Pupil 8 "B" class

Osipova Artur

Head: Egorova N.V.

1.	Introduction…………………………………………………..….….…	page 3
2.	Why measurements are needed……………………...………..………….	page 4
3.	The first measures of length……………………………………...………..	page 5
4.	Ancient measures of length in Russia……………………..…………...	page 7
5.	Ancient measures of length in different countries……………...….……	page 16
6.	The birth of the metric system of measures………………………..…...	page 20
7.	Archival meter……………………………………..……………...	page 22
8.	The metric system of measures in Russia……………………………....	page 23
9.	The use of ancient measures in our time……...………..…..	page 24
10.	Interesting research………………………………………...	page 26
11.	Conclusion……………………………..………………………….	page 28
12.	Bibliography………...…………...………………...……….	page 29

Introduction

People constantly have to measure various quantities: mass, temperature, length and much more. Probably everyone has a ruler and a centimeter tape at home. They are needed in order to measure lengths. There are other measuring instruments in every house: a clock that tells the time, a thermometer that everyone will glance at when they go out into the street, an electricity meter that will tell you how much you have to pay for it at the end of the month, and much more.

And how many measuring instruments are on the dashboard of the car! Here is a speedometer, by which the driver finds out how fast he is driving, and instruments showing how much gasoline is in the tank, and a counter of kilometers traveled by the car, etc. In the store, there are scales in front of the sellers, on which they weigh products. But most of all measuring instruments are used in plants and factories. Modern aircraft are also full of measuring instruments. With their help, the pilot drives the car correctly, takes off and lands correctly, checks if the wings of the aircraft are iced up. And many many others.

In our time, every civilized person will be able to take measurements, for example, to find out the size of a printed sheet. In this case, the measurement value of the same sheet will be the same for a Russian, a Frenchman, and an Italian. Since we all use the same system of measures of length - metric.

In this paper, we will consider the history of the development of the system of measuring measures both in our country and throughout the world, what path mankind has traveled until the well-known meter appeared in its life. Let us consider all the variety of measures of length that existed in antiquity, we will study the relationship between them and the metric system of measures that exists in our time. We learn that a ruler that previously belonged to Peter I served as a sample of a measure of length in determining the size of an arshine and a sazhen. Samples of length measures were made using this half-yard measure - a copper arshin and a wooden sazhen. We will also learn how and what ancient measures of length are used in our time. Let us find out the use of ancient measures of length in literature and history. We will learn how to translate ancient measures of length into modern ones and vice versa.

Why measurements are needed

Measurement is one of the most important things in modern life. But it was not always so. Primitive man did not have a particular need for measurements. Later, people began to live in large groups. The exchange of goods began, which later turned into trade, the first states arose. Then there was the need for measurements. The royal scribes had to know what the area of ​​the field was for each peasant. This determined how much grain he should give to the king. It was necessary to measure the harvest from each field, and when selling linseed oil, wine and other liquids, it was necessary to know the volume of goods sold. When they began to build ships, it was necessary to outline the correct dimensions in advance, otherwise the ship would have sunk. And, of course, the ancient builders of pyramids, palaces and temples could not do without measurements, which still amaze us with their proportionality and beauty.

When measuring any value, first of all, you need to choose the units of measurement. Any measurements are made in some units: length is measured in units of length, weight in units of weight, time in units of time, etc. Throughout its history, mankind has come up with a huge number of all kinds of units, and each nation had its own measures.

The rulers of different countries liked to establish their own measures, often associated with their own person. For example, there are several versions of the origin of the name of the yard. A large measure of length, called a yard, was introduced by the English King Edgar and was equal to the distance from the tip of His Majesty's nose to the tip of the middle finger of the outstretched hand. As soon as the monarch changed, the yard became different - lengthened, since the new king was of a larger physique than his predecessor. Then, at the next change of king, the yard became shorter again.

Such frequent changes in the unit of length introduced incredible confusion. King Henry I legalized the permanent yard and ordered that a standard be made from elm. According to another legend, the length of the sword of Henry I was the prototype of the length of a yard.

By the 18th century, there were up to 400 different units of measures used in different countries. A variety of measures hindered trading operations. Therefore, each state sought to establish uniform measures for its country. The issue of choosing standards from the many existing both domestic and overseas turned out to be difficult.

The first measures of length

In the explanatory dictionary of V. Dahl, the following definition is given: “Measure is a method of determining the quantity according to the accepted unit. Linear, linear measure serves to designate distances or the size of lines.

The first units for measuring lengths were not very accurate. For example, distances were measured steps . This is a natural and ancient measure of length. Of course, the size of the step is different for different people, but some average value was taken.

However, for measuring large distances, the step was too small a unit, therefore, in ancient times, other measures were used, which were based on the same step.

For example, ancient Roman mile was 1000 steps. Today, the mile is used mainly in maritime affairs. In many countries of the Mediterranean in the 1st millennium BC, they took as a measure of length stages. This is the distance that a person walks at a calm pace during the period of time from the appearance of the first ray of the sun at sunrise to the appearance of a full solar disk above the horizon. If this exit of the sun lasts about two minutes, then during this time a person walks about two hundred meters at an average walking speed.

"... Directly opposite the city lay the island of Pharos, at the northern end of which stood the famous lighthouse of the same name, built of white marble, connected to the city by a long pier called the septastadion (seven stages)" (F.A. Brockhaus, I.A. .Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary).

Also long distances were measured transitions or days movement. In Jack London's story "White Silence", the Indian, when asked how much is left to travel, answers: "You drive 10 dreams, 20 dreams, 40 dreams" (that is, days).

Estonian sailors measured the distance tubes. That was their name for the path traveled by the ship at normal speed during the time that a pipe stuffed with tobacco was being smoked. In Spain, the same measure of distance was cigar, and in Japan - horse shoe. This was the name of the path taken by the horse until the straw sole tied to its feet, which replaced the horseshoe in this country, was worn out.

In the old days, many units of length were associated with weapons. Maritime League - a measure equal to the range of a cannon shot with which a ship can be fired:

1 maritime league = 5560 m

In India dhanush - a measure equal to the distance between the ends of the bow:

1 dhanush = 183 cm

in Persia neyse - a measure equal to the distance that a spear thrown by a warrior flies:

1 neyse = 4 ÷ 5 m

In China yin , among the ancient Slavs shootout - a measure equal to the distance that an arrow flies from a bow:

1 yin = 32 m

Many nations used a measure of distance arrow , that is, the range of the arrow. But this measure depends on the strength of the shooter. Even in the Greek poem "Odyssey" it is said that Odysseus easily fired a bow that no one else could even bend.

Ancient measures of length in Russia

Since ancient times, a person has always been a measure of length and weight. How far he will stretch his hand, how much he can lift on his shoulders, etc.
The system of ancient Russian measures of length included the following main measures: verst, sazhen, arshin, cubit, span and vershok.

The first units of length in Russia, as in other countries, were associated with the size of parts of the human body, with the length of his steps. It was as if a person always carried many units of length with him and could use them in any conditions.

The Russian people created their own system of measures. Monuments of the X century speak not only about the existence of a system of measures in Kievan Rus, but also about state supervision over their correctness. This oversight was entrusted to the clergy. One of the statutes of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich says: “... it has been established from time immemorial and it has been entrusted to eat to the bishops of the city and everywhere all sorts of measures and limits and scales ... observe without dirty tricks, neither multiply nor diminish ...” (... it has long been established and it is entrusted to the bishops to observe the correctness of the measures ... not to allow either a decrease or an increase in them ...).

The oldest of the measures of length in Russia are the cubit and sazhen. We do not know the exact initial length of either measure. An Englishman who traveled through Russia in 1554 testifies that a Russian cubit was equal to half an English yard. According to the Trade Book compiled for Russian merchants at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, three cubits were equal to two arshins.

Elbow- the oldest measure of length, which was used by many peoples of the world. This is the distance from the end of the extended middle finger or clenched fist to the crook of the elbow. Such a unit of length was used by many peoples, but, of course, under different names: “ammatu” in Babylon, “nemech” in Egypt, “infantry” in Greece, “cubitus” in Rome. Its length varied from 38 cm to 54 cm or 8÷16 inches.

For the first time, the cubit as a measure of length is mentioned in Yaroslav the Wise's Russkaya Pravda: "To the bridgeman, who paved the bridge, take from work, from ten Lakota nogata." The value of the Old Russian cubit was 10.25 ÷ 10.5 vershoks, which equaled approximately 46-48 cm. These data were obtained from a comparison of measurements in the Jerusalem temple, made by Abbot Daniel, and later measurements of the same dimensions in an exact copy of this temple in the main Church of the New Jerusalem Monastery on the Istra River (XVII century). As a measure of length in Russia, it has been found since the 16th century. The elbow was widely used in trade as a particularly convenient measure. Merchants measured the fabrics they sold with their elbows, winding them around their hands, and measured the height of a tree cut down for the construction of a house with their elbows, etc.

Along with the elbow, other units were used to measure lengths. If you bring your hands together on your chest, then the ends of the fingers will come together. This means that the elbow is equal to a quarter of the distance between the ends of the fingers of the spread hands. This distance has been used to measure lengths in many countries.

In Russia it was called fathom . The first mention of the fathom is found in the annals of the 11th century, compiled by the Kiev monk Nestor. The name sazhen comes from the verb syagat (reach), that is, how much one could reach with a hand. To determine the value of the ancient Russian sazhen, a great role was played by the discovery of a stone on which the inscription was carved in Slavic letters: "In the summer of 6576 (1068) indict 6 days, Prince Gleb measured ... 10,000 and 4,000 sazhens." From a comparison of this result with the measurements of topographers, a fathom value of 151.4 cm was obtained. The results of measurements of temples and the value of Russian folk measures coincided with this value.

The sazhen was widely used in measuring distances, planning and building various structures, in shipbuilding, in land surveying and cartographic work. So in Moscow and in other large cities, back in the 16th century, the regulated width of streets and alleys was measured: "Under the sovereign tsar and Grand Duke Fedor Ioannovich of all Russia, to protect against fires, large streets were made, twelve sazhens wide, and alleys shti sazhens" (six). The actual length of the streets or their paved parts was also expressed in sazhens. For example, the total length of log and plank pavements in Moscow in 1646 was equal to 2017 fathoms, which was more than 4 kilometers.

The exact values ​​of the sazhen were reproduced using exemplary measures stored in the orders. Mentioned are "a city sazhen, which is in the Pushkar order", "an iron sazhen of three arshins without a quarter", "two iron sazhens, one city and bridge of Moscow measure, and the other - a yard shop of Moscow measure". Half a sazhen, arshin, fourths and eighths were applied to measures. Along with sazhen rulers, measuring ropes and wooden folds were used, which initially did not have a single fixed length. For measuring distances between cities in versts, the measuring rope of 100 sazhens proved to be the most convenient and firmly established in practice.

By decree of November 7, 1835, the value of the fathom was additionally legalized as a measure equal to 7 English feet and the unified obligatory samples (standards) of this basic measure of length created by the commission of 1827 were approved. Two sazhen standards were made - the main one, consisting of six platinum and six brass strips placed in the grooves of two brass cylinders, and the working one, in the form of an iron strip.

Fathom = 2.1336 meters

According to historians and architects, there were a large number of different fathoms. They had their own names, were incommensurable and not a multiple of one another. Great fathom ≈ 244.0 cm; city ​​fathom ≈ 284.8 cm; Greek fathom ≈ 230.4 cm; state (measured, three-yard) fathom ≈ 217.6 cm; masonry sazhen ≈ 159.7 cm; small sazhen ≈ 142.4 cm; fathom = 182.88 cm; folk sazhen ≈ 176.0 cm; simple sazhen ≈ 150.8 cm; fathom without a quarter ≈ 197.2 cm; pipe fathom ≈ 187 cm; royal sazhen ≈ 197.4 cm; church fathom ≈ 186.4 cm; four-yard sazhen \u003d 284.48 cm.

Also known: sazhen arshin, coastal, large, sovereign, yard, land surveying, Cossack, kolovratnaya, oblique, peasant, shop, measured (state), bridge, small, new, foot, printed, scribe, full, simple, manual, power , step, customs, pointer, walking, human, etc.

fly fathom- the distance between the ends of the fingers of outstretched hands, which are spread apart for a full swing of the arms:

Flyweight fathom \u003d 1.76 meters

Oblique fathom- the distance from the toe of the left foot to the end of the middle finger of the right hand raised up:

Oblique fathom \u003d 2.48 meters

Times have changed, some measures have disappeared, others have appeared. Replaced the elbow arshin - the name comes from the Persian word "arsh" - an elbow. This is the length of the entire outstretched arm from the shoulder joint to the terminal phalanx of the middle finger.

But in different provinces of Russia there were their own units of length, so merchants, when selling their goods, as a rule, measured it with their own arshin, deceiving buyers at the same time. To eliminate confusion, the official arshin was introduced, i.e. the standard of the arshin, which is a wooden ruler, at the ends of which metal tips with the state stamp were attached.

By 1807, three standards of arshin were made, which were stored in St. Petersburg (crystal, steel and copper). The standards were approved by Alexander I and transferred to the Ministry of Internal Affairs for storage. For shipment to each province, 52 copper, tetrahedral arshins were made. On July 10, 1810, the State Council of Russia decided to introduce a single measure of length throughout the country - the standard 16 vershokovy arshin (71.12 cm). The government branded arshin worth 1 ruble in silver was ordered to be introduced in all provinces, with the simultaneous removal of old arshin templates. In 1899, it was adopted in Russia as the main measure of length.

Arshin = 71.12 cm

In the second half of the 17th century, the arshin was used together with the vershok in various industries. In the “Inventory Books” of the armory of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (1668) it is written: “... a copper regimental cannon, smooth, nicknamed Kashpir, Moscow business, three arshins long, half an inch (10.5 inches) ... Large cast-iron squeaker, Lev iron, with belts, three arshins three four and a half inches long.

There are various versions of the origin of the arshin measure of length. Perhaps, initially, the arshin denoted the length of a human step (about seventy centimeters, when walking on a plain, at an average pace) and was the base value for other large measures for determining length, distances (sazhen, verst). The root "ar" in the word arshin in the Old Russian language (and in other neighboring languages) means "earth", "surface of the earth", and indicates that this measure could be used to determine the length of the path traveled on foot.

There was another name for this measure - a step. In practice, the count could be made in pairs of steps of an adult (small fathoms: one-two - one, one-two - two, one-two - three ...), or triples (official fathoms: one-two-three - one, one -two-three-two...). And when measuring small distances in steps, a step-by-step count was used.

Step - average length of a human step. One of the oldest measures of length. Information has been preserved on the use of a step to determine the distance between cities in Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Egypt, Persia. The step as a measure of length is still used today. There is even a special pedometer device, similar to a pocket watch, which automatically counts the number of steps a person has taken.

Pitch = 71 cm

Steps measured the distance at which the opponents had to converge during the duel. So, from a distance of 10 steps, which is 7.1 meters on the Black River near St. Petersburg on January 27, 1837, in a duel, Dantes shot at A.S. Pushkin and mortally wounded him. In 1841, on July 15, not far from Pyatigorsk, Martynov fired his fatal shot from a distance of 15 steps or 10.65 meters and killed M.Yu. Lermontov.

In later times, a measure of distance was established verst . In ancient monuments, a verst is called field and is sometimes equated to 750 sazhens. This word was originally called the distance traveled from one turn of the plow to another during plowing. The two names have long been used in parallel, as synonyms. There are known references to the verst in written sources of the 11th century. In the manuscripts of the XV century there is an entry: "a field of fathoms 7 hundred and 50" (750 fathoms long). This can be explained by the existence of a shorter fathom in antiquity. Before Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, 1000 fathoms were counted in one verst. Finally, a verst, equal to 500 sazhens, was established only in the 18th century. In modern terms, a verst is: 213.36 x 500 = 1066.8 meters

Verst = 1.07 km

Boundary verst existed in Russia until the 18th century to determine the distance between settlements and for land surveying (from the word boundary - the border of land holdings in the form of a narrow strip). The length of such a verst is 1000 fathoms or:

Boundary verst = 2.13 km

Mile(from the Latin word "mille" - a thousand steps) is a Russian measure of length. Used as a unit for measuring long distances, equal to seven versts or:

Mile = 7.468 km

Today, the mile as a measure of length is mainly used in maritime affairs.

Nautical international mile = 1.852 km

For small measures of length, the span was used as the base unit in Russia from time immemorial. For our ancestors, the word span meant a hand. Span – the distance between the ends of the extended thumb and forefinger.

Span = 17.78 cm

Since the 17th century, a length equal to a span was called differently - a quarter. Quarter - the distance between the ends of the spaced thumb and middle fingers

Quarter = 18 ÷ 19 cm

big span- the distance between the ends of the thumb and little finger.

Large span = 22 ÷ 23 cm

Somersault span- span with the addition of two joints of the index finger.

Spin span = 27 ÷ 31 cm

Our old icon painters measured the size of icons in spans: “nine icons are seven spans (in 1 3/4 arshins). The pure Tikhvinskaya on gold is a spinner (4 inches). Icon of George the Great deeds of four spans (in 1 arshin).

From a quarter, it was easy to visually obtain smaller shares - two inches (1/2 span) or a vershok (1/4 span). Vershok - the top of the index finger, more precisely, the two upper joints of this finger. The name "vershok" comes from the word "top". In the literature of the 17th century, there are also fractions of a vershok - half a vershok and a quarter vershok. When determining the height of a person or animal, the score was kept after two arshins (mandatory for a normal adult). If it was said that the person being measured was 15 inches tall, then this meant that he was 2 arshins 15 inches, i.e. 209 cm.

Height in inches
Height in meters	1,47	1,56	1,65	1,73	1,82	1,87	2,09

Top = 4.45 cm

To measure smaller distances, we used palm - the width of the hand. As well as finger - the old name for the index finger of the hand, the width of which is approximately 2 cm.

Palm = 8.05 cm;

Finger = 2 cm

Line- the width of the wheat grain, approximately 2.54 mm. This measure was used to measure the diameter of the neck in the glass part of the lamp. This unit also denotes the caliber, i.e. the diameter of the bore in the barrel of a firearm. The largest diameter of a bullet or projectile is also expressed in lines or in millimeters. Hence the name "three-line rifle" for a 7.62 mm rifle (2.54 x 3 = 7.62). This rifle of the Mosin system has been in service with the Russian army since the end of the 19th century. After some modernization, it was also used in the Soviet Army (along with automatic weapons) during the Great Patriotic War.

Along with anthropological measures, approximate household measures were used in ancient Russia. They were inaccurate and not reproduced materially. Skirmish - this is the distance that an arrow fired from a bow flew, which was 60 ÷ 70 meters. stone throw - the distance at which a stone could be thrown, day - distance traveled per day. When organizing horse mail, such a peculiar travel measure as win out - the distance between the points at which the horses were harnessed during the transportation of official mail.

During the period of feudal fragmentation of Russia and in the era of the Tatar-Mongol yoke (XIII - first half of the XV century), they continued to use the same measures of length, the system of which developed in Kievan Rus: a verst, a sazhen, an elbow, a span. The separation of the principalities, the disruption of contacts due to the arrival of the Tatar-Mongol conquerors, the lack of "legal" measures increased the use of local, anthropological and everyday measures. For example, portage or rut - the distance that a mower or plowman can walk without stopping.

In the era of fragmentation of Russia, there was no single system of measures. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Russian lands were united around Moscow. With the emergence and growth of nationwide trade and with the establishment of fees for the treasury from the entire population of the united country, the question arises of a single system of measures for the entire state.

In the XVIII century, the measures were specified. From the second half of the 18th century, the measure of vershoks, in connection with bringing the arshin and sazhen to a multiple ratio with English measures, was replaced by small English measures: an inch, a line and a dot, but only an inch took root. Lines and dots were used relatively little. The lines expressed the dimensions of lamp glasses and the calibers of guns (for example, ten- or twenty-linear glass, known in everyday life). The dots were used only to determine the size of the gold and silver coins. In mechanics and engineering, an inch was divided into 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 parts. In construction and engineering, the division of a sazhen into 100 parts was widely used.

Peter I by decree established the equality of a three-arshin sazhen to seven English feet. The former Russian system of measures of length was supplemented with new measures. In connection with the development of trade, there is a need to establish clear correspondences between different measures. To facilitate calculations, tables of measures and ratios between Russian and foreign measures were published. In 1835, Russian measures were brought into a certain system. She looked like this:

1 fathom = 3 arshins = 12 spans =

48 OPS = 7 FEET = 84 INCHES

Lesson on the topic: "Units and measures of length, area, mass, time"

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Units and measures of length

We use length units very often in everyday life. For example, in mathematics lessons, when we draw various figures, we use centimeters or millimeters, sometimes decimeters. At home, when measuring the length of a room, we use meters. When we go somewhere, for example, to another city or to a country house, we use a unit of length - a kilometer.

Let's take a look at how they relate to each other.

1 km = 1000 m
1 m = 10 dm
1 dm = 10 cm
1cm=10mm

Guys, answer the questions. How many centimeters are there in 5 meters and in 3 dm? How many millimeters are in 4 dm? How many times longer is 6 meters than 2 dm?

Often we determine the length or distance "by eye". This is due to the lack of a ruler or meter at hand. The more accurately you determine the length or distance, the better your eye.

In this figure, 3 segments are drawn. Determine "by eye" what their length is. And now, try to determine the length of the sides of the triangle and the rectangle.
A few more examples and tasks for determining the length. What measure of length should be used in order to measure:
1. beetle length;
2. desk width;
3. distance to the neighboring city;
4. length and width of the room;
5. length of the river;
6. the width of the road.

Units and measures of area

Guys, remember area is always measured in squares. For example, a square meter is a square whose side is one meter, and a square kilometer is a square whose side is one kilometer.

In the letter, the phrase "square meter" is shortened to m 2. If you see such an entry, know that we are talking about the area.
As in the case of length, different units of area are used. For example, square meters are used to measure the area of ​​​​an apartment. Of course, you can use square centimeters, but it will not be very convenient.
Consider how the area values ​​relate to each other.

1 km 2 \u003d 1,000,000 m 2
1 m 2 \u003d 100 dm 2
1 dm 2 \u003d 100 cm 2
1 cm 2 \u003d 100 mm 2

Consider an example for calculating the area and express the result obtained in terms of various units of area.
For example, consider an ordinary football field with sides of 100 meters and 60 meters. Calculate the area of ​​such a field.

S football field \u003d 100 m x 60 m \u003d 6,000 m 2 \u003d
\u003d 600,000 dm 2 \u003d 60,000,000 cm 2

As you can see, the area can be expressed in terms of square meters, square decimeters, etc. For this example, m 2 is the most convenient unit of measure. To better understand this topic, practice defining the area.
Indicate the following values ​​in the figure, assuming that each square has a side equal to 1 mm:
1. square millimeter;
2. 3 square centimeters;
3. half a square centimeter.

Determine the area of ​​the first and second figures.

Units and measures of mass

Guys, you are already familiar with the units of mass - these are grams, kilograms, etc. You often come across these measures, especially in the grocery store. There, for each product, the price is indicated (usually per 1 kg of weight or per package). It is very convenient and practical. If it is necessary to use larger units of mass, for example, to measure the weight of a car, then mass units such as a ton or a centner are used.
Let's look at how they relate to each other.

1 t = 10 c
1 q = 100 kg
1 kg = 1000 g

Guys, answer the questions. How many grams in a two-kilogram pack of flour? How many centners are in an 8 ton car? How many times lighter is a car weighing 12 centners than a bus weighing 6 tons?

Time units

We use the concept of "time" always and everywhere, it is impossible to imagine our life without a clock. Shops and factories, schools, kindergartens and other institutions work according to the schedule. And the device for measuring time is familiar to everyone - this is a clock. Since ancient times, mankind has come up with units of time for all occasions. Look at the table.

1 century = 100 years
1 year = 12 months
1 month = 30 or 31 days (except February when we have 28 or 29 days)
1 day = 24 hours
1 hour = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds

Guys, answer the questions.
1. How many months are summer, autumn, winter and spring?
2. How many days are in February?
3. What is a "leap" year?
4. How many hours and minutes are 3 lessons in a row?
5. The school library starts at 9 am and closes at 3 pm. How many hours is the library open? How many minutes will it be?

29.01.2017

In order to obtain objective information about an object or phenomenon, its properties and parameters, we need to describe it: measure it, count it, disassemble it into its constituent elements and reassemble it into a whole. All this, of course, concerns external characteristics and does not reveal the essence of things, which is known in a completely different way.

In everyday life, we constantly use measuring instruments, such as watches, electric meters, scales, thermometers, rulers, and many others. To measure a quantity means to find out how many times it contains another quantity of the same kind, taken as a unit of measurement.

Today, 95% of the world's population uses the metric system of measurement, but this was not always the case.

Reference

The international decimal system of measurement, which is based on the use of such units as kilogram and meter, is called Metric. At the moment, the Metric system of measures is used in most countries of the world. There are, however, several large states in which to this day the English system of measures based on such units as the pound, foot and second is used. These include the UK, US and Canada. However, these countries have also already adopted several legislative measures aimed at the transition to the Metric system of measures.

In Russia, the Russian system of measures was traditionally used, the main measuring element of which was a person. On the one hand, it is very convenient in everyday business affairs (the measuring device is always with you), on the other hand, it caused difficulties in trade transactions, in the collection of taxes and in the development of industry (because different people have different measuring units).

In Russia, in different areas, almost all measures had different meanings, therefore, before the revolution, detailed tables of measures were placed in arithmetic textbooks. In one common pre-revolutionary reference book, one could find up to 100 different feet, 46 different miles, 120 different pounds, etc. After all, the step of people is different and the length of their feet is not the same, and the fingers are all of different widths ...

Therefore, it became necessary to look for new unified units of measurement in the environment.

So our original system was replaced by the metric system, which originated in France in the middle of the 18th century, the system of measures. It was approved for use in Russia (optionally) by the law of June 4, 1899. The use of the metric system of measures in the RSFSR became mandatory by decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of September 14, 1918, and in the USSR by a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR of July 21, 1925.

So, modern units of measurement:

Measures of weight

• 1 ton (t) = 1000 kilograms (kg)
• 1 centner (c) = 100 kilograms (kg)
• 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (g)
• 1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams (mg)

Measures of length

• 1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m)
• 1 meter (m) = 10 decimeters (dm) = 100 centimeters (cm)
• 1 decimeter (dm) = 10 centimeters (cm)
• 1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters (mm)

Measures of area

• 1 sq. kilometer (km2) = 1,000,000 sq. meters (m2)
• 1 sq. meter (m2) = 100 sq. decimeters (dm2) = 10,000 sq. centimeters (cm2)
• 1 hectare (ha) = 100 aram (a) = 10,000 sq. meters (m2)
• 1 ar (a) \u003d 100 square meters. meters (m2)

Measures of volume

• 1 cu. meter (m3) = 1000 cubic meters decimeters (dm3) = 1,000,000 cu. centimeters (cm3)
• 1 cu. decimeter (dm3) = 1000 cu. centimeters (cm3)
• 1 liter (l) = 1 cu. decimeter (dm3)
• 1 hectoliter (hl) = 100 liters (l)

Old Russian measures

Since ancient times, a person has always been a measure of length and weight: how much he will stretch out his hand, how much he can lift on his shoulders, etc. The system of ancient Russian measures of length included the following main measures: verst, sazhen, arshin, cubit, span and vershok.

Proverbs and sayings using ancient measures of length and their translations to modern units of measurement:

1. An arshin and a caftan, and two for patches - 0.71 m and a caftan, and 1.42 m for patches.

2. A beard with an inch, and words with a bag - a beard with 44 cm, and words with a bag.

3. Lying seven miles to heaven, and all in the forest - lying 7.469 km to heaven, and all in the forest.

4. They searched for a mosquito for seven miles, and a mosquito - on the nose - for 7.469 km they searched for a mosquito, and a mosquito - on the nose.

5. He sees three arshins into the ground - he sees 2.13 m into the ground.

6. A hunter for seven miles goes to slurp jelly - a hunter for 7.469 km goes to slurp jelly.

7. You are a span away from the truth, and she is a fathom from you - You are 19 cm from the truth, and she is 2.13 m away from you.

8. Stretch a mile, but don't be simple - stretch 1,067 km, but don't be simple.

9. For this you can put a pood candle - for this you can put a 16.4 kg candle.

10. A pud grain saves - a grain of 16.4 kg saves

11. Two inches (or half a inch) from the pot, and already a pointer - 0.888 m (or 0.222 m) from the pot, and already a pointer.

12. She got out Saturday through Friday by two inches - she got out Saturday through Friday by 0.888 m.

13. If you don’t give up a span, you won’t give up 27 cm.

14. If you yield by a span, if you lose a fathom, you will yield 27 cm, you will lose 2.13 m.

15. Seven spans in the forehead - 189 cm in the forehead.

16. Himself with a fingernail, and a beard with an elbow - himself with an elbow, and a beard 38-46 cm.

17. He stepped and conquered the kingdom - he stepped 71 cm and conquered the kingdom.

18. Not a step back! — not 71 cm back.

19. Each merchant measures to his own arshin - each merchant measures to his own 71 cm.

20. An arshin of a beard, but a mind of a span - a beard of 71 cm, and a mind of 27 cm.

21. Oblique fathom at the shoulders - 2.13 m at the shoulders.

22. Moscow is a mile away, but close to the heart - Moscow is 1,067 km away, but close to the heart.

23. Love is not measured by versts - love is not measured by 1,067 km.

24. From word to deed - a whole verst - from word to deed - 1,067 km.

25. A verst is closer, a nickel is cheaper - 1,067 km is closer, a nickel is cheaper.

26. Seven miles is not a detour for a young man - 7,469 km is not a detour for a young man.

27. It can be seen from a mile away - it can be seen for 1,067 km.

28. From thought to thought five thousand miles - from thought to thought - 5335 km.

29. Write about other people's sins in arshins, and about your own - in lowercase letters - write about other people's sins 71 cm, and about your own in lowercase letters.

30. Stretch a mile, but don't be simple - stretch 1,067 km, but don't be simple.

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Since ancient times, a person has always been a measure of length and weight: how much he will stretch out his hand, how much he can lift on his shoulders, etc.

The system of ancient Russian measures of length included the following main measures: verst, sazhen, arshin, cubit, span and vershok.

ARSHIN- an old Russian measure of length, equal, in modern terms, to 0.7112 m. An arshin was also called a measuring ruler, on which, usually, divisions in vershoks were applied.

There are various versions of the origin of the arshin measure of length. Perhaps, originally, "arshin" meant the length of a human step (about seventy centimeters, when walking on a plain, at an average pace) and was the base value for other major measures determination of length, distances(sazhen, verst). The root "AR" in the word arsh and n - in the Old Russian language (and in other neighboring languages) means "EARTH", "surface of the earth", and indicates that this measure could be used to determine the length of the path traveled on foot. There was another name for this measure - STEP. In practice, the count could be made in pairs of steps of an adult ("small sazhens"; one-two - one, one-two - two, one-two - three ...), or triples ("state-owned fathoms"; one-two-three - one, one-two-three - two ...), and when measuring small distances in steps, step-by-step counting was used. In the future, they also began to use, under this name, an equal value - the length of the arm.

For small measures of length the base value was the measure used from time immemorial in Russia - "span" (since the 17th century - a length equal to a span was called differently - "a quarter of an arshin", "a quarter", "a quarter"), from which one could easily get smaller shares - two inches (1/2 span) or inches (1/4 span).

Merchants, selling goods, as a rule, measured it with their own arshin (ruler) or quickly - measuring "from the shoulder". To exclude measurement, the authorities introduced, as a standard, the "state arshin", which is a wooden ruler, at the ends of which metal tips with the state brand were riveted.

STEP- the average length of a human step = 71 cm. One of the oldest measures of length.

SPAN(pyadnitsa) - an ancient Russian measure of length. SMALL SPAN (they said - "span"; since the 17th century it was called - "quarter") - the distance between the ends of the spaced thumb and index (or middle) fingers = 17.78 cm.

BIG SPAN- the distance between the ends of the thumb and little finger (22-23 cm).

P i a d with a somersault("span with a somersault", according to Dahl - "span with a somersault") - span with the addition of two joints of the index stick = 27-31 cm

Our old icon painters measured the size of icons in spans: “nine icons are seven spans (in 1 3/4 arshins). The pure Tikhvinskaya on gold is a spinner (4 inches). Icon of George the Great deeds of four spans (in 1 arshin)»

VERST- Old Russian travel measure (its early name is "field" "). This word was originally called the distance traveled from one turn of the plow to another during plowing. The two names have long been used in parallel, as synonyms. Mentions are known in written sources of the 11th century. Manuscripts of the 15th century there is a record: "the field of fathoms is 7 hundred and 50" (750 fathoms long). Before Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, 1000 fathoms were counted in 1 verst. Under Peter the Great, one verst was equal to 500 sazhens, in modern terms - 213.36 X 500 = 1066.8 m.

"Milestone" was also called a milestone on the road.

The size of a verst repeatedly changed depending on the number of sazhens included in it, and the size of a sazhen. The Code of 1649 established a "boundary verst" of 1,000 sazhens. Later, in the 18th century, along with it, a "travel verst" of 500 sazhens ("five hundred verst") began to be used.

BOUNDARY VERST- an old Russian unit of measurement, equal to two versts. A verst of 1000 sazhens (2.16 km) was widely used as a boundary measure, usually when determining pastures around large cities, and on the outskirts of Russia, especially in Siberia, for measuring distances between settlements.

The 500-sazhen verst was used somewhat less frequently, mainly for measuring distance in the European part of Russia. Long distances, especially in Eastern Siberia, were determined in travel days. In the XVIII century. boundary versts are gradually being replaced by travel versts, and the only verst in the 19th century. there remains a "travel" verst, equal to 500 sazhens.

FATTH- one of the most common measures of length in Russia. There were more than ten sazhens different in purpose (and, accordingly, in size). "Fly fathom" - the distance between the ends of the fingers of the widely spaced hands of an adult man. "Slanting sazhen" - the longest: the distance from the toe of the left foot to the end of the middle finger of the right hand raised up. Used in the phrase: "he has an oblique fathom in his shoulders" (meaning - a hero, a giant)

This ancient measure of length is mentioned by Nestor in 1017. The name sazhen comes from the verb syagat (reach) - as far as it was possible to reach with a hand. To determine the value of the ancient Russian sazhen, a great role was played by the discovery of a stone on which the inscription was carved in Slavic letters: "In the summer of 6576 (1068) indict 6 days, Prince Gleb measured ... 10,000 and 4,000 sazhens." From a comparison of this result with the measurements of topographers, a fathom value of 151.4 cm was obtained. The results of measurements of temples and the value of Russian folk measures coincided with this value. There were sazhen measuring ropes and wooden "warehouses" that were used in measuring distances and in construction.

According to historians and architects, there were more than 10 fathoms and they had their own names, were incommensurable and not a multiple of one another. Fathoms: urban - 284.8 cm, untitled - 258.4 cm, great - 244.0 cm, Greek - 230.4 cm, government - 217.6 cm, royal - 197.4 cm, church - 186.4 cm, folk - 176.0 cm, masonry - 159.7 cm, simple - 150.8 cm, small - 142.4 cm and another untitled - 134.5 cm (data from one source), as well as - yard, bridge.

FLYFIGHT- the distance between the ends of the middle fingers of the arms outstretched to the sides - 1.76 m.

OBlique fathom(originally "kosovoy") - 2.48 m.

Fathoms were used before the introduction of the metric system of measures.

ELBOW was equal to the length of the arm from the fingers to the elbow (according to other sources - "the distance in a straight line from the elbow bend to the end of the extended middle finger of the hand"). The value of this ancient measure of length, according to various sources, ranged from 38 to 47 cm. From the 16th century it was gradually replaced by the arshin and in the 19th century it was almost never used.

The cubit is a primordially ancient Russian measure of length, known already in the 11th century. The value of the Old Russian cubit of 10.25-10.5 vershoks (approximately 46-47 cm on average) was obtained from a comparison of measurements in the Jerusalem temple, made by Abbot Daniel, and later measurements of the same dimensions in an exact copy of this temple - in the main temple of the New Jerusalem Monastery on the Istra River (XVII century). The elbow was widely used in trade as a particularly convenient measure. In the retail trade in canvas, cloth, linen - the elbow was the main measure. In large wholesale trade - linen, cloth, etc., came in the form of large cuts - "sets", the length of which at different times and in different places ranged from 30 to 60 cubits (in places of trade, these measures had a specific, quite definite meaning)

VERSHOK was equal to 1/16 of an arshin, 1/4 of a quarter. In modern terms - 4.44 cm. The name "Vershok" comes from the word "top". in the literature of the 17th century. there are also fractions of a vershok - half a vershok and a quarter vershok.

When determining the height of a person or animal, the count was carried out after two arshins (compulsory for a normal adult): if it was said that the person being measured was 15 inches tall, then this meant that he was 2 arshins 15 inches, i.e. 209 cm.

For humans, two methods of full expression of height were used:
1 - a combination of "growth *** elbows, *** spans"
2 - a combination of "growth *** arshin, *** vershoks"
from the 18th century - "*** feet, *** inches"

For domestic small animals used - "growth *** inches"

For trees - "height *** arshins"

Measures of length (used in Russia after the "Decree" of 1835 and before the introduction of the metric system):

1 verst = 500 fathoms = 50 staffs = 10 chains = 1.0668 kilometers
1 sazhen \u003d 3 arshins \u003d 7 feet \u003d 48 inches \u003d 2.1336 meters
Oblique sazhen \u003d 2.48 m.
Flyweight fathom = 1.76 m.
1 arshin \u003d 4 quarters (spans) \u003d 16 inches \u003d 28 inches \u003d 71.12 cm
(divisions in vershoks were usually applied to arshin)
1 cubit = 44 cm (according to various sources from 38 to 47 cm)
1 foot = 1/7 fathom = 12 inches = 30.479 cm

1 quarter (span, small span, span, span, span, span) = 4 inches = 17.78 cm (or 19 cm - according to B.A. Rybakov)
The name pyad comes from the old Russian word "past", i.e. wrist. One of the oldest measures of length (since the 17th century, the "span" was replaced by "a quarter of an arshin")
Synonym for "quarter" - "four"

Large span \u003d 1/2 cubit \u003d 22-23 cm - the distance between the ends of the extended thumb and middle (or little finger) fingers.

"Span with somersault" is equal to the small span plus two or three joints of the index or middle finger = 27 - 31 cm.

1 vershok \u003d 4 cubits (in width - 1.1 cm) \u003d 1/4 span \u003d 1/16 arshin \u003d 4.445 centimeters
- an old Russian measure of length, equal to the width of two fingers (index and middle).

1 finger ~ 2 cm.

New measures (introduced since the 18th century):

1 inch = 10 lines = 2.54 cm
The name comes from the Dutch "thumb". Equal to the width of the thumb or the length of three dry grains of barley taken from the middle part of the ear.

1 line = 10 dots = 1/10 inch = 2.54 mm
The line is the width of the wheat grain, approximately 2.54 mm.

1 hundredth fathom = 2.134 cm

1 dot = 0.2540 millimeters

1 geographic mile (1/15 degree of the earth's equator) = 7 versts = 7.42 km
(from the Latin word "milia" - a thousand (steps))
1 nautical mile (1 minute of arc of the earth's meridian) = 1.852 km
1 English mile = 1.609 km
1 yard = 91.44 centimeters

In the second half of the 17th century, the arshin was used together with the vershok in various industries. In the "Inventory Books" of the armory of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery (1668) it is written: "... a copper regimental cannon, smooth, nicknamed Kashpir, Moscow business, three arshins long, half an inch (10.5 inches) ... A big cast-iron squeaker, Iron lion, with belts, three arshins three four and a half inches long. The ancient Russian measure "elbow" was still used in everyday life for measuring cloth, linen and woolen fabrics. As follows from the Trade Book, three cubits are equal to two arshins. The span as an ancient measure of length still continued to exist, but since its value changed due to agreement with a quarter of an arshin, this name (span) gradually fell into disuse. The span was replaced by a quarter of an arshin.

From the second half of the 18th century, the divisions of the inch, in connection with bringing the arshin and sazhen to a multiple ratio with English measures, were replaced by small English measures: an inch, a line and a dot, but only an inch took root. Lines and dots were used relatively little. The lines expressed the dimensions of lamp glasses and the calibers of guns (for example, ten- or 20-linear glass, known in everyday life). The dots were used only to determine the size of the gold and silver coins. In mechanics and engineering, an inch was divided into 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64 parts.

In construction and engineering, the division of a sazhen into 100 parts was widely used.

The foot and inch used in Russia are equal in size to English measures.

The decree of 1835 determined the ratio of Russian measures with English ones:
Fathom = 7 feet
Arshin = 28 inches
A number of units of measurement (subdivisions of a verst) are abolished, and new measures of length come into use: an inch, a line, a point, borrowed from English measures.

Measures of volume

Bucket

The main Russian dometric measure of the volume of liquids is a bucket = 1/40 barrels = 10 mugs = 30 pounds of water = 20 vodka bottles (0.6) = 16 wine bottles (0.75) = 100 cups = 200 scales = 12 liters (15 liters) - according to other sources, rarely) V. - iron, wooden or leather utensils, mostly cylindrical, with ears or a bow for wearing. In everyday life, two buckets on the yoke should be in the "lift for a woman." The division into smaller measures was carried out according to the binary principle: a bucket was divided into 2 half-buckets or 4 quarters of a bucket or 8 half-quarters, as well as mugs and cups. The oldest "international" measure of volume is "a handful".

Until the middle of the XVII century. the bucket contained 12 mugs, in the second half of the 17th century. the so-called state-owned bucket contained 10 mugs, and in a mug - 10 cups, so that the bucket included 100 cups. Then, according to the decree of 1652, the cups made three times more compared to the previous ones (“glasses in three cups”). The trading bucket contained 8 mugs. The value of the bucket was variable, but the value of the mug was fixed, at 3 pounds of water (1228.5 grams). The volume of the bucket was 134.297 cubic vershoks.

Barrel

The barrel, as a measure of liquids, was used mainly in the process of trading with foreigners, who were forbidden to retail wine in small measures. Equal to 40 buckets (492 l)

The material for the manufacture of the barrel was chosen depending on its purpose:
oak - for beer and vegetable oils
spruce - under water
linden - for milk and honey

Most often, small barrels and barrels from 5 to 120 liters were used in peasant life. Large barrels could hold up to forty buckets (forty)

Barrels were also used for washing (beating) linen.

In the XV century. ancient measures were still common - golvazhny, onion and cleaning. In the XVI-XVII centuries. along with the fairly common box and belly, the Vyatka bread measure marten, the Permian sapsa (a measure of salt and bread), the old Russian bast and poshev are often found. The Vyatka marten was considered equal to three Moscow quarters, the sapetsa contained 6 pounds of salt and approximately 3 pounds of rye, the bast - 5 pounds of salt, the poshev - about 15 pounds of salt.

Household measures of the volume of liquids were very diverse and were widely used even at the end of the 17th century: Smolensk barrel, bocha-herring (8 pounds of herring; one and a half times less than Smolensk).

Measuring barrel "... from edge to edge one and a half arshin, and across - arshin, and measure upwards, like a guide, polar yard."

In everyday life and in trade, they used a variety of household vessels: boilers, jugs, pots, brothers, valleys. The significance of such household measures was different in different places: for example, the capacity of boilers ranged from half a bucket to 20 buckets. In the 17th century a system of cubic units based on the 7-foot fathom was introduced, and the term cubic (or "cubic") was also introduced. A cubic fathom contained 27 cubic arshins or 343 cubic feet; cubic arshin - 4096 cubic inches or 21952 cubic inches.

wine measures

The Charter on Wine of 1781 established that every drinking establishment should have “measures certified in the Treasury Chamber”.

Bucket- Russian dometric measure of the volume of liquids, equal to 12 liters

Quarter = 3 liters (it used to be a narrow-mouthed glass bottle)

The "bottle" measure appeared in Russia under Peter I.

Russian bottle = 1/20 bucket = 1/2 damask = 5 cups = 0.6 liters (pollitrovka appeared later - in the twenties of the XX century)

Since the bucket held 20 bottles (2 0 * 0.6 = 12 liters), and in trade the bill went to buckets, the box still holds 20 bottles.

For wine, the Russian bottle was larger - 0.75 liters.

In Russia, the production of glass by the factory method began in 1635. The production of glass vessels also belongs to the same time. The first domestic bottle was produced at the plant, which was built on the territory of the modern Istra station near Moscow, and the products were, at first, intended exclusively for pharmacists.

Abroad, a standard bottle holds one-sixth of a gallon - in different countries this ranges from 0.63 to 0.76 liters

A flat bottle is called a flask.

Shtof (from German Stof) \u003d 1/10 buckets \u003d 10 cups \u003d 1.23 liters. Appeared under Peter I. It served as a measure of the volume of all alcoholic beverages. The damask looked like a quarter in shape.

Mug (the word means - "for drinking in a circle") = 10 cups = 1.23 liters.

A modern faceted glass used to be called "doskan" ("planed boards"), consisting of frets-boards tied with a rope, around a wooden bottom.

Charka (Russian measure of liquid) \u003d 1/10 damask \u003d 2 scales \u003d 0.123 l.
A stack = 1/6 of a bottle = 100 grams Considered the size of a single dose.
Shkalik (popular name - "kosushka", from the word "mow", according to the characteristic movement of the hand) \u003d 1/2 cup \u003d 0.06 l.
A quarter (half a scale or 1/16 of a bottle) = 37.5 grams.

Barrel ware (that is, for liquid and loose), differed in a variety of names depending on the place of production (eggplant, baklusha, barrels), on the size and volume - badia, pudovka, forty), their main purpose (resin, salt, wine, tar) and the wood used for their manufacture (oak, pine, linden, aspen). Finished barrel production was subdivided into buckets, tubs, vats, barrels and barrels.

endova

Wooden or metal utensils (often decorated with ornaments) used to serve drinks to the table. It was a low bowl with a spout. The metal valley was made of copper or brass. Wooden valleys were made of aspen, linden or birch.

leather bag(waterskin) - up to 60 l

Korchaga- 12 l
Nozzle- 2.5 buckets (Nogorodskaya measure of liquid, XV century)
Ladle
jug
Tub- height of the vessel - 30-35 centimeters, diameter - 40 centimeters, volume - 2 buckets or 22-25 liters
Krynki
Sudenets, misses
Tuesa
box- from whole pieces of bast sewn with strips of bast. The bottom and the top cover are made of boards. Sizes - from small boxes to large "dressers"
Balakir- a dugout wooden vessel, with a volume of 1/4-1/5, buckets.

As a rule, in the central and western parts of Russia, measured containers for storing milk were proportional to the daily needs of the family and consisted of a variety of clay pots, troughs, pails, lids, jugs, gourds, milking bottles, birch barch with lids, tuesas, the capacity of which was approximately 1 /4- 1/2 buckets (about 3-5 liters). The containers of makhotok, stavtsy, tueskov, in which they kept fermented milk products - sour cream, curdled milk and cream, approximately corresponded to 1/8 of a bucket.

Kvass was prepared for the whole family in vats, tubs, barrels and tubs (lagushkas, izhemkas, etc.) with a capacity of up to 20 buckets, and for a wedding - for 40 or more pounds. In drinking establishments in Russia, kvass was usually served in kvass, decanters and jugs, the capacity of which varied in different areas from 1/8-1/16 to about 1/3-1/4 buckets. A large clay (drinking) glass and a jug served as a trade measure of kvass in the central regions of Russia.

Under Ivan the Terrible, eagles (branded with the sign of an eagle) first appeared in Russia, that is, standardized drinking measures: a bucket, an octopus, a half-octopus, a foot and a mug.

Despite the fact that valleys, ladles, stakes, stacks remained in use, and for small sale - hooks (cups with a long hook at the end instead of a handle, hanging along the edges of the valley).

In the old Russian measures and in the dishes used for drinking, the principle of the ratio of volumes is laid - 1:2:4:8:16.

Ancient measures of volume:

1 cu. sazhen \u003d 9.713 cu. meters
1 cu. arshin = 0.3597 cu. meters=
1 cu. vershok = 87.82 cu. cm
1 cu. ft = 28.32 cu. decimeter (liter)
1 cu. inch = 16.39 cu. cm
1 cu. line = 16.39 cu. mm
1 quart is a little over a liter.

In trade practice and in everyday life, according to L.F. Magnitsky, the following measures of loose bodies ("bread measures") were still used for a long time:

flipper- 12 quarters
quarter(four) - 1/4 of the qadi
octopus(eighth - eighth part)

Cad(tub, shackle) = 20 buckets and more
Big tub - more tub

Tsybik- box (of tea) = 40 to 80 pounds (by weight).
Details: Tea was packed tightly into wooden boxes, "tsibiki" - leather-covered frames, in the shape of a square (two-foot side), braided on the outside with reeds in two or three layers, which could be carried by two people. In Siberia, such a box of tea was called Umest ("Place" is a possible option).

polosmin
quadruple

Measures of liquids ("wine measures"):

barrel(40 buckets)
boiler(from half a bucket to 20 buckets)
bucket
half a bucket
quarter of a bucket
osmuha (1/8)
junk(1/16 bucket)

Measures of the volume of liquid and granular bodies:

1 quarter= 2.099 hectoliters = 209.9 liters
1 quarter("measure") = 2.624 decalitres = 26.24 liters
1 garnet= 3.280 liters

Measures of weight

In Russia, the following measures of weight were used in trade (Old Russian):
Berkovets = 10 pounds
pood = 40 pounds = 16.38 kg
pound (hryvnia) = 96 spools = 0.41 kg
lot=3 spools=12.797g
spool = 4.27 g
proportion = 0.044 g
...

The hryvnia (later pound) remained unchanged. The word "hryvnia" was used to denote both the weight and the monetary unit. It is the most common measure of weight in retail and craft. It was also used for weighing metals, in particular gold and silver.

BERKOVETS- this large measure of weight was used in wholesale trade mainly for weighing wax, honey, etc.
Berkovets - from the name of the island Bjork. So in Russia a measure of weight of 10 pounds was called, just a standard barrel of wax, which one person could roll onto a merchant boat sailing to this very island. (163.8 kg).
There is a mention of a Berkovets in the 12th century in the charter of Prince Vsevolod Gabriel Mstislavich to the Novgorod merchants.

Spool was equal to 1/96 of a pound, in modern terms 4.26 g. They said about him: "the spool is small and expensive." This word originally meant a gold coin.

LB(from the Latin word "pondus" - weight, weight) was equal to 32 lots, 96 spools, 1/40 pood, in modern terms 409.50 g. It is used in combinations: "not a pound of raisins", "find out how much a pound is worth".
The Russian pound was adopted under Alexei Mikhailovich.

Sugar was sold by the pound.

Tea was bought with gold coins. Spool = 4.266g.

Until recently, a small pack of tea, weighing 50 grams, was called an "oct" (1/8 pound)

LOT- an old Russian unit of mass, equal to three spools or 12.797 grams.

SHARE- the smallest old Russian unit of mass, equal to 1/96 of a spool or 0.044 grams.

PUD was equal to 40 pounds, in modern terms - 16.38 kg. It was used already in the 12th century.
Pud - (from the Latin pondus - weight, heaviness) is not only a measure of weight, but also a weight measuring device. When weighing metals, the pood was both a unit of measure and a counting unit. Even when the weighing results were tens and hundreds of poods, they were not translated into Berkovtsy. Even in the XI-XII centuries. they used various scales with equal-arm and unequal-arm yoke: "pood" - a type of scale with a variable fulcrum and a fixed weight, "skalva" - equal-arm scales (two-cup).

The pood as a unit of mass was abolished in the USSR in 1924.

Measures of weight used in the 18th century:

Note: the most used at that time (XVIII century)

Measures of area

Tithing was considered the main measure of area measurement, as well as tithe fractions: half a tithe, a quarter (a quarter - was 40 sazhens of length and 30 of latitude) and so on. Land surveyors used (especially after the "Council Code" of 1649) mainly the state-owned three-arshin sazhen, equal to 2.1336 m, thus, a tithe of 2400 square sazhens was approximately 1.093 hectares.

The scale of the use of tithes and quarters grew in accordance with the development of land and the increase in the territory of the state. However, already in the first half of the 16th century, it became clear that when measuring lands in quarters, a general inventory of lands would drag on for many years. And then, in the 40s of the 16th century, one of the most enlightened people, Yermolai Erasmus, suggested using a larger unit - a tetrahedral field, which meant a square area with a side of 1000-sazhen miles. This proposal was not accepted, but played a certain role in the process of introducing the big plow. Ermolai Erasmus is one of the first theoretical metrologists, who, moreover, sought to combine the solution of metrological and social issues. When determining the areas of hayfields, the tithe was introduced with great difficulty, because. land because of their location and irregular shapes were inconvenient to measure. More often, a productive measure was used - a mop. Gradually, this measure acquired a value linked to the tithe, and was subdivided into 2 half-copnes, 4 quarters of a shock, 8 half-quarters of a shock, etc. Over time, a hay, as a measure of area, was equated to 0.1 tithes (i.e., it was believed that an average of 10 hay hay was removed from a tithe). Labor and sowing measures were expressed through a geometric measure - tithe.

Surface area measures:

1 sq. verst \u003d 250,000 square fathoms \u003d 1.138 square meters. kilometers
1 tithe = 2400 square fathoms = 1.093 hectares
1 hay = 0.1 tithes
1 sq. sazhen \u003d 16 square arshins \u003d 4.552 square meters. meters
1 sq. arshin \u003d 0.5058 sq. meters
1 sq. vershok \u003d 19.76 square meters. cm
1 sq. ft=9.29 sq. inches=0.0929 sq. m
1 sq. inch=6.452 sq. centimeters
1 sq. line=6.452 sq. millimeter

Units of measurement in Russia in the XVIII century

By the 18th century, there were up to 400 different units of measures used in different countries. A variety of measures hindered trading operations. Therefore, each state sought to establish uniform measures for its country.

In Russia, back in the 16th and 17th centuries, systems of measures uniform for the whole country were defined. In the XVIII century. In connection with economic development and the need for strict accounting in foreign trade, in Russia the question arose of the accuracy of measurements, the creation of standards, on the basis of which it would be possible to organize a verification business ("metrology").

The question of choosing standards from a variety of existing ones (both domestic and "overseas") turned out to be difficult. In the middle of the XVIII century. foreign coins and precious metals were weighed at customs upon receipt, and then repeatedly reweighed at mints; while the weight was different.

By the middle of the 30s of the XVIII century. there was an opinion that the scales in the St. Petersburg customs were more accurate. It was decided to make exemplary customs scales, place them at the Senate and carry out verification on them.

A ruler that previously belonged to Peter I served as a sample of a measure of length in determining the size of an arshin and a sazhen. A half-arshin was indicated on the ruler. According to this half-yard measure, samples of length measures were made - a copper arshin and a wooden sazhen.

Among the measures of bulk solids received by the Commission, a quadruple of the Moscow Big Customs was chosen, according to which the measurements of bulk solids of other cities were verified.

The bucket sent from the Kamennomostsky drinking yard in Moscow was taken as the basis for the measures of the liquid.

In 1736, the Senate decided to form a Commission of Weights and Measures, headed by the chief director of the Monetary Board, Count Mikhail Gavrilovich Golovkin. The commission created exemplary measures - standards, established the relationship of various measures to each other, developed a project for organizing verification work in the country. A project was introduced on the decimal construction of measures, taking into account the fact that the system of the Russian money account was built according to the decimal principle.

Having decided on the starting units of measures, the Commission set about establishing a relationship between different units of measurement using measures of length. We determined the volume of the bucket and the quadruple. The volume of the bucket was 136.297 cubic inches, and the volume of the quadruple was 286.421 cubic inches. The result of the work of the Commission was the "Regulations ..."

According to the arshine, the value of which was determined by the Commission of 1736-1742, it was recommended in 1745 to produce "arshins throughout the Russian state." In accordance with the volume of the quadrangle adopted by the Commission, in the second half of the 18th century. quadruplets, half-octopuses and octopuses were made.

Under Paul I, by decree of April 29, 1797, on the “Establishment throughout the Russian Empire of correct weights, drinking and bread measures,” a great work was begun to streamline measures and weights. Its completion dates back to the 30s of the 19th century. The decree of 1797 was drawn up in the form of desirable recommendations. The decree dealt with four issues of measurement: weighing instruments, measures of weight, measures of liquid and granular bodies. Both weighing instruments and all measures were subject to replacement, for which it was supposed to cast cast-iron measures.

By 1807, three standards of arshin were made (kept in St. Petersburg): crystal, steel and copper. The basis for determining their size was the reduction of arshin and sazhen to a multiple ratio with English. measures - in sazhens 7 English feet, in arshin - 28 English. inches The standards were approved by Alexander I and transferred to the Ministry of Internal Affairs for storage. For shipment to each province, 52 copper tetrahedral arshins were made. Interestingly, before that, the saying: “Measure by your own arshin” literally corresponded to reality. The sellers measured the length of the fabric with an arshin measure - a brace from their shoulder.

On July 10, 1810, the State Council of Russia decided to introduce a single measure of length throughout the country - the standard 16 vershokovy arshin (71.12 cm). The state branded arshin worth 1 ruble in silver was ordered to be introduced in all provinces, with the simultaneous removal of old arshin templates.

Stage
Stage [gr. stadion - stages (measure of length)] - this ancient measure of distances is more than two thousand years old (from it - the Stadium in other Greece; Greek stadion - a place for competitions). The size of the stage is about two hundred meters. "... directly opposite the city lay the island of Pharos, on the northern tip of which stood the famous lighthouse of the same name, built of white marble, connected to the city by a long pier called the septastadion (7 stages)" (F.A. Brockhaus, I. A. Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary)

Ancient measures in modern language

In modern Russian, ancient units of measurement and the words denoting them have been preserved mainly in the form of proverbs and sayings.

Sayings:
"You write with arshin letters" - large
"Kolomenskaya verst" is a playful name for a very tall man.
"Slanting fathom in the shoulders" - broad-shouldered

in poetry:
You can't understand Russia with the mind, you can't measure it with a common (state) yardstick. Tyutchev

Vocabulary
Monetary units

Quarter = 25 rubles
Ruble = 2 half
Tselkovy - the colloquial name of the metal ruble
Half = 50 kopecks
Quarter = 25 kopecks
Pyatialtyny = 15 kopecks
Altyn = 3 kopecks
Dime = 10 kopecks
kidney = 1 half
2 money = 1 kopeck
1/2 copper money (half) = 1 kopeck.
Grosh (copper grosh) \u003d 2 kopecks.

A penny (otherwise - a half-money) was equal to one penny. This is the smallest unit in the old money account. Since 1700, copper coins were minted = 1/2 copper money was equal to 1 kopeck.

Foreign names:
Pint - an old French measure of liquids, about 0.9 liters; in England and the USA - a measure of the volume of liquids and bread, approximately 0.57 liters
Eighth (eighth of a pound) = 1/8 pound
English gallon. - 4.546 l
Barrel - 159 l
Carat - 0.2 g, weight of wheat grain
Ounce - 28.35 g
British pound - 0.45359 kg
1 stone = 14 pounds = 6.35 kilograms
1 handredweight small = 100 pounds = 45.36 kg.
Yard -91.44 cm.
Sea mile - 1852 m
1 cable - tenth of a mile
Rumb - 11 1/4 ° \u003d 1/32 fraction of a circle - unit of angular measure
Knot of the sea (soon) = 1 mile per hour

Old Russian values:
Chet - quarter, quarter
"a quarter of wine" = the fourth part of a bucket.
"a quarter of a grain" = 1/4 cadi
kad - an old Russian measure of loose bodies (usually - four pounds)
Octopus, osmuha - eighth (eighth) part = 1/8
An eighth of a pound was called an octuplet ("an eighth of tea").
"a quarter to eight" - time = 7:45 am or pm
Pyaterik - five units of weight or length
A foot is a measure of paper, previously equal to 480 sheets; later - 1000 sheets
"one hundred and eighty osmago noemvri day of osmago" - November 8, 188
Pregnancy is a burden, an armful, as much as you can wrap your arms around.
Half a third - two and a half
Half heel = 4.5
Half elevens = 10.5
Half a third - two hundred and fifty
Field - "arena, stadium" (115 steps - a variant of the size), later - the first name and synonym for "miles" (field - a million - a mile), Dahl has a variant of the meaning of this word: "daily transition, about 20 miles"
"Printed sazhen" - state-owned (reference, with a state stamp), measured, three arshins
Cut - the amount of matter in a single piece of fabric, sufficient for the manufacture of any clothing (for example, shirts)
"There is no estimate" - there is no number
Perfect, perfect - suitable, to match

Additional reading for reading:

New domestic research

In this lesson, we'll look at units of length, area, and a table of area units. Consider the various units of measurement for length and area, find out in which cases they are used. We systematize our knowledge using a table. Let's solve a number of examples for converting one unit of measure into another.

You are familiar with the various units of length. What units of length are convenient to use when measuring the thickness of a match or the length of a ladybug's body? I think you said millimeters.

What unit of length is convenient to use when measuring the length of a pencil? Of course, in centimeters (see Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Length measurement

What units of length are convenient to use when measuring the width or length of a window? It is convenient to measure in decimeters.

And the length of the corridor or the length of the fence? Let's use meters (see Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Length measurement

To measure larger distances, for example, distances between cities, a larger unit of length than a meter is used - a kilometer (see Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Length measurement

There are 1000 meters in 1 kilometer.

Express the distance in kilometers.

1 kilometer is a thousand meters, so the number of thousands will mean kilometers.

8000 m = 8 km

385007 m = 385 km 7 m

34125 m = 34 km 125 m

In the number of hundreds, tens and units indicate meters.

You can argue differently: 1 km is a thousand times more than 1 meter, which means that the number of kilometers should be 1000 times less than the number of meters. Therefore, 8000: 1000 = 8, the number 8 means the number of kilometers.

385007: 1000 = 385 (rest 7). The number 385 denotes kilometers, the remainder is the number of meters.

34125: 1000 = 34 (rest. 125), that is, 34 kilometers 125 meters.

Read the table of units of length (see Fig. 4). Try to remember it.

Rice. 4. Table of units of length

Different measurements are used to measure areas. A square centimeter is a square with a side of 1 cm (see fig. 5), a square decimeter is a square with a side of 1 dm (see fig. 6), a square meter is a square with a side of 1 m (see fig. .7).

Fig.5. square centimeter

Rice. 6. Square decimeter

Rice. 7. Square meter

To measure large areas, a square kilometer is used - this is a square whose side is 1 km (see Fig. 8).

Rice. 8. Square kilometer

The words "square kilometer" are abbreviated with the number as follows - 1 km 2, 3 km 2, 12 km 2. In square kilometers, for example, the areas of cities are measured, the area of ​​\u200b\u200bMoscow S \u003d 1091 km 2.

Calculate how many square meters are in one square kilometer. To find the area of ​​a square, multiply the length by the width. We are given a square with a side of 1 km. We know that 1 km \u003d 1000 m, so to find the area of ​​​​such a square, we multiply 1000 m by 1000 m, we get 1,000,000 m 2 \u003d 1 km 2.

Express in square meters 2 km 2. We will argue as follows: since 1 km 2 is 1,000,000 m 2, that is, the number of square meters is a million times greater than the number of square kilometers, so we multiply 2 by 1,000,000, we get 2,000,000 m 2.

56 km 2: multiply 56 by 1,000,000, we get 56,000,000 m 2.

202 km 2 15 m 2: 202 ∙ 1,000,000 + 15 = 202,000,000 m 2 + 15 m 2 = 202,000,015 m 2.

To measure small areas, a square millimeter (mm 2) is used. This is a square whose side is 1 mm. The words "square millimeter" with a number are written as follows: 1 mm 2, 7 mm 2, 31 mm 2.

Calculate how many square millimeters are in one square centimeter. To find the area of ​​a square, multiply the length by the width. We are given a square with a side of 1 cm. We know that 1 cm = 10 mm. So, to find the area of ​​such a square, we multiply 10 mm by 10 mm, we get 100 mm 2.

Express in square millimeters 4 cm 2. We will argue as follows: since 1 cm 2 is 100 mm 2, that is, the number mm 2 is 100 times greater than the number cm 2, so we multiply 4 by 100, we get 400 mm 2.

16 cm 2: multiply 16 by 100 \u003d 1600 mm 2.

31 cm 2 7 mm 2: this is 31 ∙ 100 + 7 = 3100 + 7 = 3107 mm 2.

In life, such units of area as ar and hectare are often used. Ap is a square with a side of 10 m (see Fig. 9). With numbers ap, they write shorter: 1 a, 5 a, 12 a.

Rice. 9. 1 ar

1 a \u003d 100 m 2, therefore it is often called a hundred.

A hectare is a square with a side of 100 m (see Fig. 10). The word "hectare" with numbers is abbreviated as follows: 1 ha, 6 ha, 23 ha. 1 ha \u003d 10000 m 2.

Rice. 10. 1 hectare

Calculate how many ares are in 1 hectare.

1 ha \u003d 10000 m 2

1 a \u003d 100 m 2, then 10000: 100 \u003d 100 a

Now carefully consider the table of area units (see Fig. 11), try to remember it.

Rice. 11. Table of units of area

In the lesson, we got acquainted with a new unit of length - km and units of area - m 2, km 2, a, ha.

1. Bashmakov M.I. Nefedova M.G. Mathematics. 4th grade. M.: Astrel, 2009.
2. M. I. Moro, M. A. Bantova, G. V. Beltyukova and others. Mathematics. 4th grade. Part 1 of 2, 2011.
3. Demidova T. E. Kozlova S. A. Tonkikh A. P. Mathematics. 4th grade 2nd ed., corrected. - M.: Balass, 2013.

1. School.xvatit.com().
2. Mer.kakras.ru ().
3. dpva.info().

Homework

1. Find the area of ​​a square with a side of 15 cm.
2. Express: in square meters: 5 ha; 3 ha 18 a; 247 acres; 16 a;
3. in hectares: 420,000 m 2; 45 km 2 19 ha;
4. in ares: 43 ha; 4 ha 5 a; 30 700 m 2; 5 km2 13 ha;
5. in hectares and ares: 930 a; 45 700 m2.