A person perceives mental images of objects not as images, but as real objects, bringing the images outside, objectifying them.

With an incomplete reflection of the individual properties of the perceived object, there is a mental completion of the information received to a holistic image of a particular object

Integrity

Structurality

A person recognizes various objects due to the stable structure of their features.

meaningfulness

A person is aware of what he perceives. This makes it possible to use objects in a targeted manner.

From the countless number of objects and phenomena surrounding a person, he chooses only a few, depending on his needs and interests.

Selectivity

The same objects are perceived by a person in changing conditions in an unchanged form.

constancy

Apperception

Perception depends on the general content of a person's mental life. Previous experience plays a big role

Rice. 6. Properties characterizing the essence of perception

Objectivity of perception- the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the real world not in the form of a set of sensations that are not related to each other, but in the form of individual objects. Objectivity is not an innate property of perception, but arises and improves in ontogenesis on the basis of movements that ensure the contact of the child with the object. Objectivity is manifested in the selection of the perceived object from the background.

Rice. 7. Properties that determine the productivity of perception

Integrity of perception- is expressed in the fact that the images of reflected objects appear in the mind of a person in the aggregate of many of their qualities and characteristics, even if some of these qualities are not perceived at the moment. In the process of perception, the image of the perceived object may not be completely given in finished form (for example, the back of the thing), but, as it were, is mentally completed to some integral form. Integrity is not an initially given property, it is formed in objective activity.

Structural perception- dismemberment and specific interconnection of the parts of the perceived object (its structure). A person perceives a generalized structure abstracted from sensations. Thus, a melody played on different instruments is perceived as one and the same.

Meaningfulness of perception- shows that the objects perceived by a person have a certain life meaning for him. In the process of comprehension, the sensory content of perception is subjected to analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction and generalization. The comprehension of the subject ends with the name of its word - the concept, i.e. assignment to a certain group, class, category of objects. Thanks to the comprehension of the essence and purpose of objects, their purposeful use becomes possible.

Selectivity of perception- the ability of a person to perceive only those objects that are of greatest interest to him. This feature of perception, on the one hand, depends on the interests, to a large extent on the attitudes of the individual, needs, knowledge, and on the other hand, it is due to the characteristics of the object of perception itself, its “showiness”, contrast, etc.

Constancy of perception- this is constancy in perception, which is conditioned by knowledge of the physical properties of the object, as well as by the fact that the object of perception is perceived in the circle of other objects known to man. It ensures the constancy of the perceived size, shape and color of objects when changing distance, angle, illumination. Constancy of perception is largely a manifestation of past experience.

Apperception- the dependence of perception on the previous experience of the subject, on its general content, the orientation of the personality, on the tasks facing him, the motives of his activity, beliefs and interests, emotional states. Apperception gives an active character to the perception of personality. Perceiving objects, a person expresses his attitude towards them.

Perception changes under the influence of a person's living conditions, i.e. develops. A.V. Zaporozhets described the process of development of perception in children as follows. In the first months of a child's life, the development of his sensory functions, his perceptual actions aimed at perception, outstrips the development of bodily movements and influences them. Quite early on, children's orienting reactions reach a high level of complexity and are performed using a number of different analyzers. In an infant, orienting eye movements, for example, play only an adjusting role, i.e. direct the receptor to perceive signals. The same movements, however, do not examine objects in the way that occurs when an adult's eyes move over an object.

Thanks to the precise installation of receptors, a child in the first months of life is able to visually distinguish between old and new objects for him, which differ from each other in size, color and shape. Starting from the age of three or four months, sensory functions are included in practical actions, restructured on their basis, and gradually acquire a more perfect form of orienting-exploratory perceptual actions.

During the transition from early to preschool age, under the influence of play and constructive activities, children develop complex types of visual analysis and synthesis, including the ability to mentally divide the perceived object into parts in the visual field, examining each of them separately and then combining them into a single whole. In addition to the contour of the object, its structure, spatial characteristics, and the ratio of its constituent parts are distinguished here.

A.V. Zaporozhets believed that the formation of perceptual actions under the influence of learning goes through a number of stages. At the first stage, perceptual problems associated with the formation of an adequate image are solved by the child in practical terms through actions with material objects. Corrections to perceptual actions, if their correction is necessary, are here introduced into the manipulations with objects themselves in the course of the action. The passage of this stage is accelerated, and its results become more significant if the child is offered "perceptual standards" - samples with which he can correlate, compare the emerging image.

At the next stage, the sensory processes themselves turn into a kind of perceptual actions that are performed with the help of the own movements of the receptive apparatus. At this stage, children get acquainted with the spatial properties of objects with the help of extensive orienting-exploratory movements of the hands and eyes, and manual and visual examination of the situation usually precedes practical actions in it, determining their nature and direction.

At the third stage, the process of a kind of curtailment of perceptual actions begins, their reduction to the necessary and sufficient minimum. The efferent links of the corresponding actions are inhibited, and the external perception of the situation begins to give the impression of a passive receptive process.

At the next, higher levels of sensory learning, children acquire the ability to quickly and without any external movements to recognize certain properties of perceived objects, to distinguish them from each other on the basis of these properties, to discover and use the connections and relationships that exist between them. The perceptual action turns into an ideal one.

Perception (perception) is the reflection in the human mind of objects and phenomena in the totality of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses.

In the course of perception, there is an ordering and unification of individual sensations into integral images of things and events. Unlike sensations, which reflect the individual properties of the stimulus, perception reflects the object as a whole, in the aggregate of its properties. Perception is associated with awareness, understanding, comprehension of objects, phenomena, with their assignment to a certain category according to the corresponding signs, grounds. Only by including an object or phenomenon in a certain system, embracing it with an appropriate concept, can we correctly interpret it.

Thus, perception acts as a meaningful (including decision-making), signified (associated with speech) synthesis of various sensations received from integral objects or complex phenomena perceived as a whole. Since perception is a sensory stage of cognition, it is associated with thinking, has a motivational orientation, and is accompanied by an emotional response. It is on the basis of perception that the activity of memory, thinking, and imagination is possible.

The perception of a person is a necessary prerequisite and condition for his life and practical activity. Knowledge of the patterns of perception processes helps to better understand the mechanism of the formation of testimony, to identify the psychological origins of the errors of the investigator, the court and, on this basis, to make recommendations to improve the effectiveness of their law enforcement activities.

Perception as action

Perception is a kind of action aimed at examining the perceived object and creating its copy, likeness.

Perception is a complex cognitive activity that includes a whole system of perceptual actions that allow you to detect the object of perception, identify it, measure it, evaluate it (Fig. 1).

Perceptual actions

Measuring

Commensurate

Construction

Control

Corrective

Allows you to estimate the size of the perceived object

Allows you to compare the sizes of several objects

Responsible for constructing a perceptual image

Allows you to compare the emerging image with the features of the object

Fix bugs in image

Tonic-regulatory

Maintain the necessary level of muscle tone for the implementation of the process of perception

Rice. 1. Perceptual actions

Their composition depends on the degree of meaningfulness of perception, i.e. from the understanding of what is perceived, and from the nature of the perceptual task facing the person, i.e. on why and for what purpose a person is looking or listening at the moment.

Types of perception

There are different types of perception (Fig. 2).

According to the form of mental activity

By shape
existence
matter

According to the leading analyzer

Disorganized

Olfactory

By structure

tactile

Auditory

visual

kinesthetic

Organized

By degree of organization

Taste

Deliberate

Unintentional

Movement perception

Perception of time

Perception of space

Depending on the characteristics of the perceived object

Simultaneous

successive

Types of perception

Rice. 2. Classification of perception

Intentional perception xcharacterized by the fact that it is based on a consciously set goal. It is connected with the willpower of a person.

It is known that one of the forms of intentional perception is observation - a deliberate, purposeful, systematic, systematic and long-term perception of objects and phenomena of reality, people and oneself.

The specialist performing the observation must take into account the peculiarities of the individual type of perception (analytical, synthetic, analytical-synthetic, emotional). So, synthetic type observers are characterized by a generalized reflection and definition of the main meaning of what is happening. They do not see the details because they do not attach importance to them.

People of the analytical type tend to highlight when observing, first of all, details, particulars, but understanding the general meaning of phenomena causes great difficulties for them. They often replace the general idea of ​​an object, an event with a thorough analysis of individual actions, details, while being unable to single out the main thing.

People of the emotional type of perception tend to express their feelings caused by the observed phenomena as soon as possible, but are unable to highlight its essence. A person of this type of perception, observing an object, first of all notices what affects his emotional sphere, and does not try to understand the features of the object itself.

Observation is the main method of studying the situation and the scene. Observation of the manifestations of the mental and physical state of the accused or suspect in the process of preliminary investigation or trial does not have evidentiary value, but it is necessary for prompt psychological diagnosis, establishing contact and trusting relationships, and legitimate mental influence.

Unintended Perception- this is such a perception in which objects of the surrounding reality are perceived without a specially set task, when the process of perception is not associated with the volitional efforts of a person.

Organized Perception(observation) is an organized, purposeful, systematic perception of objects or phenomena of the surrounding world.

Disorganized perception- this is an unintentional perception of the surrounding reality.

Simultaneous perception- one act.

Successive perceptionstep by step, sequential.

The perception of man by man(social perception) is an extremely complex phenomenon. It usually has two aspects: cognitive (cognitive) - the ability to understand by external manifestation what a person is, to penetrate into the depth of his personality, individuality and emotional - the ability to determine by external behavioral signs the emotional state in which a person is at the moment, the ability to empathize, or empathy.

The perception of a person by a person is essential in testimony. Depending on the importance people attach to various personality traits, they relate to each other in different ways, experience different feelings and, when giving testimony, bring to the fore one or another individual side of the other person.

Perception of spaceplays an important role in the interaction of a person with the environment, is a necessary condition for the orientation of a person in it. It is a reflection of an objectively existing space and includes the perception of the shape, size and relative position of objects, their topography, remoteness and direction in which they are located (Fig. 3) .

Perception of space

Perception of form, volume and
size of objects

visual illusions

Depth perception

and remoteness of objects

Linear

and air
perspective

Rice. 9.3. Perception of space

In some criminal cases, such as, for example, cases of car accidents, the perception and correct assessment of the spatial coordinates of moving objects is very important.

The perception of the shape, volume and size of objects is carried out with the help of visual, tactile and kinesthetic analyzers. The perception of form requires the selection of an object from the background, and this, in turn, often requires the selection of a contour, i.e. the boundaries of the spatial elements of the figure, differing in brightness, color, texture.

The perceived size of objects is determined by the size of their image on the retina and the distance from the eyes of the observer. The adaptation of the eye to a clear vision of objects at different distances is carried out using two mechanisms: accommodation (change in the refractive power of the lens by changing its curvature) and convergence (convergence of visual axes on a fixed object).

The perception of depth and distance of objects is carried out in the form of monocular and binocular vision. Monocular vision (with the help of one eye due to a change in the thickness of its lens) allows you to correctly estimate distances, however, within very limited limits. The perception of depth and distance of objects is carried out mainly through binocular vision (using two eyes) and the convergence that accompanies it.

As objects move away from the observer, their image on the retina decreases. An example of linear perspective is the apparent convergence in the distance of parallel railroad rails, etc. Aerial perspective is that the light and color reflected by objects are distorted to a certain extent under the influence of layers of air.

The phenomena of erroneous or distorted perception are called perceptual illusions. Illusions are observed in any kind of perception (visual, auditory, etc.). The nature of illusions is determined not only by subjective reasons, such as orientation, attitude, emotional attitude, etc., but also by physical factors and phenomena.

In the professional activity of a lawyer, it is important to separate objective facts from subjective layers. So, for example, when interrogating a witness, it is necessary to clarify the conditions under which the incident was perceived (illumination, duration, distance, meteorological conditions, etc.). At the same time, you should be aware that people are often not able to accurately assess the number of perceived objects, the distance between them, their spatial relationship and size. So, for example, spatial perceptions are characterized by an overestimation of small distances and an underestimation of large ones. Brightly colored objects, as well as well-lit objects, appear more closely spaced. In addition, gaps in sensory perception are often filled with elements that did not actually exist. Judgmental errors are often explained by the integrity of perception and are caused by the fact that the assessment of the subject as a whole is transferred to the assessment of its details.

Perception of timethere is a reflection of the duration, the sequence of the phenomena of reality, as well as the pace and rhythm (Fig. 4).

Perception of time

Perception of a sequence of phenomena

Perception of the duration of phenomena

Perception of tempo and rhythm

Rice. 4. Perception of time

Reflecting the objective reality, the perception of time gives a person the opportunity to navigate in the environment. Time perception is based on the rhythmic change of excitation and inhibition. Its dynamics constitutes the physiological basis of the perception of time. The perception of the sequence of phenomena is based on their clear division and the objectively existing replacement of some phenomena by others, and is also associated with ideas about the present. Once perceived, a phenomenon remains in memory in the form of a representation of it. If it is then re-perceived, then this perception evokes in our memory the idea of ​​the former, which is recognized as the past.

A number of factors influence the perception of the sequence of events:

1. perceptual attitude of the subject, expressed in his readiness to perceive events;
2. objective ordering of events, manifested in the natural organization of stimuli;
3. the ordering of events by the subject himself using a certain sequence of events that have some signs that are significant for the subject.

For example, it has been experimentally established that if we are simultaneously affected by two stimuli, then the one for which we are prepared to perceive will be perceived as a previous, earlier stimulus. In the same way, a stimulus in which we show interest will be perceived as anterior to another, "uninteresting" stimulus. This property of perception explains the reason for the appearance of some errors in the testimony, especially about facts that are significantly remote from the moment of interrogation. The perception of the duration of phenomena is largely determined by the nature of experiences. Usually, time that has been filled with interesting, deeply motivated activities seems to be shorter than time spent idle, waiting for unpleasant things to happen.

The perception of time changes depending on the emotional state. Positive emotions give the illusion of a fast passage of time, negative ones - subjectively stretch time intervals somewhat.

As investigative practice shows, often the perception of time by a witness, victim, accused occurs in a state of emotional, mental tension, which distorts the assessment of the duration of the event. A similar distortion is observed during the interrogation of the accused, who committed a crime in a state of passion. In such cases, in the course of an investigative experiment, the witness, victim or accused is asked to reproduce the actions that he was engaged in during the period of interest. Simultaneously, timing is carried out. The perception of the length of time varies with age. For the elderly, time passes much faster than for a child. This should be taken into account by the investigator when interrogating witnesses when faced with a discrepancy in their testimony.

The perception of tempo is a reflection of the speed with which individual stimuli succeed each other in a process taking place in time.

The perception of rhythm is a reflection of the uniform alternation of stimuli, their regularity when objects and phenomena of objective reality act on our senses. Rhythm perception is usually accompanied by motor accompaniment. The sense of rhythm is basically motor in nature.

Movement perceptionis a reflection of the change in the position that objects occupy in space (Fig. 5).

Movement perception

Character

The form

Amplitude

Acceleration

Duration

Speed

Direction

Rice. 5. Movement perception

The main role in the perception of movement is played by visual and kinesthetic analyzers. Object movement parameters are speed, direction and acceleration . Observing the movement, first of all, they perceive its nature (flexion, extension, repulsion, etc.); shape (rectilinear, curvilinear, circular, etc.); amplitude (full, incomplete); direction (right, left, up, down); speed (fast or slow movement); acceleration (uniform, accelerating, slowing down, intermittent movement).

Basic properties of perception

Speaking about the properties of perception, it is necessary to single out two groups among them: properties that are inherent to one degree or another in all cognitive processes and characterize the essence of the process of perception, and properties that reflect the productivity of perception as a mental cognitive process. The first group includes the main "essential" properties of perception (Fig. 6), the second group - indicators of performance, quality and reliability of the perceptual system (Fig. 7).

Properties that define the essence of perception

objectivity

Integrity

Structurality

meaningfulness

Selectivity

A person perceives mental images of objects not as images, but as real objects, bringing the images outside, objectifying them.

With an incomplete reflection of the individual properties of the perceived object, the mental completion of the received information takes place to a holistic image of a particular object.

A person recognizes various objects due to the stable structure of their features.

A person is aware of what he perceives. This makes it possible to use objects in a targeted manner.

From the countless number of objects and phenomena surrounding a person, he chooses only a few, depending on his needs and interests.

constancy

The same objects are perceived by a person in changing conditions in an unchanged form.

Apperception

Perception depends on the general content of a person's mental life. Previous experience plays a big role

Rice. 6. Properties characterizing the essence of perception

Objectivity of perception- the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the real world not in the form of a set of sensations that are not related to each other, but in the form of individual objects. Objectivity is not an innate property of perception, but arises and improves in ontogenesis on the basis of movements that ensure the contact of the child with the object. Objectivity is manifested in the selection of the perceived object from the background.

Properties of perception that determine its productivity

Volume

Speed

Accuracy

Reliability

The number of objects that a person can perceive during one fixation or per unit of time

The time required for a person to adequately perceive an object or phenomenon

Correspondence of the emerging image to the features of the perceived object and the task facing the person

Probability of adequate perception of an object under given conditions and within a given time

Rice. 7. Properties that determine the productivity of perception

Integrity of perception- is expressed in the fact that the images of reflected objects appear in the mind of a person in the aggregate of many of their qualities and characteristics, even if some of these qualities are not perceived at the moment. In the process of perception, the image of the perceived object may not be completely given in finished form (for example, the back of the thing), but, as it were, is mentally completed to some integral form. Integrity is not an initially given property, it is formed in objective activity.

Structural perception- dismemberment and specific interconnection of the parts of the perceived object (its structure). A person perceives a generalized structure abstracted from sensations. Thus, a melody played on different instruments is perceived as one and the same.

Meaningfulness of perception- shows that the objects perceived by a person have a certain life meaning for him. In the process of comprehension, the sensory content of perception is subjected to analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction and generalization. The comprehension of the subject ends with the name of its word - the concept, i.e. assignment to a certain group, class, category of objects. Thanks to the comprehension of the essence and purpose of objects, their purposeful use becomes possible.

Selectivity of perception- the ability of a person to perceive only those objects that are of greatest interest to him. This feature of perception, on the one hand, depends on the interests, to a large extent on the attitudes of the individual, needs, knowledge, and on the other hand, it is due to the characteristics of the object of perception itself, its “showiness”, contrast, etc.

Constancy of perception- this is constancy in perception, which is conditioned by knowledge of the physical properties of the object, as well as by the fact that the object of perception is perceived in the circle of other objects known to man. It ensures the constancy of the perceived size, shape and color of objects when changing distance, angle, illumination. Constancy of perception is largely a manifestation of past experience.

Apperception - the dependence of perception on the previous experience of the subject, on its general content, the orientation of the personality, on the tasks facing him, the motives of his activity, beliefs and interests, emotional states. Apperception gives an active character to the perception of personality. Perceiving objects, a person expresses his attitude towards them.

Perceptual disturbance

In legal practice, one often has to deal with such a violation of perception as a hallucination.

hallucinations usually called perception that occurs without the presence of a real object (visions, ghosts, imaginary sounds, voices, smells, etc.). Hallucinations are, as a rule, a consequence of the fact that perception is saturated not with external real impressions, but with internal images. By a person who is in the grip of hallucinations, they are experienced as truly perceived, i.e. people during hallucinations actually hear, see, smell, and do not imagine or imagine. For a hallucinating person, subjective sensory sensations are just as valid as those coming from the objective world.

Of greatest interest are visual hallucinations, which are distinguished by an unusual variety. The influence of visual hallucinations has a very strong emotional impact on a person: it can cause horror or admiration, even admiration. The reasons that caused hallucinations can be: severe intoxication, toxic and narcotic substances, mental disorders.

should be distinguished from hallucinations illusions, those. erroneous perception of real things or phenomena. The obligatory presence of a genuine object, although perceived erroneously, is the main feature of illusions.

Illusions are usually divided into affective and verbal (verbal) ones. Affective illusions are most often caused by fear or anxious mood. In this state, a passer-by may appear as a murderer or rapist. Verbal illusions consist in a false perception of the actual conversations of others; a person hears in them hints of some unseemly acts, hidden threats against him.

Scientific observation is a purposeful and organized perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. The connection of observation with sensory cognition is obvious: any process of perception is associated with the processing and synthesis of those impressions that the cognizing subject receives from the outside world. These impressions in psychology are called sensations. They are a display of individual properties, aspects of objects or processes of the outside world. Sometimes observation can refer to the perception of experiences, feelings, mental states of the subject himself.

The activity of consciousness in the process of observation is not limited only to the fact that it synthesizes the results of various sensations into a single sensory image.

Its active role is manifested, first of all, in the fact that the observer, especially in science, not only fixes the facts, but consciously searches for them, guided by some idea, hypothesis or previous experience. Empiricists, in order to guarantee the purity and reliability of the data of experience, require the collection of data and facts without any prior hypothesis or guiding idea. It is not difficult, however, to understand the utopian nature of such a program. Even in everyday knowledge, observation is based on previous experience and knowledge of people.

In science, as a rule, observations have as their goal the verification of one or another hypothesis or theory, and therefore they essentially depend on this goal. The scientist does not simply register any facts, but consciously selects those of them that can either confirm or refute his ideas.

Observations in science are also characterized by the fact that their results require a certain interpretation, which is carried out with the help of some theory.

This circumstance plays an extremely important role in cases where not the object or process itself is directly observed, but the result of its interaction with other objects and phenomena. So, for example, we can judge the behavior of microparticles only indirectly, observing not the microphenomena themselves, but the results of their interaction with certain macroscopic devices and installations. But such conclusions require an appeal to a certain theory, with the help of which the interpretation of the obtained results of observation is carried out. The interpretation of observational data just makes it possible for a scientist to separate essential facts from non-essential ones, to notice what a non-specialist can ignore and even not detect at all. That is why in science it rarely happens that discoveries are made by non-specialists, if only because chance, as Louis Pasteur pointed out, can only teach something to a trained mind.

All this shows that the process of observation in science has a number of specific features that are absent in ordinary, everyday observations. Although, in principle, both everyday and scientific observation represent the perception of objects and phenomena, but in science this perception is much better and more expediently organized, and most importantly, it is directed and controlled by a certain idea, while everyday observations are based mainly on practical experience and the knowledge acquired through this experience.

This difference between scientific and everyday observations is manifest in their very structure. Any observation presupposes the presence of some observable object and a subject that perceives it, which makes observations in specific conditions of place and time. In scientific observation, these three elements are supplemented by special observation tools (microscopes, telescopes, photo and television cameras, etc.), the purpose of which is to compensate for the natural limitations of the human senses, to increase the accuracy and objectivity of observation results. Finally, an important role is played here by conceptual means, i.e. the concepts and theories by which scientific observations are organized and, in particular, interpreted.

The use of special material and conceptual means gives the results of scientific observations, as well as the entire process of observation as a whole, such new features and characteristics that are present only in an undeveloped form in ordinary, everyday observations.

Apparently, the most common feature that brings scientific observations closer to everyday ones is their objectivity, although the degree of this objectivity is far from the same.

For a better understanding of the specifics of scientific observation, let us consider in order those features in which it differs from ordinary observation, starting the discussion with such a sign as the objectivity of the results of observation.

3.1.1. Intersubjectivity and objectivity

In daily activities and in science, observations should lead to results that do not depend on the will, feelings and desires of the subject. In order to become the basis for subsequent theoretical and practical actions, these observations should inform us about the objective properties and relationships of really existing objects and phenomena. However, achieving such results is often associated with considerable difficulties.

First of all, observation based on perception is not a purely passive reflection of the world. Consciousness not only reflects the world, but also creates it. In the process of such an active development of the world, mistakes, delusions and even simple illusions of the senses are possible, which also cannot be ignored. It is well known to all that a stick dipped in water appears to be broken; parallel rails appear to converge in the distance.

The fallacy of this kind of sensory illusions is revealed by simple experience. The situation is much more difficult with those observational errors that occur as a result of biased inclinations or ideas, erroneous initial attitudes, and other subjective factors. These difficulties increase even more when one has to resort to indirect observation, i.e. draw conclusions about the properties or characteristics of directly imperceptible objects. Thus, the achievement of objectivity in the results of observation requires the correction and elimination of a number of shortcomings and errors associated with both the natural limitations of the human senses and the activity of consciousness in general.

The first necessary, although not sufficient, condition for obtaining objective observational data is the requirement that these data should not be of a personal, purely subjective nature, but could be obtained and recorded by other observers. In other words, the observation should give results that do not depend on the individual characteristics of a particular subject - they must be intersubjective. If the same data are obtained by many observers, then their reliability and correctness increase.

From this point of view, it is clear that the direct data of the sensory experience of an individual subject, the so-called sense date, are of little value in science precisely because individual sensations and perceptions of a person cannot be controlled and verified, and therefore cannot become a true basis for building a scientific knowledge that is objective in nature. Even the same results obtained by many observers do not in themselves guarantee their objectivity, because mistakes, delusions and illusions can be characteristic of different people. That is why intersubjectivity is not identical with objectivity. Objectively true knowledge, as is known, does not depend on the consciousness and will of either an individual or humanity as a whole. The final criterion of such objectivity is experience and practice, understood in a broad sense, namely, as the material, socio-historical activity of people.

In the scientific approach to research, intersubjectivity serves as an important stage on the way to achieving objectively true knowledge. But in this case, the observations themselves are carefully analyzed and corrected in the light of existing theoretical concepts.

Very often in science, to increase the objectivity of observation results (not to mention their accuracy), instruments and recording devices are used.

At first glance, it may seem that the replacement of the observer by instruments completely eliminates, if not errors, then at least subjectivism in the process of observation. However, the data recorded with the help of instruments, in itself, does not say anything. They require a certain evaluation and interpretation, which again is carried out by a person.

Therefore, the only way to achieve objectivity and accuracy of observations is to strengthen control over their results, which is achieved with the help of both material and conceptual means of observation.

3.1.2. Direct and indirect observations

The greatest difficulties in achieving objective results of observation occur when not the object or process itself is directly observed, but the effect of its interaction with other objects and phenomena. Such observations, called indirect or mediated, are playing an increasingly important role in modern science. Indeed, the objects and processes explored by modern atomic and nuclear physics, quantum chemistry and molecular biology are not directly observable either with the help of the senses or with the help of instruments. But they can become observable if we study the results of their interaction with other objects and processes.

However, in this case, we actually directly observe not the micro-objects and processes themselves, but only the results of their impact on other objects and phenomena, in particular those on which the operation of a particular instrument or measuring device is based. So, in a cloud chamber designed to study the properties of charged particles, we judge the properties of these particles indirectly by such visible manifestations as the formation of tracks, or traces, consisting of many liquid droplets. They arise as a result of the condensation of the supersaturated vapor contained in the chamber, just in those centers, which are the ions formed along the flight path of charged particles. In their form, such traces are very similar to the foggy trail left by a high-flying aircraft. They can be photographed and measured, and from these data appropriate conclusions can be drawn about the properties of the particles under study. In a similar way, the fluxes of cosmic rays, α-particles, and other radiations can be studied from the change in grains on photographic plates.

Thus, in all these examples, we are not dealing with direct, immediate observation, but with indirect.

The peculiarity of such an observation is that the studied phenomena are concluded here through the perception of the results of the interaction of unobserved objects with the observed ones. And such a conclusion is necessarily based on some hypothesis or theory that establishes a certain relationship between observable and unobservable objects. Indeed, in order to judge the properties of charged elementary particles by their traces in a cloud chamber or on a photographic plate, it is necessary to admit the existence of a regular connection between directly unobservable particles and the effects they cause in observed objects and processes. Such an assumption, like any hypothesis, needs to be verified and confirmed with the help of precisely recorded evidence. Directly observable objects, phenomena, and also facts serve as such evidence.

They inform that effects and changes in observable objects and processes are caused by some unobservable objects. We can explore the properties and behavior of such unobservable objects only by putting forward hypotheses and then critically testing them. In some cases, one has to build whole systems of hypotheses, i.e. essentially complete theories.

It should be specially emphasized that the relationship between observed and unobserved objects is not established at all by arbitrariness or agreement between researchers.

True, at first the scientist formulates it in the form of a conjecture or hypothesis, but the latter acquires scientific significance only after it has been confirmed by the relevant facts, i.e. results of directly observed objects interpreted in a certain way.

As a rule, science establishes not just a connection between observable and unobservable objects and their properties, but a certain functional relationship between the quantities that characterize these properties. It is well known, for example, that we judge the magnitude of atmospheric pressure at a certain point on the Earth by the height of a column of mercury in a barometer. This kind of measurement of quantities unobservable with the help of observables is based, of course, on a hypothesis that establishes a specific functional relationship between them.

So, in the case of atmospheric pressure, a direct proportional relationship is assumed between the pressure value and the height of the mercury column in the barometer. Most often, the relationship between observable and unobservable processes is more complex, but it must certainly be accurately characterized using one or another mathematical function.

Indirect observations play an ever-increasing role in modern science, especially in those branches of science that study phenomena occurring in remote corners of the universe (astronomy), as well as processes occurring at the subatomic and submolecular levels (atomic and nuclear physics, quantum chemistry, molecular biology, etc.). some others). In the latter case, observations, as a rule, are closely intertwined with experiment and necessarily require interpretation with the help of theory.

3.1.3. Interpretation of Observation Data

If we proceed from the literal meaning of the word "data", then there may be a false impression that the latter are given to the observer in a finished form. Such a representation to some extent corresponds to the ordinary understanding of the results of observation, but it is clearly not suitable for science. As a rule, in science, data is the result of a long, painstaking and difficult study.

First of all, since the data are obtained by separate subjects, they must be cleared of all possible layers and subjective impressions. As already noted, science is primarily interested in objective facts that allow control and verification, while direct sensory perceptions are only the property of an individual subject.

Secondly, science does not include sensations and perceptions as data, but only the results of their rational processing, which are a synthesis of sensory perceptions with theoretical concepts.

Thirdly, the data itself, before they enter into science, undergoes significant processing and standardization. Their processing is carried out from the point of view of theoretical concepts, both the corresponding branch of science and the statistical theory of observation errors. Standardization consists in bringing the data to some standard observation conditions (for example, temperature and pressure). Finally, already at this stage of the study, the data are systematized in a certain way: tables, graphs, diagrams, etc. are compiled. Of course, such a systematization is still far from a theory, but it contains everything that is necessary for preliminary generalizations and the construction of empirical hypotheses.

The dependence of observational data on theory and the need for their interpretation is most pronounced when they serve as evidence for or against a particular hypothesis. Usually, only those observational data that are directly related to the hypothesis and are based on evidence are considered evidence. the corresponding theory. Why do we consider the cloud trail in the cloud chamber to be evidence that it was left by a charged particle?

Obviously, because this result of observation is predicted by the theory of ionization. Similarly, the deflection of a magnetic needle over which a current-carrying conductor is placed indicates that an electric current is flowing through the conductor. This result is predicted by the theory of electromagnetism. Any number of such examples can be cited. All of them show that data alone cannot serve as evidence for or against any hypothesis. To become evidence, the data must be interpreted in terms of some theory. As long as there is no theory, or at least some body of knowledge of a semi-theoretical nature, there is no evidence.

There have been many examples in the history of science when some facts or data remained accidental discoveries for a long time, until a theory was created that managed to explain them and thereby contributed to their introduction into the everyday life of science. Suffice it to mention, for example, the discovery by the ancient Greeks of the property of amber, worn on cloth, to attract the lightest bodies (electrification by friction) or magnetic iron ore to attract metal objects (natural magnetism). All these facts, right up to the creation of the theory of electromagnetic phenomena, first in the form of a mechanical model with lines of force, and then the mathematical theory of Maxwell, remained curious curiosities of nature. Being understood on the basis of theory, they became the initial base that served as the foundation of modern technology.

Thus, if in the most general form we formulate the difference between scientific observation and everyday perception of objects and phenomena directly surrounding a person, then it consists in a significant strengthening in science of the role of theory, accuracy and objectivity of observation results, which are achieved with the help of material means specially designed for this purpose. observation, as well as a conceptual apparatus that serves to interpret observational data.

3.1.4. Functions of Observation in Scientific Research

Observation and experiment are the two main forms of empirical knowledge, without which it would be impossible to obtain initial information for further theoretical constructions and verification of the latter by experience.

The essential difference between observation and experiment is that it is carried out without any change in the objects and phenomena being studied and the observer's intervention in the normal process of their flow.

This feature of the observation was very clearly noted by the famous French scientist Claude Bernard. “Observation,” he wrote, “occurs in natural conditions, which we cannot dispose of.” This, of course, does not mean that observation is a passive reflection of everything that falls within the sphere of perception of the senses. As we have noted, scientific observation is an expediently organized and selective process that is guided and controlled by theory.

Therefore, we are talking here about the absence of not the activity of the subject as a whole, but practical activity aimed at influencing and changing the object under study. Most often, we are forced to confine ourselves to observations and study phenomena in the natural conditions of their course, because they turn out to be inaccessible for practical influence. This, for example, is the case with most astronomical phenomena, although in the last decade, in connection with the wide development of space research, scientific experiment has begun to be used more and more here.

And yet, observation with ever more sophisticated instruments will continue to be the most important method for studying stars, nebulae, and other astronomical objects in our universe in the future.

Observation in scientific research is called upon to perform three main functions.

The first and most important of these is to provide the empirical information that is necessary both for the formulation of new problems and hypotheses, and for their subsequent testing. This, of course, does not mean that before observation or experiment, the scientist is not guided by any idea, hypothesis or theory. On the contrary, when observing and searching for new facts, the researcher necessarily proceeds from certain theoretical concepts.

But it is the new facts, and in particular those of them that do not fit into the previous theoretical concepts or even contradict them, that require their explanation. To solve the problem that has arisen, the scientist creates hypotheses or a whole theory, with the help of which he explains the newly discovered facts.

The second function of observations is to test such hypotheses and theories, which cannot be done by experiment. Of course, experimental confirmation or refutation of hypotheses is preferable to non-experimental. However, where it is impossible to set up an experiment, only observational data can serve as the only evidence. When observations are accompanied by accurate measurements, the results of such verification can be no worse than experimental ones, which is confirmed by the entire history of the development of astronomy.

The third function of observation is that in its terms the comparison of the results obtained in the course of theoretical research is carried out, their adequacy and truth are checked. In empirical research, the scientist turns to theory in order to purposefully conduct observations and conduct experiments. However, in order to further develop the theory, he is forced from time to time to “check” his concepts, principles, and judgments with the data of experience. Since it is impossible to directly compare the abstract propositions of a theory with experience, one has to resort to various auxiliary methods, among which a significant role is played by the formulation of empirical results in terms of observation and "observational" language.

Scientific observation is a purposeful perception of objects, phenomena and processes, as a rule, of the surrounding world. A distinctive feature of observation is that it is a method passive registration of certain facts of reality. Among the types of scientific observations, the following can be distinguished:

Depending on the purpose of observation, it can be divided into verification and search ;

According to the nature of the existence of what is being studied, observations can be divided into observations of objects, phenomena and processes that exist objectively , i.e. outside the consciousness of the observer, and introspection, i.e. introspection ;

Observation of objectively existing objects is usually divided into immediate and indirect observations.

Within the framework of different sciences, the role and place of the method of observation is different. In some sciences, observation is practically the only way to obtain initial reliable data. Particularly in astronomy. Although this science is essentially an applied branch of physics and therefore it is based on the theoretical concepts of this fundamental natural science, however, many data that are relevant specifically for astronomy can only be obtained through observation. For example, knowledge about objects that are located at a distance of several light years. For sociology, observation is also one of the main methods of empirical scientific knowledge.

Scientific observation for its successful implementation requires the presence of a problematic situation, as well as the corresponding conceptual and theoretical support. The basis of scientific observation, as a rule, is some hypothesis or theory, for the confirmation or refutation of which the corresponding observation is carried out. . The role and place of conceptual factors in scientific observation, as well as the specifics of their specific types, can be shown using the following examples.

As you know, people have been observing the movement of objects in the sky since time immemorial and as a result of this they came to a quite natural, within the framework of common sense, conclusion that the Earth with observers located on it stands motionless, and planets move uniformly around it in regular circular orbits. In order to explain why these planets do not fall to the Earth, but float in space, it was suggested that the Earth is inside several transparent glass-like spheres, in which planets and stars are, as it were, interspersed. The rotation of these spheres around its axis, which coincides with the center of our planet, leads to the fact that the surface of the spheres begins to move, dragging the planets firmly fixed on it.

While this notion is completely wrong, it is consistent with the corresponding common-sense logic that in order for a body to keep moving and never fall, it must be holding on to something (in this case, attached to transparent spheres). The notion that it is possible for a body to move continuously along a closed trajectory without anyone supporting it seems incredible to thinking within the framework of the common sense of the corresponding era. It should be noted that, in its own way, common sense is “right”: the fact is that, indeed, within the framework of the natural, ordinary and pre-theoretical perception of the movement of bodies on Earth, we do not see anything that could all the time move along a closed trajectory, hovering and without touching anything, and at the same time not falling. Newton, who discovered the law of universal gravitation, naturally also observed the movement of various terrestrial and cosmic bodies, including the Moon. However, he did not just look at them, but used observations in order to understand from them what cannot be seen. Namely: by comparing the data on the speed of the movement of the Moon around the Earth and their distance between themselves with the characteristics of the movement of bodies falling to the Earth, he came to the conclusion that a single and general pattern is hidden behind all this, which was called the “law of gravity”.

This example can be seen as a case search observation, the result of which was the formulation of the corresponding law. The purpose of exploratory observation is to collect facts as primary empirical material, based on the analysis of which the general and essential can be identified. Checking observation differs from search in that here the ultimate goal is not to search for new theoretical knowledge, but to test the existing one. Verification observation is an attempt to verify or refute a hypothesis. An example of such an observation is, for example, an attempt to make sure that the law of gravity is truly universal in nature, i.e. that its action extends to the interaction of any massive bodies. From this law, in particular, it follows that the smaller the mass of interacting bodies, the smaller the force of attraction between them. Therefore, if we can observe that the force of attraction near the surface of the Moon is less than the similar force at the surface of the Earth, which is heavier than the Moon, then it follows that this observation confirms the law of gravity. During the flight of astronauts, one can observe the phenomenon of weightlessness, when people freely float inside the ship, in fact, without being attracted to any of its walls. Knowing that the mass of a spacecraft is practically negligible compared to the mass of the planets, this observation can be considered as another test of the law of gravity.

The considered examples can be considered cases direct observations of objectively existing objects. Direct observations are such observations when the relevant objects can be perceived directly by seeing them themselves, and not just the effects that they have on other objects. Unlike direct observations indirect observations are those when the object of study itself is not observed at all. However, despite this, in the case of indirect observation, one can still see the effects that an unobserved object has on other, observed objects. An unusual behavior or condition of observable bodies that cannot be explained by assuming that in reality there are only directly observable bodies and is the precondition for indirect observation. Analyzing the features of the unusual behavior of visible objects and comparing it with cases of the usual behavior of these objects, one can draw certain conclusions about the properties of unobservable objects. The unusual component in the behavior of visible bodies is the indirect observation of what is not directly observable. An example of indirect observations would be, for example, the situation associated with "Brownian motion", as well as the empirical component of knowledge about "black holes".

Brownian motion is the constant movement of the smallest, but still with the help of a sufficiently strong microscope, visually observable particles of any substance in a liquid. In the case of Brownian motion, the question is quite natural: what is the reason for the observed motion of these particles? Answering this question, we can assume that there are other, invisible particles that collide with visible ones and thereby push them. As you know, the reason for Brownian motion is that objects that are not visually observed with an optical microscope - atoms and molecules - all the time collide with the observed particles, causing them to move. Thus, although the atoms and molecules themselves in the optical range (visible light) are generally unobservable, however, even before the invention of the electron microscope, their individual properties could be observed. Naturally, only indirectly.

As for "black holes", it is impossible to observe them directly in principle. The fact is that the gravitational force that acts in them is so great that no object - including visible light - can overcome the attraction of these objects. However, black holes can be observed indirectly. In particular, in connection with a characteristic change in the picture of the starry sky near them (due to the curvature of space by gravitational forces) or in the case when a black hole and a self-luminous object (star) form a single system, which, according to the laws of mechanics, rotates around a common center of mass. In the latter case, the unusual motion of a star along a closed trajectory (after all, only it is directly observable) will be a case of indirect observation of a black hole.

Introspection It is the observation of a person over the content of his own consciousness. At the end of the 40s of the XX century. The following study was carried out in the USA. In order to find out whether the functioning of consciousness is possible in case of paralysis of the body, the subject was injected with a curare derivative, a substance that paralyzes the entire human muscular system. It turned out that, despite the paralysis of the muscles (the subject was connected to an artificial respiration apparatus, since he could not breathe on his own), the ability to conscious activity was preserved. The subject was able to observe what was happening around him, understood speech, remembered events and thought about them. From this it was concluded that mental activity can be carried out in the absence of any muscular activity.

Data obtained as a result of observation can only claim scientific status if their objectivity is recognized. An essential factor in this is the reproducibility of what was once seen by others. If, for example, someone declares that he observes something that others do not observe under similar conditions, then this will be a sufficient reason for not recognizing the scientific status of this observation. If, however, some “observation” also contradicts well-known and well-established patterns in the field of any field of knowledge, then in this case it can be said with a significant degree of certainty that the “observed” fact actually never existed at all. Apparently, one of the most widely known cases of such pseudo-observation can be considered the story of the Loch Ness Monster.

To give an observation the status of scientifically significant knowledge, an important point is to substantiate the fact that the observed object, one or another of its properties exist. objectively , and are not only the result of the impact of the toolkit that the observer uses. An example of a gross error can be considered the case when, for example, the camera photographs an object that is in fact not a distant subject of the exposed panorama, but an artifact that accidentally stuck to the elements of the camera's optical system (for example, a particle of dust on the lens).

The problem of taking into account and minimizing the influence of the subject-researcher on the object under study is typical not only for natural science, but also for the social sciences. In particular, within the framework of sociology, there is the concept of " included observation ”, i.e. such when a researcher who collects data on a certain social group, while living near or even as part of this group for quite a long time. The latter is done so that those who are the object of observation get used to the presence of an outside observer, do not pay special attention to him and behave in his presence as they usually do.

Observation is a purposeful systematic perception of objects, in cognition

which the person is interested in, is the most developed form

intentional perception. Surveillance is highly active

personality.

A person does not perceive everything that caught his eye, but singles out

the most important and interesting for him. Differentiating objects, the observer

organizes perception in such a way that these objects do not slip out of the field

activities.

The systematic nature of purposeful perception allows us to trace

phenomenon in development, note its qualitative, quantitative, periodic

changes. Active thinking included in observation helps to separate the main

from the minor, the important from the accidental, helps to more clearly differentiate

items. Perception, attention, thinking and speech are combined when observed in

single process of mental activity.

The act of observation reveals the extreme stability of arbitrary

attention. It allows the observer to produce for a long time

observation, and if necessary, repeat it repeatedly.

Observation reveals the inner activity of the individual. It is closely related to

features of the mind, feelings and will of man. However, their ratio in observation

will be different depending on the objectives of the observation, on the qualities of the observer himself.

Therefore, in some cases, observation will be predominantly intellectual

expressiveness, and in others - emotional or volitional aspiration.

When a person studies the development of a phenomenon or notes changes in objects

perception, then there is a need for observation. Observation starts with

task setting. Based on the observation tasks that have arisen, a detailed

plan for it. This makes it possible to foresee various aspects of the observed

phenomena, to avoid chance, spontaneity of perception.

Observation presupposes the preliminary preparation of the observer, the presence of

certain knowledge, skills, mastery of the method of work.

Observation is the ability to notice characteristic, but barely noticeable features.

objects and phenomena. It is acquired in the process of systematic studies by any

business and therefore is associated with the development of the professional interests of the individual.

The relationship of observation and observation reflects the relationship between mental

processes and personality traits. Cultivating observation as self

mental activity and as a method of cognition of reality is the basis

development of observation as a personality trait.