difficulty of solving this problem is obvious, because we never start the formation of a mental process from scratch. The subject before our experiment, of course, already has images; and he knows how to perform some perfect actions. Therefore, the experimenter is obliged to first check the available knowledge and skills of the subject in order to make sure on what basis he begins the formation of a new process. The greatest difficulty, however, lies in the fact that under special learning conditions it is necessary to obtain a new ideal action. Usually, researchers believe that it is only necessary to develop existing ones. P. Ya. Galperin and his followers do not proceed from ready-made mental actions to their development in some particular, concrete case. They begin with new forms of objective action and only then transform them into ideal actions, into new mental processes. How does the transformation of some objective process into the actual mental action of a person take place? Any action is an objective process of transforming the source material into a certain (given) product. So The content of the action and his quality always presented objectively. Every time there is either a pattern for performing an action, or certain requirements for it are put forward in accordance with the task that is solved with its help. That's why you can set the desired action properties in advance.

Action properties

empirically established primary and secondary action properties. The primary properties include: the level of its performance (material, in terms of loud speech, mental), differentiation (separation of the constant from the variable), temporal and power characteristics of the action, a measure of the completeness of the operations that make up this action. Secondary properties are formed from a certain combination of primary properties. This is the rationality of the action, its consciousness, criticality and arbitrariness, as well as the measure of mastery of the action itself (Galperin, 1965). Method systematic and phased formation mental actions requires that all the properties of the action be foreseen in advance by the experimenter and the conditions that ensure their formation are established. What does it mean?

According to the theory of P. Ya. Galperin, two main parts are distinguished in the action of the subject - indicative and executive. The quality of the action depends on the first. Therefore, the main task in the formation of an action is the creation of its indicative part. It is the controlling mechanism of action, and it is the true subject of psychology.

Control mechanism of action, i.e. its indicative part, inextricably linked with the executive part. Firstly, because the indicative part itself is built taking into account the quality of the future performance of the action. Secondly, the productivity of the action as a whole depends on the quality of the indicative part. In the indicative part, the structure of the object, the pattern of action are presented separately, and the way of its execution is outlined. Thanks to the planned landmarks, control over the course of action is ensured. The executive part is the implementation of this path and obtaining the desired result.

Forming a new ideal action, the psychologist tries, first of all, to create for him a complete reference base: a system of guidelines that provides the subject with the correct and error-free performance of the action the first time and then always. A complete orienting base opens a person to "a free and successful movement towards a clearly set goal." With such an attitude, each error of the subject poses a task for the experimenter: to find a guideline that allows the subject to avoid this error in the future. Therefore, in order to work according to this method, in order to first clarify the very orienting basis of the action, weak students are especially important. If it is possible to form a new objective action in such subjects, and then the same new ideal action, it turns out to be possible to find out what a given mental process is, for it was created by us, it arose before our eyes. The mistakes of the subjects serve for us as evidence of the incompleteness of the orienting basis of the action. Conversely, their absence in weak subjects is an important indicator of the completeness of the orienting basis of the new action. Stages of formation of mental actions

Drawing up an indicative framework is the first stage in preparing the procedure for forming an ideal action. Next, the subject performs a material action with real objects (or a materialized action with their substitutes). At the third stage, the action is performed in a loud socialized speech. When such an action becomes quick and unmistakable, the subject begins to perform it with the help of "external speech to himself." Here action first becomes mental. But the process of forming an ideal action does not end there. Mental action undergoes further changes. According to P. Ya. Galperin, speech, sound images of words, as it were, “leave” consciousness, in which only the meanings of words are preserved. The process now appears for the subject as a thought about action.

Such a course of the psychological evolution of an action—from a detailed action with objects to an action that is carried out on an ideal plane with objects presented in images, and eventually turns into a thought—is inevitable and has been verified by many studies. The planned stages make it possible to control the formation of a mental action with given properties. They make it possible to build a psychic phenomenon. Formative Research Examples

Actions and concepts that are usually taught in school served as experimental material for the study of mental phenomena using the method of stage-by-stage planned formation of mental actions. First of all, this is an account, sound analysis of a word, initial mathematical and grammatical concepts. With the help of this method, images of perception, attention, memory and motor skills were formed. It was applied to the analysis of Piagetian phenomena and to the formation of productivity in solving divergent problems.

Work according to the method of P. Ya. Galperin is a study that allows you to reveal new aspects of the mental process under study and supplement the initial ideas about the structure of the method itself. Using the example of the formation of a simple system of scientific concepts in children, let us consider the logic of the very process of building new knowledge in relation to solving problems.

Example . The specific object of this study was the concept of "pressure of solids".

According to the theory of P. Ya. Galperin, a concept is an abstract, abstract image of an object. Its formation is carried out due to the action of research and, in particular, the recognition of the object. Such an action should be armed with appropriate criteria - signs of the concept being formed, which are highlighted and immediately clearly and clearly written down on the work card. Thanks to the action of correlating conceptual features with the proposed task, the belonging of objects to this concept is established.

In this study, concepts were used not only to recognize phenomena, but also to solve problems. To solve specific problems on the pressure of solids, it is not enough to establish that the phenomenon belongs to one of the concepts - you need to build a relationship between them; only the formula of this relation P =F/ S, linking concepts F, S, Rv one simple system, allows you to go to a computational operation or to the corresponding conclusion. Therefore, the main issue of this study was to find out what new actions involve the application of a simple system of concepts to solve problems.

For the formation procedure, just as it was in all other works of P. Ya. Galperin and his collaborators, a card was needed. The signs of the concept are recorded on it, and due to this they do not need to be memorized in advance. However, in the conditions of the formation of several concepts at the same time, its content becomes wider, since the card includes their definitions. The concepts on the card are arranged in the sequence of their logical clarification, and thus the whole system of concepts as a whole is in front of the child.

The card, thanks to the features of concepts recorded in it, performs the function of a tool with which the student approaches the analysis of the problem. It expresses the position of the student in relation to the task, which was originally given to him in an external materialized form. Only through a series of well-known successive stages does this externally presented position turn into a “direct vision” of the relations between things. The tasks in which the subject used the concept of "pressure of solid bodies" were carefully selected. Among them were: simple tasks for calculation; simple tasks, similar to examples, with the absence of one of the conditions; tasks are simple, but having extra conditions; tasks are compound, but either with a full set of conditions, or with the presence of extra conditions, or with the absence of one of the necessary conditions; the subjects were also offered tasks in which the conditions were expressed in a latent form.

In the experiment, a stage-by-stage working out of actions with concepts was carried out, and at each stage, the subjects solved problems of all the listed types. At the beginning of the experiment, it was assumed that it was enough to have precise definitions of concepts written in the card, so that then, applying them to the text of the problem, without errors, find the corresponding data in it. Experience has shown that this is not enough to solve problems with a complex subject situation. The subject, guided by the card, turned to numbers, instead of analyzing the situation referred to in the task. From this it became clear that in order to solve it, the subject must not only have the essential features of the formula, which he correlates with the material, but also be able to see a specific situation in the content of the task presented.

Therefore, in the further course of the experiment, the subjects were required to restore the actual situation according to the text of the problem, depicting it in the figure. Only after that, the students had to analyze it using the system of concepts recorded in the card. It turned out that, firstly, the image is conditional; then the drawing is schematic and expresses a ready answer, while the analysis of the problem itself has been carried out in the mind. Secondly, the image is formal; in this case, only a separate, directly indicated condition of the problem materializes, and not the entire reality to which this condition belongs; such a formal representation cannot lead to a correct solution of the problem. Thirdly, for an unmistakable decision, it is necessary that the image restore all the essential features of the situation; To do this, the subject must first, using vertical lines, divide the text of the problem into semantic parts, each of which expresses one message, and then depict them sequentially. The finished image should be of such quality that you can work with it without referring to the text of the problem.

When the children learned to completely restore the object of the action - the physical situation of the task - and analyze it using the concepts indicated on the card, a new problem arose - to translate the action into a plan of loud speech without an image.

Is it possible, without depicting the situation of the problem in the picture, just to talk about it? For weak students, the story follows the text of the problem, but the structure of the situation is not highlighted in it. To solve the problem, you have to return the subject to the image of the situation again. The introduction of a logical solution plan (What question is posed in the problem? What do you need to know to answer the question? What is indicated in the problem for this? How to solve the solution?) also did not provide a solution to all problems without relying on the image of the situation.

Analysis of the results of the formative experiment shows that in the process of applying the features of the concept to the image of the situation, their concretization spontaneously occurs. However, only a few subjects attempted to express in words this particular meaning of the concepts. During subsequent sessions, subjects were specifically asked to change the rule (definition F, 5, R), by entering specific information.

The action with the attributes of the concept was to consist not only in referring the definition to a particular case, but also in a new expression of the general rule in accordance with this case. At first, the course of the analysis repeated the order of the card and often distracted the subjects from the main question of the problem. In subsequent experiments, the analysis began with the item on the card that directly answered the question of the task. However, moving to the verbal and further to the mental plan for performing the action, the subjects again began to make mistakes, which they confidently corrected by referring to the image.

Thus, neither the story about the graphic representation of the situation, nor the logical plan, nor the indicated additions to the methodology provided a solution to the problem in the speech plan without relying on the image. For these subjects, some essential link was missing when switching to the "loud speech without objects" plan.

As observations of the course of solving problems have shown, a student who has a correct drawing in front of him highlights the points in it that are essential for answering the question. When the text of the problem lies before the subject, he again acts only with the conditions directly indicated in it and does not take into account the objective reality that is mentioned there. This means that it can be assumed that the action performed by the subject on the basis of the image and not transferred by him to the plane of "loud speech without objects" consists in the fact that all aspects of objective reality that are essential for solving the problem are distinguished.

Therefore, it is necessary to teach the subject to take into account all the important aspects of the problem situation, both with and without its graphic representation. To do this, in a new experiment at the stage of action with the image, the subjects were taught to consciously highlight and externally materialize all the features of the situation that are essential for the solution.

The subjects were offered the following technique: “Showing in the figure all the objects that exert a pressure force, combine its components and draw a circle around them.” In the same way: “Showing the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe support, put a large dot on the image at each place of support. Redraw the resulting circle with dots next to it and fill it with the initial data. Indicate the direction of pressure with an arrow.

Thus, a scheme was created that expressed the content of the problem and, at the same time, the order of its study, the general, essential moments of the situation corresponding to the formula. The scheme was an object of analysis in a transformed form: it brought together the scattered places of support; the pressure force, consisting of individual components, combined. With the creation of such a scheme, all components of the task were fully materialized and clearly identified.

After schematization, the problem was solved very quickly. This scheme turned out to be common for performing all tasks on this topic. It made it possible to transfer the action from the materialized plane to the plane of “loud speech without an image”, and from the plane of loud speech the action, together with its schematized object, was transferred into. the plane of "external speech to oneself", i.e., already in the proper mental plane.

From this study it follows that in the process of applying concepts to solving problems, it is necessary to highlight the following points in addition to the already known about the process of forming concepts.

1. The features of a concept do not exhaust its content. The true object of the concept is the function that the corresponding objects perform, and the features of the concept belong precisely to it.

2. Things and their functions are much richer than the content that becomes the object of the concept. However, this content must necessarily be singled out, separated from things in the form of a spatial scheme expressing the relations of objects that correspond to this concept.

3. The scheme always stands between the subject and the concept, without its construction it is impossible to form full-fledged concepts. It serves as a tool for our
orientation in relation to any objects of the corresponding area.

4. When solving problems, it is necessary to restore the objective situation in its essential features for solving.

5. Schematization of this situation is required, thanks to which it becomes available for transfer to the speech and further mental plane.

6. In connection with this, it is necessary to divide the stage of materialized action into two successive parts - the usual image and the image of the scheme.

7. Change the course of the analysis of the problem, which should go from the question of the problem to the system of concepts, from it to the restoration of the objective situation, then to the selection of its essential features (schematization), then to filling in the elements of this scheme based on the specific data of the problem and, finally, to the solution of the problem by the formula. Thus, when applying a system of concepts to solving problems, the order of work becomes more complicated, but this does not cancel the established sequence of phased development of a new action.

The analyzed variant of using the method of systematically phased formation of new knowledge for the student shows that the main condition for the successful application of this method is change in the position of the researcher. The experimenter, building a new mental process according to this method, is not limited to simple observation of the result of the performance of a particular task by the subject, as is the case when conducting sectional studies.

From ascertaining the various phenomena of mental life, he must move on to identifying and creating conditions that ensure the formation of

mental process with given properties. The concept of such a complete process is not determined by the subjective desire of the experimenter. On the contrary, it is due to certain objective requirements of the system of tasks that the subject must solve with the help of the mental process being formed. The strength of this method lies primarily in the development of an objective system of requirements for a specific mental process and a system of conditions that ensure the fulfillment of these requirements.

Working with this method is painstaking, difficult, but exciting. It leads to new discoveries.

D.V. EGOROV

USE OF FORMING EXPERIMENT IN THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS OF THE UNIVERSITY

The article discusses the concept of "formative experiment", describes the rules for its implementation and the need to use it in the educational program.

process. Particular attention is paid to the description of the experiment in the study group.

Formative experiment, formation process, mental development, ability formation, experiment, orienting basis of action, teaching experiment.

Under the conditions of the education reform and the transition to competence-based, practice-oriented training, methods that contribute to the rapid and high-quality formation of labor skills are becoming more relevant. One of these methods is the method of gradual formation of mental actions, proposed by PYa.Galperin.

According to the psychological dictionary edited by A.V. Petrovsky, which forms an experiment used in developmental and educational psychology, is a method for tracking changes in the child's psyche in the process of the researcher's active influence on the subject. The formative experiment is not limited to the registration of revealed facts, but through the creation of special situations it reveals patterns, mechanisms, dynamics, tendencies of mental development, personality formation, determining the possibilities for optimizing this process. As synonyms are used: transforming, creative, educating, teaching, genetic modeling experiment, method of active formation of the psyche.

In the formative experiment, the task is to study the psychological feature in the process of formation. To do this, at the beginning of the experiment, diagnostics (stating) of the features of the manifestation of the n-th psychological phenomenon are made, then the subject is invited to undergo a formative experiment performed according to a specific experimental program. After that, a control, or final, diagnosis takes place. The experimenter has the opportunity to compare how this program contributes or does not contribute to psychological changes in a person (for example, relieving neuropsychic stress, developing attention, expanding ways of coping with life situations, developing communicative competence, managing oneself or others, etc.). Any psychological training in which there is a research task can be considered a formative experiment. When its effectiveness is proven, it is introduced into the practice of psychological service and brings real benefits.

In domestic psychology, the emergence of the method of formative experiment is associated with the name of L.S. Vygotsky. The formative experiment is based on an attempt to artificially recreate the process of mental development. The goal is to study the conditions and regularities of the origin of a particular mental neoplasm.

The task of the formative experiment is the formation of a new ability for the subject. The researcher first theoretically describes the desired result, and then selects the appropriate empirical means to achieve it. At the same time, research

The teacher seeks to obtain the planned indicators of the formation of the ability (competence).

The use of experimental models in the formation of abilities allows not only to form certain skills and abilities, but to causally explain progress and reveal the mechanisms for mastering this ability.

In domestic psychology, research in the field of formative methods was carried out by the followers of L.S. Vygotsky - AN. Leontiev, A.V. Zaporozhets, PYa. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina, D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov and their collaborators. The results of their work are various developing pedagogical systems that are used in teaching at school. At the same time, little attention is paid to the development of such programs for use in universities.

The shift in the center of gravity of learning from the teacher to the student, the increase in time for independent work requires a rethinking of the approach to educational technologies. D.B. Elkonin rightly believed that the student can independently observe various objects, identify their similarities and differences, and on this basis come to some general ideas, creating an empirical understanding of them, and then work it out on the basis of exercises. However, he cannot independently find in the object the property that is most essential for the formation of scientific knowledge about it, and since he needs to know the guidelines for such a search, it is impossible to do without the obligatory cooperation with the teacher. It is the cooperation (in the full sense of the word) of the student with the teacher that determines the student's zone of proximal development.

Thus, the formative experiment involves the restructuring of psychological and pedagogical practice (the joint activity of the researcher and the subject). Its changes are based on the restructuring of the content and methods, which make it possible to obtain significant changes in the course of the mental development of the subjects. Therefore, formative and educational experiments are included in a special category of methods of psychological research and influence, they allow you to directionally form skills, abilities, mental functions, and in addition, reveal the psychological mechanisms responsible for their formation.

We will try to reveal the content of the formative experiment and its main stages on the example of the classic experiment "Tower of Hanoi". The main task of conducting this experiment in groups studying in the specialty "Psychology" is the need to demonstrate in practice how the ability is formed. We do not set ourselves the task of specifically presenting experimental schemes for use in other courses, because. created-

The development of such experimental genetic methods requires a long study and is associated with the need to take into account a large number of variables.

The concept of the formative experiment was most fully described by P.Ya. Galperin in the theory of the stage-by-stage formation of mental actions, according to which, in order for the psyche to perform its function (orienting the behavior of the subject in the world), images (objects) and ideal actions with them must be represented in its structure.

The subject always makes some changes and transformations with the objects with the help of material action. Thus, mental actions with images of these objects, folding up and passing from the outside into the inner plane of consciousness, become ideal, and being ideal, they can fulfill their purpose - to apply the old ways of behavior to a new situation. On the other hand, images are built only on the basis of action. It follows from this that the formation of precisely new ideal actions tests and proves the method of studying mental processes through experimentally induced development. The difficulty in applying this method lies in the fact that any subject already has a set of images with which he has performed or is performing ideal actions. Therefore, the experimenter must, before conducting the experiment, identify the level of development of these actions, which will be the standard for comparing the results obtained after the experiment. Accordingly, if the post-experimental result is better, we can talk about the formation of a new process.

The material for this task is a children's pyramid with rings (chips) of various diameters and two spare pyramid bases (fields) with pins on which rings (chips) are put on.

Test subject instructions. There are three fields in front of you. On one of them is a pyramid of round chips of different diameters. Below is the largest chip, above is the smallest. It is necessary, shifting the chips as quickly as possible, in the minimum number of moves, to lay out the same pyramid on another field, i.e. move the pyramid from the initial field to the final one.

Translation rules:

You can shift only one chip at a time;

A large chip cannot be placed on top of a smaller one;

You can shift from any field to any;

You can only take the top chip from the field;

Only one chip lies directly on the field,

all the rest lie on it in the form of a "pyramid".

In the experiment, the standard is a preliminary series in which the subject is asked to solve the problem on his own and the conditions for solving it are reported. This step takes 20-30 minutes. During this time, as a rule, the subject is not able to find the correct solution or spends a large number of attempts on it.

At the lesson, a volunteer is selected from a group of students, who becomes a test subject. He pre-

instructions are provided in writing to familiarize yourself with the rules of work. The rest of the group also receives instructions for observation, in fact, each student in this case is the recorder of the experiment. The work of the subject is additionally recorded using video recording.

Motivation is the trigger for any activity. Motivation is based on the need and the situation of its satisfaction. Thus, at the first stage of the formative experiment, it is necessary to create a motivational basis for the action. In the situation of teaching students, such a motivational basis is interest in the work being done - the desire to compensate for failure with an independent solution of the puzzle in a preliminary series of experiments.

Any action performed is a process of converting the source material into some given product. Therefore, the content of the action and its quality are presented objectively. The difficulty in planning and organizing the necessary actions of the subject is to create an indicative basis for the action that excludes the possibility of errors, i.e. the experimenter must foresee possible incorrect actions in advance and create conditions under which the subject will not be able to perform them. The creation of such conditions is usually achieved experimentally.

In the action of the subject, two main parts are distinguished - indicative and executive. The quality of the performed action depends on how correctly the indicative basis is created, because She is the driving force. Thus, the psychologist, constructing the orienting basis of activity, creates a system of guidelines that allows, with strict observance of the instructions, to ensure the error-free execution of the action the first time. The mistakes that the subjects may make when performing actions, in turn, are beacons for the experimenter, showing the need to look for a guideline to avoid such a mistake in the future.

Drawing up an orienting basis of action is the second stage in the procedure for forming an ideal action. The base describes the structure of the object, the pattern of action with this object, and the way the action is performed. In our experiment, as an indicative basis for the action, the subject is asked to draw up a scheme for solving the problem and draw it. In the same way, the basic rules for solving such problems are explained.

In practice, it looks like this. The teacher (in this case, he is also the experimenter) invites the subject to take three blank sheets of paper and write on them the letters “H” - initial, “P” - intermediate and “K” - final field. These sheets are placed in front of the subject. He is invited to draw arrows with colored felt-tip pens indicating the direction of movement of the smallest chip. The following conditions are reported:

1) any move alternates with the move of the smallest chip;

2) the smallest chip goes clockwise, es-

is there an even number of chips in the pyramid;

3) the smallest chip moves clockwise, if there are an odd number of chips in the pyramid;

4) the next move with another chip is carried out on the only possible field.

The subject draws arrows in the margins in different colors. These fields are for him the orienting basis of action. Rules are taught and taught. The subject is offered a different number of chips with a proposal to move them to the final field using the rules.

At the third stage, the subject performs material actions with real objects, and then a materialized action with substitutes for real objects or with schemes. In our experiment, the subject performs actions with real objects, demonstrating the correct solution of the problem under the guidance of a teacher.

The fourth stage is characterized by loud socialized speech. The subject is asked to pronounce his actions loudly and clearly, based on an indicative basis, without the help of a teacher. The end of the stage indicates the transition of the subject to the fifth stage.

At the fifth stage, the subject pronounces his actions to himself. Speech is transferred inward and is called "external speech to oneself." The transition to the last stage is quite difficult to track. External indicators can serve as an increase in the speed and quality of the actions performed. “External speech to oneself” collapses, and actions become mental, turning into automatism (internalized). It is at this stage that the habit is formed. Only at this stage does the experimenter remove the orienting basis of activity from the subject's field of vision.

In our case, the teacher removes the sheets with the scheme of the movement of chips and all the entries of the rules. The subject is asked to complete the task without relying on schemes and rules. An indicator of the formation of a skill is a quick and error-free solution of a problem without relying on the orienting basis of the action. In other words, the skill of solving a problem is considered formed if the subject performs the task “by heart”, without having an orienting basis before his eyes. After the experiment, the results are recorded and discussed, the subject talks about his feelings during the experiment and about what hindered and what helped him solve the problem.

In the next lesson, after reviewing the recording of the experiment, which clarifies the details, students write a report on the study.

Thus, the use of this experiment in the educational process has several goals.

Firstly, students are shown on a practical example how a skill is formed, what stages its formation goes through, i.e. theoretical knowledge is updated not only in the field of experimental psychology, but also in a number of related disciplines - general psychology, developmental psychology. The foundation is being prepared for the study of pedagogy

scientific psychology, methods of teaching psychology, pedagogical practice, etc.

Secondly, students are not only clearly demonstrated, but also explained the need for educational interaction with the teacher to clarify the "rules" for studying the material, as well as the need to use the indicative foundations of action in other disciplines. All this will allow you to quickly and efficiently master the educational material. The program of the discipline (a generalized basis for studying the discipline), methodological recommendations (the basis for the consistent execution of tasks), lecture notes (the basis for orientation in small parts of knowledge), and practical tasks for developing skills can serve as indicative bases. LITERATURE

1. Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1996.

2. Davydov V.V. The theory of developmental learning. M., 1996.

3. Kornilova T.V. Introduction to the psychological experiment. M., 1997.

4. Leontiev A.N. Mastering scientific concepts by students as a problem of pedagogical psychology // Reader on age and pedagogical psychology. M., 1981.

5. Experiment and quasi-experiment in psychology: Uch. settlement / Ed. T.V. Kornilova. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2004.

6. Elkonin B. D. Introduction to developmental psychology. M., 1994.

A formative experiment is a method of actively influencing the subject, contributing to his mental development and personal growth. The main areas of application of this method are pedagogy, age (primarily child) and educational psychology. The active influence of the experimenter lies mainly in the creation of special conditions and situations that, firstly, initiate the emergence of certain mental functions and, secondly, allow them to be purposefully changed and formed. The first is characteristic of both laboratory and natural experiments. The second is the specificity of the considered form of experiment. The formation of the psyche and personality traits is a long process. Therefore, the formative experiment is usually carried out for a long time. And in this respect it can be classified as a longitudinal study.

In principle, such an impact can also lead to negative consequences for the subject or society. Therefore, the qualifications and good intentions of the experimenter are extremely important. Research of this kind should not harm the physical, mental and moral health of people. To a certain extent, a formative experiment occupies an intermediate position between laboratory and natural. The artificiality of creating special conditions brings it closer to the laboratory, and to the field - the natural nature of these very conditions. The predominant use of the formative experiment in pedagogy led to the understanding of this method as one of the forms of psychological and pedagogical experiment. Another form of psychological and pedagogical experiment is then considered an experiment that establishes, which allows only to register this or that phenomenon or the level of its development in children. It seems, nevertheless, that the hierarchy of concepts should be different, if only because the concept of "formation" is wider than the pedagogical concepts of "education" and "education". The formation procedure can apply not only to the animate world, but also to the inanimate world. As for the formation of mental qualities, it is applicable not only to humans, but also to animals. Actually, animal learning is based on this. Outside the pedagogical context, BF Lomov considers the formative experiment when he analyzes the problem of the influence of the experimenter on the answers of the subject. And the psychological-pedagogical experiment then appears as a special case of the formative one. Other examples of concretization of the formative experiment can be cited, which perform not only pedagogical functions. Thus, the experimental genetic method for studying mental development, proposed by L. S. Vygotsky, is aimed at studying the formation of various mental processes. The development of the experimental genetic method as a research, diagnostic and teaching technique is the method of systematically phased formation of mental actions proposed by P. Ya. Galperin

14. Interpretation and generalization of the results of the study. Quantitative and qualitative data processing is followed by the decisive phase of scientific research - the interpretation of the results. Often this phase is called theoretical processing, emphasizing its difference from empirical statistical processing. This phase is the most exciting stage of research, at which the creative nature of the scientific process is most clearly manifested.

Theoretical processing performs two main functions: 1) transformation of statistically prepared data (“secondary data”, results) into empirical knowledge and 2) obtaining theoretical knowledge on their basis. Thus, at this stage, the unity and interconnection of empirical and theoretical knowledge is especially prominent.

At the stage of hypotheses, scientific thought is directed from theory to the object of study, at the stage of interpretation - from the object (facts) to theory. Empirical data make possible at first only statements about the existence or absence of a sign (fact), about the degree of its severity, frequency of occurrence, etc.

The purpose of further theoretical penetration into the information material is to, based on the hypotheses put forward, scientifically process individual data or their totality so that it is possible: 1) to determine the relationship between data and hypotheses; 2) to check the initial hypotheses; 3) clarify, expand, modify, etc., existing hypotheses and develop them to the level of theoretical statements; 4) bring the hypothetical explanation of the problem to the level of solving this problem. If statistical processing covers the quantitative aspect of psychological phenomena, then the interpretation makes visible their qualitative aspect as well. Most often, interpretation is understood as two procedures: explanation and generalization. So, V. Vetter writes: “The content and purpose of the process of theoretical processing of empirical data is to explain the meaning of individual results, to combine them into generalizing statements, to bring them into one system.” And one cannot but agree with this. However, it seems that the limits of theoretical processing and, accordingly, the interpretative stage of the study should be somewhat expanded. It is impossible to explain and generalize something without having a full description of this very thing. At the stage of data processing, only the most preliminary description is made. Quantitative processing provides a description not so much of the object (or subject) of study as a description of the totality of data about it in a specific language of quantitative parameters. Qualitative processing gives a preliminary schematic description of an object as a set of its properties or as a representative of a particular group of similar objects. Next, it is required to give an extremely complete description of the phenomenon under study in natural language, using, if necessary, special terminology and specific symbols (mathematical, logical, graphic, etc.). In principle, such a description can be an independent goal of research (this has already been discussed), and then the research cycle can be completed on it. Particularly weighty system descriptions, which in themselves can perform explanatory and predictive functions. But more often, nevertheless, the description is only a forerunner of subsequent theoretical actions. The importance of description in the full cycle of scientific research is emphasized by the fact that some scientists distinguish it as an independent separate stage along with the stages of experiment, data processing, explanation, etc. one stage of the research process from problem formulation to conclusions. In connection with such a duality of the position of this component of scientific research, it would be most logical to specifically single out the phase of a full-scale final description, but not at the empirical level of studying the object, but at the level of its theoretical understanding. Then the most acceptable solution would be to include the description phase in the interpretive phase of the study. Such a decision is all the more logical since the opinion on the unity of the description and explanation of reality has been established in science. At the same time, it is considered that in the philosophical plan, the description gives an idea of ​​the shape of the object, and explanation reveals its content, description correlates with the philosophical category "phenomenon", and its explanation - with the "essence".

It is also necessary to expand the boundaries of the interpretive stage in another direction: towards conclusions. It is expedient to include the process of extrapolation of states, behavior or properties of the object under study into the composition of the stage. If this extrapolation is directed to the future, then we are talking about a forecast and prediction based on causal relationships and explanations. If the extrapolation is directed to the past, it is a retrognosis, a retrotelling based on investigative connections and explanations. Having thus completed the stage of interpretation, we will not miss the main elements of the theoretical processing of empirical material, which ensure the fulfillment of the most important functions of science: descriptive, explanatory, and predictive. Without belittling the role of any of these elements, explanation and generalization should still be recognized as key links in the general chain of theoretical cognitive actions. Generalization is the identification of the most significant features for a group of objects (phenomena) that determine their most important qualitative characteristics. Properties specific to individual objects (singular and special) are rejected. From a logical point of view, this is an inductive process: from the particular to the general. The results obtained in research usually relate to some particular situations, specific people, individual phenomena and reactions. These individual facts require, after their explanation, projections onto larger sets. In the language of statistics, this means transferring results from samples for the entire population, in the limit - on the general population. In experimental practice, generalization usually concerns the four main points of the research process: the situation, answers, the personality of the subject, and the relationship between these components.

Generalization of the situation involves the transfer of results to a wider range of circumstances.

Under the generalization of responses is meant the summing up of various reactions under one common category that unites them. It is necessary to prove that the differences in the types of specific responses are not significant, are of a private nature that does not affect the final result and the relationship between the cause (situation) and the effect (reaction).

Generalization at the level of individuals is the recognition of the representativeness of the sample, i.e., the correspondence of the answers of a given contingent of subjects in a given type (generalized or particular) of situations to a wider set of people. A set arranged according to the same leading sign, according to which the group of subjects was also selected. For example, on the basis of age, gender, ethnicity, professional, social, biological, etc.

Generalization of relations. Establishing a relationship between variables (usually in experimental practice between two variables) can be done at different levels of generalization. At the lowest level, this relationship is descriptive. As the range of links expands, it becomes possible to compare variables for an increasing number of indicators. The generalized form of communication is already becoming and explanatory factor towards private behaviors. So, the conditioned reflex was at first a private connection: a call is the secretion of saliva in a dog (experiments of I.P. Pavlov). Then a similar relationship was found between a wide range of stimuli and various reactions. The reflex has become a generalized indicator of the relationship between the situation and the response. The expansion of the composition of experimental animals (up to the inclusion of a person here) extended the generalization to the connections between the contingent, the situation and the response. Now we can talk about a conditioned reflex as a universal phenomenon for highly organized animals (including humans).

15. Types of variables and forms of their control in a psychological experiment.

Types of variables:

1) characteristics of tasks;

ZP (Dependent variable) - quantities whose changes depend on the impact of the independent variable. Those variables that are associated with the behavior of the subjects and depend on the state of their body.

The parameters of verbal and non-verbal behavior are chosen as the dependent variable. These include: the number of errors that the rat made while running the maze; the time spent by the subject in solving the problem, changes in his facial expressions when watching an erotic film; time of motor reaction to a sound signal, etc.

There are three types of dependent variables:

1) one-dimensional; - case, only one parameter is recorded, and it is it that is considered a manifestation of the dependent variable

2) multidimensional; -For example, the level of intellectual productivity is manifested in the time of solving the problem, its quality, the difficulty of the problem solved.

3) fundamental. - For example, the fundamental measurement of the level of aggression F (a) is considered as a function of its individual manifestations (a,): facial expressions, pantomimics, abuse, assault, etc.

Forms of variable control. It is necessary to distinguish between the control of an independent variable and the control of "other" or external (side and additional variables). The control of an independent variable consists in its active variation or knowledge of the patterns of its change. There are two main ways to control an independent variable.

variables. An example of active control is, for example, changing the volume of the signal given by the experimenter to the headphones. An example of passive control is the division of a group of students into poor, average and highly successful when studying the influence of the level of learning success on the status of a person in a study group.

There are several basic methods for controlling the influence of external ("other") variables on the result of an experiment:

1) elimination of external variables;

2) constancy of conditions;

3) balancing;

4) counterbalancing;

5) randomization.

16. Types of independent variables. NP control. A variable in a broad sense is a reality whose changes can be measured in some way. Variable -

1. any reality, the observed changes of which (according to specific parameters or indicators of the methodology) can be recorded and measured in any scale (Kornilov).

2. Any reality that can change, and this change is manifested and fixed in Eta.

NP (independent variable) - the variable that is introduced by the experimenter will be changed by him and whose impact will be evaluated.

This change can be caused by the action of the experimenter and is due to the relationship of two variables. For example, in an experiment on developing a simple motor skill, he punishes the test subject for failures with an electric shock. The amount of punishment can act as an independent variable, and the speed of skill development as a dependent variable. Punishment not only reinforces appropriate reactions in the subject, but also gives rise to situational anxiety in him, which affects the results - it increases the number of errors and reduces the speed of skill development.

The independent variables in a psychological experiment can be:

1) characteristics of tasks;

2) features of the situation (external conditions);

3) controlled features (states) of the subject. The latter are often referred to as "organism variables".

Campbell identifies the following types of independent variable (as the basis for setting experimental and control conditions).

1) controlled variables or factors, such as teaching method;

2) potentially controlled variables, which the experimenter, in principle, could vary, but for some reason does not;

3) relatively constant aspects of the environment (socio-economic level, locality, school, etc.). these variables are not under the direct control of the experimenter, but can act as fixed bases for dividing subjects or conditions into certain classes as levels of the independent variable;

4) "organismic" variables - sex, age and other objectified characteristics; in this case, we are also talking about the possibility of selecting groups that are equivalent or different in this characteristic;

5) tested or pre-measured variables.

NP control.

It is necessary to distinguish between the control of an independent variable and the control of "other" or external (side and additional variables). The control of an independent variable consists in its active variation or knowledge of the patterns of its change.

There are two main ways to control the independent variable.

In the experiment, the control of the independent variable is carried out with the help of active manipulation, variation. With systematic observation (also measurement), control is carried out through the selection (selection) of the required values ​​of the independent variable from among the already existing ones.

variables.

An example of active control is, for example, changing the volume of the signal given by the experimenter to the headphones. An example of passive control is the division of a group of students into poor, average and highly successful when studying the influence of the level of learning success on the status of a person in a study group.

17. Requirements for the procedure for presenting NP. Two main schemes for setting NP levels. The specific presentation and change of NP depends on the objectives of the study and methodological specifics. But there are also some general requirements.

First, it is desirable to have the influence of only one NP at the same time. Such experiments are called “pure experiments”. If two or more NPs are singled out by the experimenter, then all but one should be excluded in this experiment. The rest should be presented alternately in other experiments, excluding the previous NPs. If it is impossible to achieve such an order, or in case of interest in the combined effect of two or more NPs, then they resort to a specially provided mode of stimulation presentation, the development of which is called "experiment planning".

The second requirement: it is necessary to exclude the simultaneous change with the NP of other essential conditions of the experimental situation. This is achieved by controlling the DP. If this cannot be achieved, then there are three options for solving the problem. Either reconsider the experimental situation in order to eliminate the corresponding DP, or indirectly take into account the contribution of its influence on the response (the limiting case is to ignore this influence), or take it for one more NP and provide for it when planning the experiment.

The third requirement: maximum accuracy when changing the NP. In experiments with quantitative NPs, this requirement translates into the requirement that the variable be measurable. In many cases, this implies the need to use special means of exposing stimulation. Variables that cannot be changed by the experimenter are changed through careful selection of subjects. This includes parameters such as gender, age, abilities, ZUN, etc.

Two main schemes for setting NP levels

Comparison of decision indicators under the conditions of "neutral" and "motivating" instructions can occur when two main schemes are implemented: intra-individual and inter-group. In the first case, the same subject is presented with successively different levels of NP or he goes through different conditions of NP. For the time being, let us single out the task factor as the first side variable, which can be mixed with the action of the NP.

In the second case, the intergroup scheme, different instructions can be given to different groups of subjects simultaneously performing the same activity. It is for the material of small creative tasks that group solutions are poorly controlled conditions. The subjects can peep, suggest, each individually, while it is difficult to keep a record of their reasoning. In this regard, the "simultaneity" of the presence of subjects in one or another condition is usually relative: it is possible to conduct experiments individually, the results of which are summarized in a common group of decisions with the same instructions. In the intergroup scheme, the main thing is that some subjects went through the control condition, while others went through the experimental one, and the results of the decisions in these two groups are compared.

The first factor, or first side variable, that appears to affect the outcome of comparisons in these designs is the difference between people in different groups, or the composition of the groups. The main experimental effect - the result of exposure to NP - in this case is added (multiplied) with the effect of individual differences. Groups may not be equivalent in composition, and there are many reasons for this. Let us recall the "natural" desire of the teacher to give "advanced", from his point of view, students a more difficult test task. This can act as a "prejudice effect" on the part of the experimenter. Another mixing option: students who usually spend time together asked for one group; often these are people who are similar in terms of intellectual capabilities. The list of variables that “threaten” the correct decision-making on the action of the NP can be continued. Let us dwell on a fundamental point: the experimenter must somehow break all those non-random shifts in the supposed similarity of groups that can mix the effect of NP and the effects of non-equivalence of groups (group composition factor). Strategies for the selection and selection of subjects into groups are the main form of experimental control in intergroup schemes. Thus, the experimental effect in both variants of comparisons - intra-individual and inter-group comparisons is established in a similar way, namely, as a comparison of two series of sample values ​​of RFP measured in the subject or subjects in the experimental and control conditions.

18. Dependent variables. ZP requirements. Methods of fixing the RFP. Variants of the relationship of the independent and dependent variables. Dependent variable - in a scientific experiment, a measured variable, changes in which are associated with changes in the independent variable.

The independent variable, for example, in a psychological experiment can be considered the intensity of the stimulus, and the dependent variable is the ability of the subject to feel this stimulus. The dependent variable is a measure of the results of the experiment, i.e. the effect that different levels of the independent variable have on participants' behavior. Indicators of verbal and non-verbal behavior are most often used as a dependent variable in psychological experiments. Formal-dynamic and meaningful characteristics of behavior are distinguished. Examples of dependent variables: a) formal-dynamic characteristics:

Accuracy-inaccuracy of action in achievement tasks;

Time from the moment of presentation of the stimulus to the choice of a solution;

The duration or speed of the task;

Installations, etc.

The second fundamental feature of experimental research is the observation and fixation of changes in the dependent variable. In a psychological experiment, observation is interpreted as a way of recognizing changes in certain characteristics of the participants' behavior. Observation and fixation is carried out using: - specially trained experts, for example, determining the level of aggression as a function of its individual manifestations in facial expressions, gestures, abuse, assault, etc.; - questionnaires and other measurement methods.

The main property of a dependent variable is sensitivity, i.e. sensitivity to changes in the independent variable. Therefore, in an experimental study, it is possible to distinguish such types of relationships between dependent (ZP) and independent variables (WIP):1. No dependency. The absolute insensitivity of the dependent variable to a change in the independent variable. 2. Monotonically increasing dependence. For example, an increase in auditory sensations (ZP) depending on the intensity of sound (WIP). 3. Monotonically decreasing dependence. For example, an increase in the number of reproduced words (RF) depending on the decrease in the time elapsed from the moment of their memorization (WRP) .4. Nonlinear dependence of U-shaped type. For example, the number of errors in solving intellectual problems (WIP) and the level of anxiety (ZP).

19. External variables. Additional variables. Control of external and internal additional variables.External variables - these are conditions that, in addition to the independent variable, can also affect the change in the dependent variable.

There are the following ways to control external variables :

1. Elimination- exclusion of the influence of external variables (laboratory experiment).

2. Creating constant conditions- compliance with the constancy of the conditions of the experiment in the control and experimental groups of participants, with the exception of different levels of the independent variable (at the same time, in the same place, with the same instructions, etc.).

3. double blind method e - a way to control the influence of the bias of the experimenter and the bias of the participants in the study. The double-blind method consists in applying an experimental influence that neither the subject nor the experimenter is aware of. Moreover, which of the subjects was offered an imaginary effect, and to whom - a real effect, is known only to the third observer - the experimenter's assistant.

Sample is the set of subjects selected to participate in the study using a special strategy from all potential participants, referred to as the general population of subjects. The sample size is the number of subjects included in the sample.

In addition to the management of NP and the measurement of HR, the researcher, according to the hypothesis, must take into account one more variable - additional , the level of which determines the possibility of subsequent generalizations to the studied type of activity, population, situation, etc. Unlike side variables, an additional variable is included in the formulation of the experimental hypothesis as clarification of conditions , at which the action of the NP is expected.

20. Conditions for the implementation of causal dependence.(We’ll immediately clarify: causality is a causal relationship. Requirements for the formulation of causal hypotheses.

There are 3 conditions for the implementation of the conclusion about causal = causal dependence:

The cause must precede the effect in time.

Cause and effect are statistically related to each other.

There should be no other explanation of the effect except as a cause.

It's hard to get on with the first one. It’s a little easier to make a mistake with the second one - this is a question of the validity of the statistical conclusions of alpha, beta errors. It’s easier to screw up with the third one: what if not A influenced B, but some C to B, the higher the internal validity, i.e. less confusion and fewer possible competing third hypotheses.

Thus, the causal hypothesis must reflect all three conditions, otherwise it is not fucking causal. If only the second condition is satisfied, then we can only claim to test the connection hypothesis, i.e. the causal hypothesis is a stronger hypothesis than the association hypothesis.)

Fulfillment of the basic conditions of a causal inference is one of the main standards of the experimental method. Conditions for the implementation of the conclusion about causal dependence:

1. The cause precedes the effect in time, i.e. changes in the experimental factor precede changes in the RFP.

2. It is established that connection between changes in causal conditions and consequences (changes in CP) is not random, i.e. the covariance of NP and ZP is revealed.

3. None competing explanations established dependence (competing hypotheses); these explanations may come

ü from the recognition of the influence of other variables operating in addition to those controlled by the experimenter;

ü from other interpretations based on the acceptance of the provisions of other theories (than the original one).

The problem of psychological causation. The fact is that the above conditions characterize the natural-science understanding of causality. Ex: the first condition. One material point acts on another in space and time. But what about the subjective world, psychological causality? Can't be mixed!

In a psychological experiment, only causal (causal) hypotheses are tested. A hypothesis is a scientific assumption in the form of a statement, the truth or falsity of which is not known, but can be verified empirically, i.e. empirically.

Hypothesis is the creative phase of experimental reasoning, the phase in which the researcher imagines a relationship that could exist between two facts.

The development of a hypothesis is the result of thinking. Fress: "Invention is a matter of imagination, but imagination would be powerless if it did not rely on a huge scientific culture" (p. 116).

Causal hypothesis - a hypothesis about a causal relationship between phenomena (or variables). The psychological experimental hypothesis is a causal hypothesis that includes NP, RFP and the type of relationship between them, which shows the effect of NP as a causal factor.

Signs of a correct hypothesis:

1) The hypothesis must be adequate response to the question posed.

2) The hypothesis must take into account already acquired knowledge and be, from this point of view, believable.

3) The hypothesis must be available verification:

a) Operational character of the hypothesis: the hypothesis states the relationship between two classes of facts.

b) Checking can be:

ü direct: both members of the hypothetical relation can become the object of direct observation,

ü indirect: there is an intermediate variable that cannot be subject to direct verification.

21. Sources and types of psychological hypotheses. The concept of empirical testing of scientific hypotheses. Requirements for the formulation of cause-and-effect hypotheses. A hypothesis is a statement, the truth or falsity of which is unknown, but can be verified empirically.

Empirical testing of hypotheses derived from deductive constructions is the goal of any research.