Pliny the Elder biography. The value of Pliny the Elder in ancient literature

As in the days of the Roman Republic Varro wrote an extensive work outlining information about the history of the civil and religious life of all italic tribes, so in the days of the empire, a scientist with comprehensive knowledge Gaius Pliny Secundus (Pliny the Elder, 23-79 AD) with tireless diligence compiled a collection of all knowledge about nature and its relationship to man. This knowledge was more in line with the nature of the times of the empire than that which Varro was engaged in. The interests of the empire required oblivion of antiquity with its political life.

Gaius Pliny the Elder was born in Novum Comum, one of the cities in the province of Cisalpine Gaul. He held important administrative and military positions: under the emperor Claudius he was the head of the cavalry in Germany, under Nero - the procurator in Spain, under Vespasian and Titus - the head of the Misen fleet. Pliny the Elder performed his official duties very conscientiously, but with his tireless activity he found leisure for scholarly pursuits and died a martyr to his curiosity, observing at close range the very eruption of Vesuvius that destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum.

Pliny the Elder says that he collected materials for this work from more than two thousand writers. He read and wrote day and night, even at dinner and when he took a bath. On trips, he was constantly accompanied by a census taker. But the enormity of the mass of materials damaged the form of presentation, and the development of different parts of the subject is not equally good. Botany is best described in which Pliny the Elder followed the treatise Dioscorides. He dedicated his work to Emperor Titus.

At the beginning of Natural History, Pliny says that the universe is an eternal, immeasurable, uncreated and immortal deity. He ends his work with an appeal to nature - the mother of all existing objects, which, in his words, he served more diligently than all the Romans. He considers polytheism to be stupidity, a product of the mental weakness of people.

The “Natural History” of Gaius Pliny the Elder does not in all its parts present information that is equally well verified, and in general this enormous work is the work of a person who passionately loves science, but not a researcher, not a specialist. The main view of Pliny is that nature created everything with a reasonable purpose, and this purpose is the good of man. His style is uneven, in some places pompous, sometimes poetic and obscure, sometimes dry; there are no picture descriptions. But the wealth of information collected by Pliny the Elder in all departments of knowledge gave his work extremely great importance for the development of human education. As his nephew put it, his Natural History is as diverse as nature itself.

famous naturalist Alexander Humboldt says of Pliny's book: “It is the product of an irresistible tendency to collect information comprehensively, sometimes done superficially. Her style is uneven, sometimes simple and limited to listing objects, sometimes rich in thoughts, alive, sometimes embellished with rhetoric. It is poor in individual descriptions of nature; but in all those cases when it comes to the majestic interaction of forces that creates a well-ordered cosmos - when Pliny the Elder speaks of this "greatness of nature" (or, as he calls it, Naturae majestas), he is animated by an enthusiasm that comes from the depths of the heart. Gaius Pliny does not have a strict scientific order, and his form of presentation is generally bad, but, Humboldt continues: “His desire to understand the subject, his moral seriousness, his noble inspiration with the thought of the greatness of nature, are attractive. Love for her calms and comforts him in the sorrows of his troubled time, in grief over the vanity of people.

Throughout the Middle Ages, the "Natural History" of Gaius Pliny the Elder enjoyed very great respect, which was partly transferred to the work of the polyhistor Gaius Julius Solinus, who compiled the "Earth Description" according to Pliny. Solin is most of all engaged in physical geography. Everything is taken from Pliny, he himself did not add anything.

“How many things were considered impossible until they were carried out We are denied a long life; let us leave the works that will prove that we have lived!” (Pliny the Elder).

How often do we refer to this ancient writer and scientist, but, unfortunately, we do not know much about him.

It is also interesting that he gave us phrases that seem familiar from childhood:

"There is no evil without good." "Not a day without a line" "Home is where your heart is." "True glory consists in doing what is worthy of being described, and writing what is worthy of being read." That's all he said in .

Pliny the Elder - Plinius Maior, real name Gaius Plinius Secundus - Gaius Plinius Secundus.

Born between 22 and 24 AD. e. in a wealthy family belonging to the class of horsemen in the Roman colony of Upper Italy - Cisalpine Gaul, in the city of New Kom, modern Como.

As a small child, the future writer was sent to Rome, where he was raised by a family friend, politician and poet Publius Pomponius Secundus, who had connections at the court of Emperor Caligula.

The boy's education was also under his control. And Pliny's teachers were such famous people of his time as the grammarian Remmius Palemon, the botanist Anthony Castor, the rhetorician Arellius Fusk.

Having matured, Pliny set foot on the military path.

In the late 40s - early 50s, Pliny served in the legions on the German border, in 47 he participated in the campaign of Domitius Corbulo against the Hutt tribe, which took place in 47. The governor of Upper Germany at that time was Pomponius, who favored Pliny. It was he who led the war.

And under the command of Pliny, most likely, there was originally a foot cohort, and then he was entrusted with an equestrian detachment.

Around the year 52, Pliny returned to Rome with Pomponius.

Later, Pliny again found himself in the service of Germania Inferior, along with the future emperor Titus.

In addition to military service, Pliny collected material for his book on the war between the Romans and the Germans. Later, Tacitus relied on the work of Pliny in his work "Germany".

It is known that by April 30, 50, Pliny returned to Rome, as he observed a solar eclipse in Campania.

In Rome, Pliny worked as a lawyer, and towards the end of Nero's reign he devoted himself to writing books.

But after the coming to power of the emperor Vespasian, with whose son Titus he served, Pliny was again called to public service. Some researchers write that Pliny at that time was also patronized by Gaius Licinius Mucian, who was also engaged in literature, one of Vespasian's close associates.

In the 70s, Pliny was governor in the provinces.

In one of his letters, the nephew of Pliny the Elder, Pliny the Younger, writes that his uncle was the procurator of Spain.

There is an assumption that in the 70s Pliny could have been an adviser to the emperors.

He may have participated in the Jewish War under Vespasian.

In the 77th or 78th year, Pliny the Elder published the main work of his life, Natural History.

Towards the end of his life, he was appointed commander of the fleet on the coast of the Gulf of Naples.

On August 24, 79, a strong eruption of Mount Vesuvius began, which also destroyed Herculaneum. Pliny was on a ship on the other side of the bay.

A popular version is that curiosity made the scientist come too close to Vesuvius. Researchers believe that Pliny the Elder was poisoned by sulfur fumes.

His nephew Pliny the Younger, who was at that time in Mizena, described in detail the death of his uncle in his letter to the historian Tacitus.

In this letter, he wrote that his uncle went to the other side of the bay not at all out of curiosity, but to help save his friends who were there.

In Stabiae, Pliny the Elder calmed the locals, hoping that the wind would soon change and the ships would be able to sail.

Pliny the Younger wrote that his uncle had a "thin and naturally weak throat", that is, he suffered from asthma.

But be that as it may, in fact, in August 79 AD. e. the eruption of Vesuvius killed, among many other people, the great scientist.

Pliny the Younger wrote that his uncle was a man of great industriousness and he worked anywhere and at any time, regardless of the fact that there were no amenities for scientific and literary work, for example, on campaigns, on the road.

Pliny the Elder read a lot and took notes. He took time for reading and work from sleep.

An interesting fact is that Pliny the Elder also read bad books, believing that at least something useful can be taken out of even the worst of them.

The main work of Pliny the Elder "Natural History" is a kind of ancient encyclopedia, consisting of 37 books.

Although at first there were 36 of them. Versions of why there were 37 of them are different. For example, because book XVIII was divided into two parts, or because the contents and list of sources were added as a separate book I.

The "Natural History" includes: art, history, geography, botany, zoology, anthropology, medicine, physics, mineralogy.

Before writing his work, he read at least 2 thousand books and made about 10 thousand extracts.

Pliny managed to include in his work information unknown to his predecessors.

Pliny himself characterized his work as "enkyuklios paideia" in Greek - "comprehensive learning" - "encyclopedia".

Structure of "Natural History"
Introduction.
Book I. Table of contents and sources.
Book II. Universe and space.
Book III. Geography (from Spain to Moesia).
Book IV. Geography (Balkans, part of the Black Sea coast, Sarmatia, Scythia, islands of the Baltic and North Seas).
Book V. Geography (Africa and the Middle East).
Book VI. Geography (Caucasus, Asia).
Book VII. Man.
Book VIII. Land animals.
Book IX. Fish and other sea creatures.
Book X. Birds.
Book XI. Insects.
Book XII. Trees.
Book XIII. exotic trees.
Book XIV. Fruit trees.
Book XV. Fruit trees.
Book XVI. Forest trees.
Book XVII. Cultivated trees.
Book XVIII. Cereal crops.
Book XIX. Flax and other plants.
Book XX. Medicines from garden plants.
Book XXI. Flowers.
Book XXII. Properties of plants and fruits.
Book XXIII. Medicines from cultivated trees.
Book XXIV. Medicines from forest trees.
Book XXV. wild plants.
Book XXVI. Medicines from other plants.
Book XXVII. Other plants and medicines from them.
Book XXVIII. Medicines from animals.
Book XXIX. Medicines from animals.
Book XXX. Medicines from animals.
Book XXXI. Medicines from sea plants.
Book XXXII. Medicines from marine animals.
Book XXXIII. Metals.
Book XXXIV. Metals.
Book XXXV. Paints, colors, pictures.
Book XXXVI. Stones, sculptures.
Book XXXVII. Precious stones and products from them.

There are still disputes about why and for whom Pliny the Elder wrote his book. Someone believes that it was written for farmers and artisans, someone that for military leaders. But it seems to me that real scientists and writers write because they cannot stop writing.

Pliny the Elder predicted some things. For example, he never visited the pyramids of ancient Egypt, but he described their internal structure so accurately that many scientists admit that he was the first European to visit them. Although Pliny the Elder is classified as an armchair scientist, that is, it is known that he did not conduct any experiments and was not an expert in the fields of knowledge described. For the most part, he simply relied on the writings of his predecessors.

Naturally, in the work of Pliny the Elder there are not only inaccuracies, errors, but also curious descriptions.

For example, information about women from whom animals and other creatures were born, about people with dog heads, about dwarfs and giants, and other fantastic descriptions.

However, a considerable part of the facts on geography, history, mining, Pliny the Elder collected while traveling through the provinces and communicating with people.

Many reproach Pliny the Elder for his dry language, uneven style of presentation.

This can be explained by the desire of Pliny the Elder for the conciseness of his work and the difficult conditions in which he had to work.

In addition to his main work, according to Pliny the Younger, his uncle wrote: “On Cavalry Throwing”, “On the Life of Pomponius Secundus” in two books, a rhetorical essay in three books, a grammatical essay “Dubious Words” in eight books; Priscian and Gregory of Tours, German Wars in twenty books. But all this wealth has not reached our days.

The famous naturalist Alexander Humboldt says of Pliny's book:

“She is the product of an irresistible tendency to collect information comprehensively, sometimes done superficially. Her style is uneven, sometimes simple and limited to listing objects, sometimes rich in thoughts, alive, sometimes embellished with rhetoric. It is poor in individual descriptions of nature; but in all those cases when it comes to the majestic interplay of forces that creates a well-ordered cosmos - when Pliny the Elder speaks of this "greatness of nature" (or, as he calls it, Naturae majestas), he is animated by an enthusiasm that comes from the depths of the heart.

The "Natural History" of Gaius Pliny the Elder can be said to have always, despite its shortcomings, enjoyed great respect. It was studied by William Shakespeare, François Rabelais, Michel Montaigne and Percy Shelley...

The “Natural History” of Pliny the Elder had a huge impact not only on the writers and scientists of antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and even now, albeit not directly, it plays its role.

After all, it is not in vain that we refer to Pliny the Elder when speaking about this or that fact and event.

“... let everyone judge this as he pleases; our task is to describe the obvious natural properties of things, and not to look for dubious causes ”(Natural History, XI, 8)

I personally like Pliny the Elder that, describing certain things, the Roman naturalist pointed out the uselessness of the expensive Egyptian pyramids and the palaces of the Roman elite, emphasizing the aqueducts and sewers that are useful to people.

And I often find myself remembering the wisdom of a scientist when I see on TV or hear about thousands of pairs of shoes of some "star" and other excesses. Why not spend that money on something useful? Well, God bless them...

In volcanology, a type of volcanic eruption with powerful explosive eruptions of magma and huge ash precipitation is named after Pliny the Elder.

In 1935, a crater on the Moon between the Seas of Clarity and Tranquility was named after the Roman naturalist.

Pliny the Elder
Born: between 22 and 24 AD e.
Died: 24 or 25 August 79 CE e.

Biography

Pliny the Elder (lat. Plinius Maior, real name Gaius Pliny Secundus, lat. Gaius Plinius Secundus; between 22 and 24 AD, New Kom - August 24 or 25, 79 AD, Stabiae) - ancient Roman writer- erudite. He is best known as the author of "Natural History" - the largest encyclopedic work of antiquity; his other writings have not survived to this day.

Pliny served in the army on the northern border of the Roman Empire, and after returning to Rome, he took up literary activity. After coming to power of Emperor Vespasian, with whose son Titus he served, he was called to public service. In the 70s, Pliny acted as governor in the provinces and commanded the fleet in the Gulf of Naples. In 77 or 78 he published the Natural History, dedicating it to Titus. Died in the eruption of Vesuvius.

Pliny was born, according to various versions, in 22-23 or 23-24 AD. e. The place of his birth is usually called New Kom (modern Como). However, occasionally Verona is considered the birthplace of the writer - Pliny called the Veronian Catullus his countryman. At present, however, it is believed that the encyclopedist had in mind a common origin from Transpadania (the area beyond the Po River). The writer came from a wealthy family that belonged to the class of horsemen. In childhood Pliny was sent to Rome, where his upbringing and education was led by a family friend, politician and poet Publius Pomponius Secundus, who had connections at the court of Emperor Caligula. Of the teachers of the future naturalist, the rhetorician Arellius Fusk, the grammarian Remmius Palemon, and the botanist Anthony Castor are known.

In the late 40s and early 50s, Pliny served in the legions on the German border. At first he was in Germania Inferior, in the region of the Ubiers and in the delta of the Rhine. From the "Natural History" it is also known about his stay on the other side of the river [citation 1]. It is believed that Pliny participated in the campaign of Domitius Corbulo against the Chavci tribe, which took place in 47. Most likely, at first Pliny commanded a foot cohort, then a cavalry detachment. After serving in Lower Germany, the future writer went to Upper Germany: he mentions the hot springs Aquae Mattiacae (modern Wiesbaden) and the headwaters of the Danube. In this province, he probably took part in the campaign against the Hatti in 50-51. The governor of Upper Germany at this time was his patron Pomponius, who led the campaign. In about 51 or 52, Pliny left the province with Pomponius and returned to Rome. Around 57-58, Pliny was again in Germany in military service (probably again in Germania Inferior). Then he served together with the future emperor Titus. Soon Pliny returned to Italy and already on April 30, 59, he observed a solar eclipse in Campania.

In Rome, Pliny worked as a lawyer, and by the end of Nero's reign he retired from public life. The writing of several essays belongs to the same time (see below). There is an assumption that Pliny participated in the Jewish War (the Roman army was commanded by Vespasian, the father of Titus) and even was the procurator of Syria, but it has very shaky grounds [~ 2].

After Vespasian, the father of Titus, became the new emperor in 69, Pliny was called to public service. Perhaps during this period he was patronized by Vespasian's close associate Gaius Licinius Mucianus, who himself was engaged in writing. The details of Pliny's service are unknown: Suetonius mentions that he was the procurator of several provinces, without specifying which ones. Only the nephew of the naturalist, Pliny the Younger, mentions in one letter that his uncle was the procurator of Spain (this governorship is usually dated to 73/74). Friedrich Müntzer, after examining references to various regions of the Roman Empire in the Natural History, suggested that Pliny was the procurator of Narbonne Gaul, Africa, Tarraconian Spain and Belgica in 70-76. Ronald Syme, however, expressed the opinion that in Narbonne Gaul and in Belgica the writer could be in transit or on other business. Viceroyalty in Africa and Tarraconian Spain is more likely; nothing definite can be said about other provinces. Some researchers draw attention to the impossibility of establishing when he was the governor of the provinces, and therefore suggest that for the first time Nero made him a procurator. However, the testimony of Suetonius indicates, rather, the successive occupation of several posts. It is also assumed that in the 70s Pliny could have been an adviser to the emperors.

In the end, Pliny was appointed commander of the fleet in Misen (modern Miseno) on the coast of the Gulf of Naples. On August 24, 79, a strong eruption of Mount Vesuvius began, and Pliny arrived on ships in Stabiae on the other side of the bay. In the Stabiae, he poisoned himself with sulfuric fumes and died. The reason why Pliny approached an erupting volcano is not clear, which is why he is often perceived only as a victim of his own curiosity. However, his nephew, who was in Misen, in a letter to the historian Tacitus, described in detail the death of his uncle: he went to the other side of the bay not only to observe a rare natural phenomenon from close, but also in order to help his friends escape. In the Stabiae, he calmed the panicked locals and waited for the wind to change and the sea to calm down before sailing away, but in the end he suffocated. Pliny the Younger's report that his uncle had a "thin and naturally weak throat" is now commonly understood as asthma. Suetonius, however, left the version that the naturalist died, asking his slave to save himself from torment [quote 2]. Thus, along with the desire to watch the eruption, Pliny was guided by the desire to help those affected by the cataclysm.

Literary activity

From the letters of his nephew, it is known that Pliny the Elder was a man of extraordinary diligence. There was no place that he considered inconvenient for learning; there was no time he did not take advantage of to read and take notes. He read, or they read to him on the road, in the bath, at dinner, after dinner, and time was also taken away from sleep, as far as possible, since he considered every hour wasted that was not devoted to mental pursuits. All sorts of books were read, even bad ones, since, according to Pliny the Elder, there is no such bad book from which one could not derive any benefit. In one of his letters, Pliny the Younger lists his uncle’s writings: “On Cavalry Throwing” (De iacululatione equestri), “On the Life of Pomponius Secundus” in two books (De vita Pomponii Secundi), a rhetorical essay in three books (Studiosi), a grammatical essay “ Dubious Words" in eight books (Dubii Sermonis; Priscian and Gregory of Tours call this work Ars Grammatica), a historical work in thirty-one books that described events from the moment where Aufidius Bass ended his history (A fine Aufidii Bassi), "Germanic War" in twenty books (Bellorum Germaniae) and, finally, thirty-seven books of Natural History [~ 3]. In addition, after the death of the author, one hundred and sixty books of the smallest letter with extracts or notes that he made while reading remained (they have not survived to this day).

"Natural History" is dedicated to Titus. Since Pliny in the introduction calls him a six-time consul, the work dates from 77 or 78 (later Titus was consul two more times). Originally there were 36 books in Natural History. Modern 37 books appeared later, according to different versions, due to the division of book XVIII into two parts or due to the addition of contents and a list of sources as a separate book I. The work on throwing a dart and the biography of Pomponius were presented to the public in 62-66, and at the same time Pliny began to write the history of the Germanic wars. Treatises on rhetoric and grammar were completed by the author in the years 67-68, and "History after Auphidius Bassus" - between 70 and 76 years.

Structure of "Natural History"

Introduction.
Book I. Table of contents and sources.
Book II. Universe and space.
Book III. Geography (from Spain to Moesia).
Book IV. Geography (Balkans, part of the Black Sea coast, Sarmatia, Scythia, islands of the Baltic and North Seas).
Book V. Geography (Africa and the Middle East).
Book VI. Geography (Caucasus, Asia).
Book VII. Man.
Book VIII. Land animals.
Book IX. Fish and other sea creatures.
Book X. Birds.
Book XI. Insects.
Book XII. Trees.
Book XIII. exotic trees.
Book XIV. Fruit trees.
Book XV. Fruit trees.
Book XVI. Forest trees.
Book XVII. Cultivated trees.
Book XVIII. Cereal crops.
Book XIX. Flax and other plants.
Book XX. Medicines from garden plants.
Book XXI. Flowers.
Book XXII. Properties of plants and fruits.
Book XXIII. Medicines from cultivated trees.
Book XXIV. Medicines from forest trees.
Book XXV. wild plants.
Book XXVI. Medicines from other plants.
Book XXVII. Other plants and medicines from them.
Book XXVIII. Medicines from animals.
Book XXIX. Medicines from animals.
Book XXX. Medicines from animals.
Book XXXI. Medicines from sea plants.
Book XXXII. Medicines from marine animals.
Book XXXIII. Metals.
Book XXXIV. Metals.
Book XXXV. Paints, colors, pictures.
Book XXXVI. Stones, sculptures.
Book XXXVII. Precious stones and products from them.

Features of "Natural History"

Pliny himself characterized his work as "ἐγκύκλιος παιδεία" ([enkyuklios paideia] - "circular (comprehensive) education"; hence the word "encyclopedia"). It was assumed that "circular training" precedes a special, in-depth study of individual issues. In particular, this is how Quintilian understood this expression. However, Pliny gave this Greek expression a new meaning: the Greeks themselves never created a single work covering all areas of knowledge, although it was the Greek sophists who for the first time purposefully conveyed to their students knowledge that could be useful to them in everyday life. Pliny was convinced that only a Roman could write such a work.

The first example of a typically Roman genre of compendium of all known knowledge is sometimes considered the instruction of Cato the Elder to his son, but more often - "Disciplinae" by Mark Terentius Varro, one of the most important sources for Pliny. Of the other important predecessors of the "Natural History" is called the Artes of Aulus Cornelius Celsus. Pliny does not hide the fact that attempts were made in Rome to create such a work. However, "Natural History", unlike its predecessors, was not just a collection of various information, but covered all the main areas of knowledge and concentrated on their practical application.

It is not clear what audience Pliny was targeting when he began his main work. His own words in the introduction, that Natural History is intended for artisans and farmers, are sometimes taken for granted, but often dismissed as insincere. For example, B. A. Starostin believes that the author's target audience is Roman military leaders. According to the researcher, in fact, "in the center of his attention were the issues of feeding and, in general, the life support of the troops." Be that as it may, the purpose of the entire work was an attempt to connect the current state of ancient science with practice - in particular, with agriculture, trade, and mining. Currently, attention is also drawn to the importance for the author of establishing links between man and nature.

Pliny's work has often been judged as a heap of randomly selected facts. Such an assessment was most characteristic of the 19th - early 20th century (see below). However, it is now recognized that "Natural History" is distinguished by a clear sequence of presentation. Thus, animals are divided according to their habitat (book 8 is devoted to animals that live on land, 9 - in the sea, 10 - in the air), and in each of these books the presentation begins with large animals (elephants, whales) and ends with small ones. The second half of Book XI is devoted to anatomical questions, which sums up the books on the animal kingdom. In the books of geography, the presentation begins in the west, then all the known lands are described in a circle. Minerals are described by grade of preciousness, starting with gold. In the history of art, the author resorts, among other things, to chronological systematization. It is no coincidence that the story began with a book on cosmology, since Pliny built the material from the general to the particular, and the ancient authors evaluated the sky as a fundamental part of the Universe. After considering astronomical questions, the Roman author turns to the description of meteorology, geology, moving on to the actual geography of the Earth. Then Pliny moves on to the inhabitants of the planet, after which he talks about plants, agriculture and pharmacology, and completes his work with a story about minerals and metals that are mined underground. Thus the Roman author consistently describes nature from top to bottom. In addition, symmetry is found in the subject matter of all 36 major books:

2-6: 5 books on inanimate matter;
7-11: 5 books about animals (including people);
12-19: 8 books on plants;
20-27: 8 books on plants;
28-32: 5 books about animals;
33-37: 5 books on inanimate matter.

In the arrangement of material in each book, there are also their own patterns, along with the mentioned movement from the general to the particular. Usually Pliny, reporting any fact, supplements it with a historical digression, paradoxical evidence or reasoning about the moral side of the phenomenon in order to form a holistic view of it. With the help of messages about unique phenomena and features of phenomena, Pliny outlines the boundaries of the phenomenon itself.

There are errors in the composition: sometimes Pliny misinterprets his source, sometimes he incorrectly selects the Latin analogue for the Greek word. He copies all the mistakes of his predecessors due to the cabinet nature of the work (for example, the statement that the distance from the Sun to the Moon is 19 times greater than the distance from the Earth to the Moon, as well as the idea of the movement of planets along complex trajectories common in antiquity in the framework of the theory of homocentric spheres) . Sometimes, when describing the same phenomena in different parts of the work, Pliny contradicts himself; however, such episodes can be rhetorical devices. Finally, Pliny has information about people with dog heads and other fables. Pliny reports especially many fables in books VII (first of all, paragraphs 9-32 about unusual people and creatures, 34-36 about women from whom animals and other creatures were born, 73-76 about dwarfs and giants) and VIII (paragraphs 37, 80 and 153). In addition, the descriptions in IX, 2 are considered to be fictitious; XI, 272; XVI, 132; XVII, 241 and 244, as well as XVIII, 166. However, fantastic information was perceived differently in the era of Pliny (see below).

Pliny scrupulously calculates how much he told the reader of single facts, historical digressions and general judgments in each book; in all, he collected 20,000 facts worthy of consideration.

Sources of "Natural History"

Since Pliny himself did not conduct any experiments and was not a specialist in the fields of knowledge described, he could rely primarily on the writings of his predecessors. Although in ancient times scholars did not always adhere to strict rules for quoting, the Roman naturalist indicates his sources in the first book. In total, he used the works of more than 400 authors, of which 146 wrote in Latin. This allows us to talk about the systematization of Pliny not only Roman knowledge, but the entire ancient scientific heritage. He most actively used about two thousand books by a hundred main authors. It is assumed that at first the author created the basis for the future work on the basis of a small number of works, and then supplemented it with the works of other researchers.

The main sources for individual books are: 2 (cosmology): Posidonius, Fabian, Nigidius Figulus, Nekhepso-Petosiris, Epigenes, Thrasyll;
3-6 (geography): Varro (possibly), documents of Augustus, Agrippa's map of the world, Nepos, Licinius Mucianus, Statius Sebosus, Juba, Isidore of Charax, own observations for the section on Germany;
7 (anthropology): Varro, Trog (he, in turn, relied on Aristotle), Yuba;
8-11 (zoology): Trog (based on materials from Aristotle and Theophrastus), Yuba, Varro, Mucian, Fenestella;
12-19 (botany): Theophrastus, Varro, Celsus, Sextius Niger, Dioscorides;
20-27 (use of herbal products in pharmacology): mainly Sextius Niger, Dioscorides and Bassus, less - Theophrastus, Anthony Castor, Celsus, Varro;
28-32 (use of animal products in pharmacology): mainly Xenocrates, Anaxilaus, Varro, to a lesser extent Verrius Flaccus;
33-37 (mineralogy): Xenocrates, Archelaus, Yuba, Theophrastus, Varro, Pasitel are supposed.

There is no consensus on the nature of Pliny's use of his materials. Often he copied or translated whole pages of text from his sources, which was a normal practice in ancient times, but sometimes he questioned their evidence. Some information, however, he received from practical experience. This concerned, however, the application of the information in question in practice. Most of these facts Pliny collected while traveling through the provinces and communicating with officials. In addition, his account of Spain is characterized by detail and evidence from personal observation: in particular, he describes in detail and with knowledge the technologies used in mining in this province.

Style

Pliny's style is characterized as extremely uneven, and most of the only surviving work is written in dry language, devoid of any stylistic design. So, some passages look like a mechanical combination of Pliny's extracts from different books. This feature of Pliny was very often criticized by researchers, and as a result, for example, M. M. Pokrovsky completely denies Pliny a literary talent. The general characterization of the Roman author as a mediocre stylist is often found in modern philology (for example, the Cambridge History of Classical Literature blames him for the inability to organize his thoughts). Apparently, this was not caused by a specific genre of writing: the contemporaries of the naturalist Columella and Celsus, whose writings were also of an encyclopedic nature, wrote much better than Pliny [~ 4].

However, in Natural History, along with raw passages, there are also well-finished fragments (primarily moralizing passages, as well as a general introduction to the work). They show all the signs of the author's acquaintance with the literature and rhetorical devices of the "Silver Age": he uses antitheses, exclamations, artificial word order. The inexpressively designed encyclopedic material is enlivened by historical digressions and carefully constructed detailed descriptions.

In general, Pliny strives for brevity of presentation. Depending on the situation, he can resort to both archaic speech and the introduction of new words and expressions. In the "Natural History" there is a lot of technical terminology, as well as words of Greek origin or whole expressions in ancient Greek[~ 5]. The very characteristic of the subject and comments on it are usually not separated, but are described together.

As a rule, Pliny is characterized by an unordered structure of phrases. There are many complex sentences in the essay, in each part of which the subject changes. Because of this, some phrases are difficult to interpret, and the composition as a whole gives the impression of incompleteness. Pliny himself, however, apologizes to readers for possible flaws in his style.

Pliny the Elder(lat. Plinius Maior, real name Gaius Pliny Secundus, lat. Gaius Plinius Secundus; between 22 and 24 AD. e., New Kom - August 24 or 25, 79 AD. e., Stabiae) - an ancient Roman polymath writer. He is best known as the author of "Natural History" - the largest encyclopedic work of antiquity; his other writings have not survived to this day.

Biography

Pliny was born, according to various versions, in 22-23 or 23-24 AD. e. The place of his birth is usually called New Kom (modern Como). However, occasionally Verona is considered the birthplace of the writer - Pliny called the Veronian Catullus his countryman. At present, however, it is believed that the encyclopedist had in mind a common origin from Transpadania (the area beyond the Po River). The writer came from a wealthy family that belonged to the class of horsemen. As a child, Pliny was sent to Rome, where his upbringing and education was led by a family friend, politician and poet Publius Pomponius Secundus, who had connections at the court of Emperor Caligula. Of the teachers of the future naturalist, the rhetorician Arellius Fusk, the grammarian Remmius Palemon, and the botanist Anthony Castor are known.

In the late 40s and early 50s, Pliny served in the legions on the northern border of the Roman Empire. At first he served in the province of Germania Inferior, was in the area of the killers and in the Rhine delta. From the "Natural History" it is also known about his stay on the other side of the river. It is believed that Pliny participated in the campaign of Domitius Corbulo against the Chavci tribe, which took place in 47. Most likely, at first Pliny commanded a foot cohort, then a cavalry detachment. After serving in the province of "Lower Germany", the future writer went to the province of Upper Germany: he mentions the hot springs Aquae Mattiacae (modern Wiesbaden) and the upper reaches of the Danube. In this province, he probably took part in the campaign against the Hatti in 50-51. The governor of Upper Germany at this time was his patron Pomponius, who led the campaign. In about 51 or 52, Pliny left the province with Pomponius and returned to Rome. Around 57-58, Pliny was again on the northern frontier in military service (probably again in the province of Germania Inferior). Then he served together with the future emperor Titus. Soon Pliny returned to Italy and already on April 30, 59, he observed a solar eclipse in Campania.

In Rome, Pliny worked as a lawyer, and by the end of Nero's reign he retired from public life. The writing of several essays belongs to the same time (see below). There is an assumption that Pliny participated in the Jewish War (the Roman army there was commanded by Vespasian, father of Titus) and even was the procurator of Syria, but it has very shaky foundations.

Pliny the Elder

Pliny the Elder. An imaginary portrait of the 19th century (the lifetime images of Pliny the Elder have not been preserved)

Biography

Born in 23 in Como (lat. Comum) (Cisalpine Gaul). Educated, apparently, in Rome; but neither the short biography of him written by Suetonius, nor the letters of his nephew, which constitute the main source of biographical data on Pliny, give any information about this.

In his youth, he served in the cavalry, participating in various campaigns, including against havks (lat. Chauci) - the Germanic people, described by him at the beginning of the XVI book of his "Natural History".

He also visited the Danube (XXXI, 19, 25) and Belgium (VII, 17, 76), where the Roman horseman Cornelius Tacitus, father or uncle of the famous historian, was then the procurator. A long stay in the trans-Alpine countries gave him the opportunity to collect a lot of information about them and write a large essay on the wars of the Romans with the Germans (lat. Bellorum Germaniae lib. XX), which served as the main source for Tacitus for his "Germany". Subsequently, he was procurator in Narbonne Gaul and in Spain. His closeness to Vespasian, with whose son Titus he served together in Germany, put him forward to one of the most important posts in the civil service: he was appointed head of the Misen fleet.

During the stay of Pliny the Elder in this position, the famous eruption of Vesuvius took place on August 24, 79, in order to better observe the formidable natural phenomenon, Pliny the Elder approached the ship too close to the crash site, and in Stabia, already on land, fell victim to his curiosity and desire to help people poisoned by sulfur fumes. The details of this event are given by his nephew, Pliny the Younger, in a long letter to Tacitus ( Epist. VI,16).

Pliny was a man of extraordinary industriousness. There was no place that he considered inconvenient for learning; there was no time he did not take advantage of to read and take notes. He read, or they read to him on the road, in the bath, at dinner, after dinner, and time was also taken away from sleep, as far as possible, since he considered every hour wasted that was not devoted to mental pursuits. All sorts of books were read, even bad ones, since, according to Pliny the Elder, there is no such bad book from which one could not derive any benefit.

Details about this diligence are reported by Pliny the Younger, in one of his letters ( Epist. III, 5), in which he lists a number of his uncle’s works: “De jaculatione equestri” (On cavalry throwing), “De vita Pomponii Secundi” (Biography of Pomponius Secundus), three books of rhetorical essays (Studiosi III), eight books of grammatical content (“Dubii Sermonis ”, VIII), thirty-one books of history, starting from the point where Auphidius Bass ended his history, the above-mentioned essay on Germany, and finally thirty-seven books of Natural History (Naturalis Historiae XXXVII). In addition, after his death, there remained one hundred and sixty books of the smallest letter with extracts or notes that he made while reading.

Portal for the student. Self-training

Pliny the Elder biography. The value of Pliny the Elder in ancient literature

Biography

Literary activity

Structure of "Natural History"

Features of "Natural History"

Sources of "Natural History"

Style

Biography

Biography

see also

See what "Pliny the Elder" is in other dictionaries:

Portal for the student. Self-training

Biography

Literary activity

Structure of "Natural History"

Features of "Natural History"

Sources of "Natural History"

Style

Biography

Biography

see also

See what "Pliny the Elder" is in other dictionaries:

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