The Russian state has a rather rich and unique history of its formation.

The position that Russia currently occupies in the world, its internal structure, is dictated precisely by the original history of the formation of our state, the events that took place throughout the development of Russia, and most importantly by people, great personalities who stood at the origins of every important transformation in the life of Russian society .

However, many of them in modern historical textbooks are given only general phrases regarding their lives. One of these personalities is Svyatoslav Igorevich, the Grand Duke of Kyiv, also known by the people as Svyatoslav the Brave.

Consider the main milestones in the life of the prince:

• Birth, youth;
• First military steps Khazar Khaganate;
• Bulgarian campaigns;
• Homecoming. Death of the Grand Duke.

Birth and youth

Svyatoslav Igorevich was the only son of Prince Igor the Old and Princess Olga. For certain, the year of birth of Grand Duke Svyatoslav is not known.

Most historians, referring to ancient chronicles, indicate the year 942 as such. But, in the Tale of Bygone Years, the name of Svyatoslav Igorevich was first mentioned only in 946, when Princess Olga took her son on a campaign against the Drevlyans, who killed her husband a year earlier, Prince Igor.

According to the Tale of Bygone Years, the battle began precisely with the throwing of a spear by Svyatoslav towards the Drevlyans. At that time, according to sources, Prince Svyatoslav was 4 years old. The campaign against the Drevlyans ended in success for the Russian squad.

Svyatoslav's mentors in his youth were the Varangian Asmud and the chief Kyiv governor, the Varangian Sveneld. The first taught the boy to hunt, to hold fast in the saddle, to swim, to hide from the eyes of enemies in any area.

Sveneld taught the young prince the art of war. Thus, Svyatoslav spent the first half of his short life in countless campaigns, while any princely privileges were alien to him.

He spent the night in the open air, slept on a horse blanket with a saddle under his head, his clothes were no different from his surroundings, which remained throughout his life. It was at this stage that Svyatoslav and his friends gathered their future army.

The tenth century in Russia is marked by the adoption of Christianity, but during the years of Svyatoslav's life, Christianity was still slowly walking around the country. But his mother, Princess Olga, who converted to Christianity, tried with all sorts of methods to persuade her son to come to the new faith.

With all the attempts of his mother, Svyatoslav firmly stood his ground, he was a pagan, like his squad. Otherwise, in the event of the adoption of Christianity, the squad, according to the convictions of the Grand Duke, simply would not respect him.

First military steps Khazar Khaganate

In 964, Svyatoslav's squad leaves Kyiv, and the history of his military glory begins. The purpose of the prince's campaign was most likely the defeat of the Khazar Khaganate, but on his way, at first he meets Vyatichi, Volga Bulgarians, Burtases, and his squad comes out of every battle with a victory.

Only in 965 did the Grand Duke of the Khazar Khaganate attack, defeating his army and destroying the capital, the city of Itil. The campaign continued further, the Russian squad took the well-fortified fortresses Sarkel on the Don, Semender and others.

Thus, this campaign of Svyatoslav against the Khazar Khaganate expanded the Kievan power over all the Eastern Slavs, and, in addition, the borders of the Kievan kingdom increased to the North Caucasus.

Bulgarian campaigns

After the return of Prince Svyatoslav to Kyiv, almost immediately he and his retinue set off on a new military campaign against the Danube Bulgaria. Historians name different reasons for such a quick abandonment of their lands.

However, the most common position is based on the interest of Byzantium in resolving the misunderstanding that has arisen with Bulgaria and, if possible, not with their own hands. And also, the possibility of weakening the Kyiv state.

Thus, returning from a military campaign against Khazaria, Prince Svyatoslav was met by Greek ambassadors who relied on the Russian-Byzantine treaty of 944, backed up by a fairly solid gold offering.

As a result, the young prince in 968 advanced with his 10,000th army to the Bulgarian lands. There, having defeated the 30,000-strong army of the Bulgarians, Svyatoslav captured the city of Pereslav, which he then renamed Pereyaslavets and transferred the capital to the newly conquered city.

At the same time, it was during the next military campaign of the prince that the Pechenegs attacked Kyiv. Svyatoslav had to return from the conquered territories and repulse the aggressors.

Simultaneously with the onset of the Pechenegs, Princess Olga dies, who, all the time of Svyatoslav's campaigns, acted as the ruler of the state.

Svyatoslav, justifying his impossibility to sit in Kyiv by his desire to live on the Danube, in fact divided the government between his sons: he left his eldest son, Yaropolk, in Kyiv, sent the middle Oleg to Ovruch, and the youngest, Vladimir, to Novgorod.

Such an act of the prince in the future will affect the history of the country in the form of civil strife and tension in the country. Having dealt with the political affairs of the state, Svyatoslav again went on a campaign against Bulgaria, in which he had already completely mastered the territory of the whole country.

The ruler of Bulgaria, hoping to get help from Byzantium, turned to its emperor. Nicephorus Foka, the ruler of Byzantium, watching the strengthening of the Russian state and worried about its strengthening, satisfied the request of the Bulgarian king.

In addition, the emperor hoped to marry the Bulgarian royal family in order to strengthen their alliance. But as a result of the coup, Nicephorus Foka was killed and John Tzimisces ascended the imperial throne.

The marriage contract was never destined to be fulfilled, but Byzantium nevertheless agreed to help the Bulgarian kingdom.

Contrary to their promises, Byzantium was in no hurry to help Bulgaria. As a result, the new Bulgarian king concluded a peace treaty with Prince Svyatoslav, pledging to oppose the Byzantine Empire with him.

Homecoming. Death of the Grand Duke

In 970, Grand Duke Svyatoslav with his army, which included Bulgarians, Pechenegs, Hungarians, leads his numerically superior army to the territory of the Byzantine state. In the course of a year and a half, various battles went on with alternate success for both troops.

Ultimately, in the spring of 971, a decisive battle took place, which ended in a peace treaty. But, based on the terms of this agreement, none of the parties could consider themselves the winner in the last war.

Svyatoslav undertook to leave the territory of Bulgaria, in turn, the Byzantine side was to provide the Russian squad with food for two months.

In addition, under the terms of the treaty, trade between Kievan Rus and Byzantium was resumed. Having failed in the conquest of the Byzantine kingdom, Prince Svyatoslav headed home.

According to some reports, it was the Greeks who convinced the Pechenegs to attack the army of Svyatoslav in order to get rid of a possible repetition of the campaign against Byzantium. In 972, during the spring thaw, the prince tried to cross the Dnieper again.

However, this time, it was the final mortal battle of the Grand Duke Svyatoslav.

According to the customs of the attacking Pechenegs, a goblet was made from the skull of the prince, from which the leader of the Pechenegs then drank, saying the words: “Let our children be like him!”.

Thus, the life of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Svyatoslav the Brave ended. It ended in battle, which could be hoped for by such a glorious warrior as Svyatoslav, who kindles in his combatants faith in victory and in the great kingdom of Kiev.

He is undeservedly classified as only the princes of the conquerors. After all, if you look at the geography of his campaigns, he purposefully and thoughtfully provided his state with access to the Caspian Sea, to the eastern trade route.

And on the other hand, the Danube - the main trade branch of Europe, also as a result of the actions of Svyatoslav, passes under the banner of the Russian kingdom. But the short life of the prince does not allow him to save the results of his conquests.

Svyatoslav the Brave is known from chronicles as the ruler of Russia in 945-972. He distinguished himself as a brave commander. The biography of Svyatoslav is full of interesting facts that we will consider.

Origin

Old Russian chronicles tell that Svyatoslav the Brave is the son of Princess Olga and Prince Igor. There is no exact information about the date of his birth. Some sources indicate the year 942, others - 920.

In the history of Ancient Russia, Svyatoslav the Brave is considered the first leader to have a Slavic name. His ancestors are of Scandinavian origin.

In some sources, the name of the prince is mentioned as Sfendoslavos. Experts suggest that the Scandinavian name Sven merged with the Slavic ending -slav. But not all scientists agree with this interpretation, because many Slavic names have the prefix Svent-, which, after the loss of sounds, gives the Slavic syllable “svyat”, which means “holy”.

Childhood

In the historical chronicles, the first mention of Svyatoslav is in 944. This is an agreement between Prince Igor and Byzantium. According to chronicle documents, Prince Igor was killed in 945 for collecting huge tribute. Olga, who had a young child, spoke out against the Drevlyans.

The campaign was successful, and Olga, having won, conquered the Drevlyans and began to rule them.

Chronicles inform that Svyatoslav spent all his childhood with his mother in Kyiv. Olga in 955-957 became a Christian and tried to baptize her son. His mother told him about the happiness of being a Christian. Svyatoslav did not prevent others from converting, but he himself treated Christianity with disrespect and believed that the squad would not understand him.

Having matured, the prince was inflamed with a desire to distinguish himself as a commander. He was truly noble and always declared war on the nations first, then attacked.

Some experts believe that Olga's delegation to Constantinople was undertaken in order to negotiate the marriage of Svyatoslav and the princess from Greece. Having been refused, the man was offended and firmly decided to remain a pagan.

Adulthood

The chronicle speaks about the adult life of Svyatoslav from 964. At this time, the young man matured. The reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich began with the fact that he drove out all the Christian priests who had come at the insistence of Olga's mother. For Svyatoslav, who did not want to accept Christianity, this was a fundamental step.

The Kyiv prince gathered a squad of soldiers and actively participated in campaigns. The Tale of Bygone Years says that he did not take boilers and carts with him, but cut pieces of meat and cooked on coals, and slept under the open sky, putting a saddle under his head.

Svyatoslav the Brave began campaigns in 964, first he went to the Vyatichi living on the Oka and Volga, then to Khazaria. He managed to defeat the Khazars.

Historical sources report various information about the capture of Khazaria. Some say that at first Svyatoslav managed to take the city of Sarkel, then Itil. Others believe that during a large military campaign, Svyatoslav managed to conquer Itil, and then Sarkel.

Prince Svyatoslav was able to destroy the Khazar Khaganate, later he secured the conquered lands for himself. Instead of Sarkel, Belaya Vezha was formed.

After the capture of Khazaria in 966, Svyatoslav took over the Vyatichi for the second time and imposed tribute on them.

Anti-Bulgarian Union

In 967, Byzantium and Bulgaria came into conflict. The Byzantine ruler sent delegates to Svyatoslav with a request to go to Bulgaria. That is how Byzantium wanted to take Bulgaria and weaken Russia. Kalokir, the head of the delegation, signed an anti-Bulgarian alliance with Svyatoslav and expressed his desire to take the throne in Byzantium. In return, he promised the Russian prince untold wealth.

In 968, Svyatoslav went to Bulgaria, and after the hostilities he remained at the mouth of the Danube, where Greek tribute was sent to him.

In 968-696 Kyiv was attacked by the Pechenegs, and Svyatoslav returned there. At the same time, Olga died, Svyatoslav distributed the reins of government between his sons. Then he went on a campaign against Bulgaria and crushed it. The Bulgarians had to ask for protection from Byzantium, which was slow to provide assistance. As a result, the Bulgarian tsar signed an alliance with Svyatoslav, and later Bulgaria already fought together with the Rus against Byzantium.

Attack on Byzantium

After establishing a partnership with the Bulgarians, Svyatoslav remained on the Danube. So he expanded his own lands.

In 970, Svyatoslav attacked the Byzantine territories in Thrace. He, along with the army, reached the outskirts of Constantinople, where the final battle took place. Historians interpret his results in different ways. Some documents say that the allied forces of Svyatoslav were crushed, and then his forces. In others, it is reported that Svyatoslav managed to win, but he withdrew, collecting tribute.

In any case, the battles in Byzantium were over by the summer of 970, although the Rus' raids were not over.

The crushing of Bulgaria

In 971, Emperor John I Tzimisces opposes Svyatoslav, sends a fleet to the Danube to cut off the Rus.

Soon the Bulgarian capital Preslav was taken, the king was taken prisoner. Russian soldiers break through to Dorostol, Svyatoslav is also located there. The courage of Svyatoslav grows along with the dangers. According to the testimony of Byzantine historians, the Rus behaved bravely. When they could not save themselves, they stabbed themselves in the heart. Their wives behaved like real Amazons, participating in battles. Being taken prisoner, the Russians kept their composure, burned their dead brothers at night and hardened captives over them, and babies were allowed into the waters of the Danube.

John comes to Dorostol, the Russians leave the fortress, besieged for three months. Luck leaves the Russians. Their fatherland is very far away, the neighboring peoples are on the side of the Greeks. The army of Svyatoslav was weakened from wounds and hunger, while the Greeks did not need anything.

Svyatoslav gathers a squad. Some want to run at night, others offer peace. But the prince decides to try his luck, so as not to fall into contempt of the neighboring peoples. The army goes into battle. The prince encourages the soldiers and gives the order to lock the gates of the city so that no one escapes.

The battle begins in the morning, by noon the Greeks are exhausted and begin to retreat. Soon the battle resumed. Tzimisces was amazed at the courage of the enemy and decided to end the war. After that, the fight continues. The Greeks really wanted the death of Svyatoslav. The knight Anemas crushed the prince and threw him off his horse, but the helmet did not allow Svyatoslav to die.

Svyatoslav, having lost many strength and being seriously wounded in the final battle, decides to demand peace. John Tzimiskes is delighted and accepts the conditions of the Rus, in turn Svyatoslav leaves Bulgaria and concludes an alliance with Byzantium. After the approval of peace, the emperor provides the Russians with food supplies and sees them off. The military resources of Svyatoslav after the battles were sharply reduced, the army weakened.

Historians of those times analyze the war as successful for the Greeks, but Svyatoslav did not demand anything for Russia. Eastern Bulgaria joins Byzantium, only the western territories manage to maintain their independence.

The friendship between Svyatoslav and Tzimiskes can be assessed in different ways. Svyatoslav with a small army retreated to his fatherland. And Tzimiskes sent ambassadors to the Pechenegs, who were dissatisfied with the reconciliation of the Russians and Greeks. Perhaps the Greeks themselves informed the Pechenegs about the return of the weakened Russian army. The Pechenegs were waiting for the Russians at the rapids of the Dnieper.

Doom

After the declaration of peace, Svyatoslav approached the Dnieper. The governor warned him that the Pechenegs were nearby. But Svyatoslav was not afraid and decided to spend the winter on the Dnieper. Exhausting hunger and need accompanies the Rus at this time.

In the spring, Svyatoslav the Brave sets off on a dangerous journey home. In another fight, he was mortally wounded. He was attacked by the prince of the Pechenegs Kurya, cut off his head and drank from the skull of Svyatoslav. Only a few Russians managed to escape. Thus died a courageous commander, possessing amazing generosity. A monument to Svyatoslav Igorevich was erected at the place of his death in Zaporozhye (Ukraine). On the monument, a warrior is depicted with a sword.

Historians believe that the Pecheneg warriors stormed Svyatoslav at the insistence of the Byzantines. Byzantium strove for friendship with the Pecheneg peoples to protect them from the Rus and Hungarians. The crushing of Svyatoslav was necessary for the Greeks. Although the chronicle calls the initiators of the ambush the Bulgarians, not the Greeks.

The Tale of Bygone Years indicates the reasons for the death of Svyatoslav in that he did not obey his mother, who dreamed of making a Christian out of her son. In any case, the example of Sfendoslav is the image of a brilliant commander and an example of the great sovereign of the Russian land, who captivated many contemporaries by the strength of his character. Svyatoslav Igorevich, whose biography we have examined, even after his death, terrified neighboring peoples with his image for a long time.

About appearance

The Greek writer of that time, Leo the Deacon, vividly draws the prince of Kyiv. Sfendoslav was of restrained growth, had thick eyebrows and blue eyes, a mustache, and a tuft of hair twisted on his bald head, which indicated a noble origin. The prince's expression was stern. In the ear was a golden earring with stones. The clothes were white and clean.

Some sources call the prince beardless, others - with a rare beard. Sometimes he is described with one tuft of hair, as well as with two braids. The nose of the prince, according to the descriptions of that time, is sometimes snub-nosed, sometimes flat.

Descendants

History knows the children of Svyatoslav Igorevich, these are:

• Yaropolk, who ruled Kyiv;
• Oleg, prince of the Drevlyans;
• Vladimir who baptized Russia.

Sometimes Sfeng is mentioned, whom A. V. Solovyov considers not the son, but the grandson of Sfendoslav.

So, the policy of Svyatoslav Igorevich differed sharply from the reign of his mother Olga. The ruler paid more attention to external wars. He defeated the Khazar Khaganate and undertook several successful campaigns against the Bulgarians.

He was practically not interested. The prince completely entrusted the solution of such issues to his wise parent. Therefore, it is rather difficult to briefly describe Svyatoslav's campaigns, because every day of his is a battle. As the chroniclers testify, the war was his meaning of life, a passion without which he could not exist.

The life of a fighter

Svyatoslav's campaigns began when the boy was four years old. It was then that his mother Olga did everything to take revenge on the Drevlyans who brutally killed her husband Igor. According to tradition, only the prince could lead the battle. And then, by the hand of her young son, a spear was thrown, giving the first order to the squad.

Having matured, Svyatoslav took the reins of government into his hands. Nevertheless, he spent most of his time in battle. Many traits characteristic of European knights are attributed to him.

Svyatoslav's military campaigns never started unexpectedly. The prince won only in a fair battle, always warning the enemy about the attack. His squad moved extremely quickly, since the campaigns of Svyatoslav, a man who does not recognize luxury, passed without escort from convoys and tents, which could slow down the movement. The commander himself enjoyed considerable respect among the soldiers, he shared their meal and life.

Khazars

This Turkic-speaking tribe lived on the territory of modern Dagestan. It founded its own empire - the Kaganate. Like other tribes, the Khazars conquered foreign lands, regularly raiding the territories of their neighbors. The Kaganate was able to subjugate the Vyatichi and Radimichi, northerners and glades, who, after coming under his authority, were forced to pay a constant tribute. All this continued until the princes of Ancient Russia gradually began to free them.

Many of them waged a long struggle with this Turkic-speaking nomadic tribe, which took place with varying success. One of the most famous battles can be considered the campaign of Svyatoslav against the Khazars, which took place in 964.

The allies of the Russians in this campaign were the Pechenegs, with whom the Kyiv prince fought repeatedly. The Russian army, having reached the capital of the kaganate, crushed the local ruler and his large army, capturing several more large cities along the way.

The defeat of the Khazars

The idea of ​​the prince is striking in its breadth and maturity. I must say that all the campaigns of Svyatoslav were distinguished by strategic literacy. Briefly, according to the chroniclers, they can be described as an open challenge to enemies.

The Khazar campaign was no exception. Svyatoslav was interested in one thing: to find the weakest link among the hostile states that surrounded Ancient Russia. It had to be isolated by unfriendly neighbors and corroded by internal "rust".

The fact that it is time to knock down the Khazar castle from the direction of trade with the East has been said for a very long time. At that time, the defeat of the kaganate was simply an urgent need for Russia. The movement of the princes of Kyiv to the outskirts of the Slavic lands slowed down (they stumbled on the Vyatichi). The reason was that the latter continued to pay tribute to the Khazars. In order to spread Kyiv over them, it was first necessary to throw off the Khaganate yoke from the Vyatichi.

Svyatoslav's campaign against the Khazars was very different from the previous daring raids for booty or captives. This time, the prince approached the borders of the kaganate gradually, gathering allies at every step. This was done in order to be able to surround the enemy with troops of peoples and tribes unfriendly to them before the invasion.

Tactics

Svyatoslav's campaign against the Khazars was a grandiose detour. To begin with, the prince moved north, conquering the Slavic tribes of the Vyatichi, dependent on the kaganate, and freeing them from Khazar influence. Very quickly transferring the boats from the Desna to the banks of the Oka, the squad sailed along the Volga. Having defeated the Burtas and Volga Bulgar tribes dependent on the Khazars, Svyatoslav thereby ensured reliable security for his northern flank.

The Khazars did not expect a blow from the north at all. They were disorganized by such a maneuver, and therefore they could not adequately organize the defense. Meanwhile, Svyatoslav's campaign in Khazaria continued. Having reached the capital of the kaganate - Itil, the prince attacked the army that tried to defend the settlement and defeated it in a fierce battle.

Svyatoslav's campaigns continued in the North Caucasus region. Here the Kyiv prince defeated another stronghold of this Turkic-speaking nomadic tribe - the fortress of Semender. In addition, he managed to conquer the Kasogs and establish a new principality on the Taman Peninsula with the original name - Tmutarakan, with the capital - the city-fortress Matarha. It was founded in 965 on the site of an ancient settlement.

Army of Svyatoslav

There are very few chronicle works describing the biographical details of this. But the fact that the military campaigns of Svyatoslav significantly strengthened Kievan Rus is beyond doubt. During his reign, the unification of the Slavic lands continued.

The campaigns of Svyatoslav Igorevich were distinguished by their swiftness and characteristic combination. He tried to destroy the enemy forces piecemeal - in two or three battles, punctuating the battles with quick maneuvers of his forces. skillfully used the strife and disagreements between Byzantium and the nomadic tribes subject to it. He entered into temporary alliances with the latter in order to have time to defeat the troops of his main enemy.

Svyatoslav's campaigns were necessarily preceded by a study of the situation by a detachment of scouts. Their task included duties not only to conduct surveillance, but also to take prisoners or local residents, as well as to send scouts to the enemy detachment to obtain the most useful information. When the army stopped to rest, watchmen were posted around the camp.

The campaigns of Prince Svyatoslav, as a rule, began in early spring, when the rivers and lakes were already covered with ice. They continued until autumn. The infantry moved along the water in boats, while the cavalry moved along the coast, on land.

The squads of Svyatoslav were commanded by Igor Sveneld, invited by his father, under whose leadership there were also his own detachments from the Varangians. The prince himself, as the chroniclers testify, having taken command of the Kyiv army, never wanted to hire the Varangians, although he favored them. And this became a fateful factor for him: it was from their hands that he died.

Armament of the troops

Offensive tactics and strategy were developed by the prince himself. He skillfully combined the use of numerous troops with maneuverable and lightning-fast pinpoint actions of the cavalry squad. We can say that it was the campaigns of Svyatoslav that laid the foundation for the strategy to beat the enemy on his own land.

Kyiv warriors were armed with spears, double-edged swords and the First were of two types - fighting, with leaf-shaped metal heavy tips mounted on a long shaft; and throwing - sulits, which were noticeably lighter in weight. They were thrown by approaching enemy infantry or cavalry.

They were also armed with axes and sabers, maces, clubs bound with iron, and knives. So that warriors from afar could recognize each other, the shields of the warriors were painted red.

Danube campaign

The campaigns of Prince Svyatoslav destroyed and wiped out the huge Khazar empire from the map. The trade routes in the East were cleared, the unification of the East Slavic tribes into a common Old Russian state was completed.

Having strengthened and secured his borders in this direction, Svyatoslav shifted his attention to the West. Here was the so-called Rusev Island, formed by the Danube delta and a bend, a huge defensive Trojan rampart with a moat filled with water. According to historical data, it was formed by Danubian settlers. The trade of Kievan Rus with Bulgaria and Byzantium brought it closer to the coastal peoples. And these ties were especially strongly strengthened in the era of Svyatoslav.

During the three-year eastern campaign, the commander captured vast territories: from the Oka forests to the North Caucasus. The Byzantine Empire at that time kept silent, since the Russian-Byzantine military alliance was still in effect.
But now, when the pressure on the Crimean possessions began to be exerted by the northern giant, signs of unrest began to show in Constantinople. A messenger was urgently sent to Kyiv to settle relations.

Already at that time, Svyatoslav's campaign against Bulgaria was brewing in Kyiv. The prince's plan for the invasion of the Danube to annex the mouth of the Danube to Russia had been brewing for a long time. However, these lands belonged to Bulgaria, so he secured the promise of Byzantium to remain neutral. So that Constantinople would not interfere in Svyatoslav's campaigns on the Danube, he was promised a retreat from the Crimean possessions. It was subtle diplomacy that affected the interests of Russia both in the East and in the West.

Attack on Bulgaria

In the summer of 967, the Russian troops, led by Svyatoslav, moved south. The Russian army was supported by the Hungarian troops. Bulgaria, in turn, relied on Yases and Kasogs hostile to the Rus, as well as on a few Khazar tribes.

According to chroniclers, both sides fought to the death. Svyatoslav managed to defeat the Bulgarians and capture about eighty cities along the banks of the Danube.

Svyatoslav's campaign in the Balkans was completed very quickly. True to his habit of conducting lightning-fast combat operations, the prince, breaking through the Bulgarian outposts, defeated the army of Tsar Peter in an open field. The enemy had to conclude a forced peace, according to which the lower reaches of the Danube with a very strong fortress city of Pereyaslavets went to Russia.

The true intentions of the Russians

It was then that the real plans of Svyatoslav, which the prince cherished for a very long time, came to light. He moved his residence to Pereyaslavets, declaring, as the chroniclers write, that he did not like to sit in Kyiv. Tributes and blessings began to flow into the "middle" of the Kievan land. The Greeks brought gold and precious fabrics, wines and many fruits that were outlandish at that time, silver and excellent horses were delivered from the Czech Republic and Hungary, and honey, fur, wax and slaves were brought from Russia.

In August 968, his troops had already reached the borders of Bulgaria. According to the chroniclers, in particular, the Byzantine Leo the Deacon, Svyatoslav led an army of sixty thousand.

However, according to some reports, this was too great an exaggeration, since the Kyiv prince never accepted tribal militias under his banners. Only his squad, "hunters" volunteers and several detachments of Pechenegs and Hungarians fought for him.

Russian boats freely entered the mouth of the Danube and began to quickly rise upstream. The appearance of such a large army came as a surprise to the Bulgarians. The soldiers quickly jumped out of the boats and, covering themselves with shields, rushed to the attack. The Bulgarians, unable to stand it, fled from the battlefield and took refuge in the fortress of Dorostol.

Prerequisites for the Byzantine campaign

The hopes of the Romans that the Russians would get bogged down in this war did not justify themselves. After the first battles, the Bulgarian army was defeated. Russian troops, having destroyed its entire defensive system in the eastern direction, opened the way to the borders with Byzantium. In Constantinople, they saw a real threat to their empire also because such a victorious march of the Kyiv army through the occupied Bulgarian lands did not end with robberies and the destruction of cities and settlements, there was also no violence against the locals, which was characteristic of the previous wars of the Romans. The Russians saw them as blood brothers. In addition, although Christianity was established in Bulgaria, the common people did not forget their traditions.

That is why the sympathies of the ignoble Bulgarians and some of the local feudal lords immediately turned to the Russian prince. Russian troops began to be replenished with volunteers living on the banks of the Danube. In addition, some feudal lords wanted to swear allegiance to Svyatoslav, since the bulk of the Bulgarian elite did not accept Tsar Peter with his pro-Byzantine policy.

All this could lead the Byzantine Empire to a political and military disaster. In addition, the Bulgarians, led by their overly determined leader Simeon, almost took Constantinople on their own.

Confrontation with Byzantium

Svyatoslav's attempt to turn Pereyaslavets into the capital of his new state, and perhaps the entire Old Russian state, was unsuccessful. This could not be allowed by Byzantium, which saw a mortal threat to itself in this neighborhood. Svyatoslav Igorevich, initially following the points of the treaty concluded with Constantinople, did not invade deep into the Bulgarian state. As soon as he occupied the lands along the Danube and the fortress city of Pereyaslavets, the prince suspended hostilities.

The appearance of Svyatoslav on the Danube and the defeat of the Bulgarians greatly alarmed Byzantium. After all, next to her, a merciless and more successful opponent was raising her head. The attempt made by Byzantine diplomacy to pit Bulgaria against Russia, thereby weakening both sides, was defeated. Therefore, Constantinople began to hastily transfer its troops from Asia Minor. In the spring of 970, Svyatoslav attacked the Thracian lands of Byzantium. His army reached Arcadiopol and stopped a hundred and twenty kilometers from Constantinople. Here the general battle took place.

From the works of the Byzantine chroniclers, one can learn that all the Pechenegs were killed in the encirclement, in addition, they defeated the main forces of Svyatoslav Igorevich. However, ancient Russian historians describe events differently. According to their reports, Svyatoslav, having come close to Constantinople, nevertheless retreated. However, in return, he took a rather large tribute, including on his dead combatants.

One way or another, Svyatoslav's largest campaign against Byzantium was completed in the summer of that year. In April of the following year, the Byzantine ruler John I Tzimiskes personally opposed the Rus, sending a fleet of three hundred ships to the Danube to cut off their retreat. In July, another big battle took place, in which Svyatoslav was wounded. The battle ended inconclusively, but after it the Russians entered into peace negotiations.

Death of Svyatoslav

After the conclusion of the truce, the prince safely reached the mouth of the Dnieper, heading on boats to the rapids. His faithful voivode Sveneld urged to go around them on horseback so as not to stumble upon the Pechenegs, but he did not listen. Svyatoslav's attempt in 971 to climb up the Dnieper was not successful, so he had to spend the winter at the mouth in order to repeat the campaign in the spring. But the Pechenegs were still waiting for the Rus. And in an unequal battle, Svyatoslav's life was cut short ...

1045 years ago, in March 972, the great Russian prince, one of the founders of the Russian state (the First Russian Empire), Svyatoslav Igorevich, died. According to the official version, Svyatoslav was returning with a small detachment after the war with Byzantium, fell into a Pecheneg ambush and died.

The Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” reports: “When spring came, Svyatoslav went to the thresholds. And Kurya, the prince of the Pechenegs, attacked him, and they killed Svyatoslav, and took his head, and made a cup from the skull, bound him, and drank from him. Sveneld came to Kyiv to Yaropolk.

The Byzantine historian Leo the Deacon writes about this in his history: “Sfendoslav left Doristol, returned the prisoners according to the agreement and sailed with the remaining associates, directing his way to his homeland. On the way, they were ambushed by the Patsinaki, a large nomadic tribe that devours lice, carries dwellings with them, and spends most of its life in wagons. They killed almost all [the Ross], killed Sfendoslav along with others, so that only a few of the huge army of the Ross returned unharmed to their native places.

Starting with N. M. Karamzin, it was generally accepted that it was Byzantine diplomacy that convinced the Pechenegs to attack Svyatoslav: “The then policy of the Emperors did not know generosity: foreseeing that Svyatoslav would not leave them alone for a long time, it was almost the Greeks themselves who instructed the Pechenegs to take advantage of the weakness of the Russian army "("History of the Russian State. Vol. 1).

Svyatoslav

Russian Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich is one of the most prominent rulers and commanders of Russia-Russia. It was not for nothing that he was seriously hurt by liberal (supporters of the pro-Western, “classical” version of history) and Marxist historians, who called him a warrior prince, an “adventurer” who put his personal glory, the search for booty for the squad above the state, national interests of Russia. Like, as a result, his adventurous campaigns led to a heavy defeat from the Roman (Byzantine) army and the death of the prince himself.

The general conclusion was made as follows: “Svyatoslav was a model of a warrior, but not an example of a sovereign. He left the Russian land for remote deeds, glorious for him, but not always useful for Russia. He was almost never a prince in his own land; his mother ruled for him. Svyatoslav broke away from Russia, acted with only one of his retinue, and did not rally the combined forces of all the tribes, which he could have, with the great talent of Svyatoslav himself, great importance for the fate of the Kievan state, and possibly for the whole of Eastern Europe” (“Pages of the Government of the Russian State”, 1990).

Obviously, this is a superficial look at the military-political activities of Prince Svyatoslav. It fits into the Westerners' version of the history of Russia-Russia, according to which the history of Russia is secondary and peripheral in relation to the history of Western Europe. Like, Russia is "Asia", a "barbarian country", which was introduced to civilization by the "Viking-Swedes" (Scandinavians, Germans). Then the invasion of the "Mongol-Tatars" again threw Russia into the past, and only Peter I "cut a window to Europe." And only by following the Western path of development (Western matrix) will Russia ever reach the level of development and prosperity, for example, Poland or Portugal. Therefore, it is necessary to discard "Great Russian chauvinism", urgently repent of the sins of the "bloody" Alexander Nevsky, Ivan the Terrible, Joseph Stalin and other Russian rulers and statesmen. Forget about the great Russian history, which allegedly did not exist. Allegedly, the whole history of Russia is full of mistakes, blunders, adventurism, blood, dirt, ignorance and drunkenness. The story of the "prince-adventurer" Svyatoslav, who "left his homeland for the sake of glory and exploits," quite fits into this line.

However, there is another view of the state activities of Svyatoslav. As one of the leading Soviet and Russian historians, a specialist in the history of diplomacy, foreign policy and ideology of Ancient Russia, A.N. Sakharov noted: a continuous challenge to the Byzantine Empire, a fierce and uncompromising challenge that became its glory and its tragedy. All his campaigns, barely taking over and leading the Kyiv squad, he eventually directed to fight against the empire. It would be naive to think that this struggle was explained only by the personal feelings of Svyatoslav. Behind the confrontation between the two countries were their common socio-economic and political interests, the laws of social development.

The military-strategic, socio-economic interests of Russia also stood behind the uncompromising struggle of Svyatoslav against the Khazars, which the Russian chronicle (written already in the Christian era and edited in the interests of the Christianized elite of Russia) characterizes very briefly and dispassionately: "Svyatoslav go to the goats." As A. N. Sakharov writes: behind the laconic and impassive phrase from the annals “there is a whole era of the liberation of the East Slavic lands from the yoke of the Khazars, the transformation of the confederation of East Slavic tribes into a single Old Russian state. It was a time of consolidation and self-affirmation, new foreign policy contacts and the search for new trade routes, and Khazaria has traditionally been an enemy in this formation of Russia, a constant, stubborn, cruel and insidious enemy. ... Everywhere, wherever possible, Khazaria resisted Russia, closed her way to the East, forming here a powerful anti-Russian bloc consisting of the Volga Bulgaria, the Burtases, other Pook and Volga tribes, and some peoples of the North Caucasus. As before, the East Slavic tribe of the Vyatichi was dependent on the kaganate ... The struggle of Russia against the eternal rival, behind which Byzantium stood for many decades, was difficult. We had to endure the Sarkel fortress near our borders, we had to endure insidious attacks on the return routes from the East. For more than a hundred years, step by step, the Khazar Khaganate pushed Russia aside from its destinies, but even until the middle of the 10th century, Khazaria, although weakening and isolated, was one of the main enemies of the rising Slavs.

“... The campaign was over: the main goal was achieved - Khazaria was crushed. The Russian army drew a huge triangle in these parts between the points Itil - Semender - Sarkel, between the mouth of the Volga, the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea, and the lower reaches of the Don. In the north were the defeated Bulgars and Burtases. With its eastern corner, this triangle faced the Sea of ​​Azov, the Taman Peninsula, the Cimmerian Bosporus - the Kerch Strait, where Russian settlements have long been located. From here it was a stone's throw to the Crimean possessions of Byzantium. ... In essence, Svyatoslav spent three years on a campaign and during this time he subjugated a vast territory from the Oka forests to the grape Semender to his influence. ... The campaign of Svyatoslav finally put an end to the Khazar yoke over the Eastern Slavic lands, freed the Vyatichi tribe from the influence of the Khazars, removed a powerful military barrier that closed the way for Russian merchants to the East, eliminated the force that was always ready to strike Russia in the back during its military enterprises in the south and east. Now in the Northern Black Sea region, near the mouth of the Dnieper, on the Taman Peninsula, Russia could not be afraid of pressure from the Khazars. The Volga and North Caucasian allies of Khazaria also received a very clear military lesson. The whole situation in the region has changed dramatically. Russia came to the fore here, regaining the positions lost during the numerous steppe invasions ”(A.N. Sakharov. “We are from the Russian family ...”. L., 1986.).

And the activity of Prince Svyatoslav was very impressive: “the huge Khazar empire was defeated and disappeared forever from the political map of Europe. The paths to the East were cleared; Volga Bulgaria ceased to be a hostile barrier and, in addition, Sarkel and Tmutarakan, two most important cities in the southeast, became Russian centers. The balance of power in the semi-Byzantine, semi-Khazar Crimea also changed, where Kerch (Korchev) also became a Russian city ”(B. A. Rybakov.“ The Birth of Rus ”. M., 2012.). A hundred years later, the Russian prince Gleb, Svyatoslav's great-great-grandson, measured the frozen Kerch Strait and left a famous inscription about how he "measured the sea on ice from Tmutarakan to Korchevo."

Then Svyatoslav continued the struggle, solving national tasks of strengthening in the Northern Black Sea region and the Balkans (in the distant future, the Russian tsars and Secretary General Stalin will solve the same tasks, showing that rulers can change, but the strategic tasks of Russian civilization and people remain the same). The assessment of the war between Russia and Byzantium (the Eastern Roman Empire) was already distorted at that time, which was due to the incompleteness of the information in the Russian chronicles and the extreme bias of the Greek (Byzantine) sources, which sought to portray the Russians as "wild barbarians", "Tauro-Scythians", enemies of the Bulgarians, who invaded Bulgaria, and the Byzantines (Romans) as friends and liberators of the Bulgarians. Greek sources are full of omissions, contradictions, obvious lies (for example, the loss of Russ and Romans in battles, when hundreds and thousands of killed Russ and other "barbarians" accounted for one defeated Roman) and a clear unwillingness to recognize the anti-Byzantine alliance of Russians with Bulgarians. Although this alliance was revealed already at the first appearance of Russian squads on the Danube, when 80 Bulgarian cities went over to the side of Svyatoslav. These principles of the policy of the rulers of the West have been unchanged for more than a thousand years. Westerners are rewriting history in their own interests, turning black into white and white into black.

Svyatoslav expanded the possessions of Russia to Pereyaslavets on the Danube, the "Island of the Rus", formed by the bend and delta of the great European river, the sea and the "Trajan's Wall", where the Rus-Ulichi (one of the predecessors of the late Cossacks) lived. Svyatoslav himself was very pleased with the new land, where he moved in 967-969. “Not everyone is living in Kiev,” Svyatoslav said to his mother Olga and the boyars. - I want to live Pereyaslavtsi in the Danube, as if that is the environment of my land ... ". Thus, Svyatoslav founded the new residence of the Grand Duke on the Danube, securing a new, very advantageous position at the crossroads of different paths.

Russian and Bulgarian troops, with the support of the allies (Pechenegs, Hungarians), drove the Roman Byzantines out of Bulgaria, and also defeated the treacherous pro-Byzantine Bulgarian party. Then the allies went on a broad offensive along the entire northern border of the Byzantine Empire. Svyatoslav's troops crossed the Balkans, crossed the Byzantine border and took Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv). One of the decisive battles in Thrace, when the soldiers of Svyatoslav met with superior enemy forces, was vividly described by a Russian chronicler: “Let us not shame the Russian land, but lie down with bones, dead for shame is not an imam. If we run away, shame on the imam. Do not run away to the imam, but we will stand strong, but I will go before you; if my head lies down, then think for yourself. And Russia was filled, leaned, and Svyatoslav overcame, and the Greeks fled.

True, another part of the army, dominated by Russian allies - Bulgarians, Pechenegs and Hungarians, was defeated near Arcadiopol. But it was not this battle that decided the outcome of the war in 970. All sources telling about the Russian-Byzantine war: the Tale of Bygone Years, Leo the Deacon, and other Byzantine chronicles unanimously report that in the summer of 970 the Greeks asked for peace. It is obvious that the winners of the world do not ask. If the core of Svyatoslav's army had been defeated and fled near Arcadiopol, it is clear that the Greeks (Romans) would have no reason to seek a peace agreement with the Russian prince. Tzimisces was to organize the pursuit of the defeated enemy, to finish him off. In terms of finishing off an already defeated enemy, the Romans were great masters and did not know mercy for the defeated.

Thus, Svyatoslav won the decisive battle. And he moved “to the city, fighting and breaking the city ... And he called the king of the Bolaria to his floor, and said to them:“ What are we doing, as if we can’t stand against him? The Byzantines decided to ask for peace. And this meant that Svyatoslav defeated the main forces of the enemy, and moved to Tsargrad-Constantinople, "breaking" other "towns" along the way. At first the Romans failed. Svyatoslav promised to set up his tents "in front of the Byzantine gates." Then the Greeks offered the Russian prince gold and curtains, but Svyatoslav showed indifference to them. John Tzimisces again sends his people to the prince and prays for peace. This time the ambassadors, according to Russian sources, offered weapons as gifts. Svyatoslav was delighted with such gifts. This made it possible to stop the advance of Russian troops on Constantinople. The Russians were only 4 days away from Tsargrad. The Romans agreed with the consolidation of Svyatoslav on the Danube and with the need to pay tribute. Svyatoslav: “Take many gifts, and return to Pereyaslavets with great praise.”

The Romans deceived and did not keep the peace. Taking advantage of the respite, they mobilized new forces (Tzimiskes withdrew troops from the Middle East), prepared the fleet, and in 971 launched a counteroffensive. And Svyatoslav sent the allied troops, and was not ready for a new campaign. Obviously, Svyatoslav did not expect the enemy to recover from defeat so quickly and immediately violate the agreement. Passages in the mountains turned out to be open, they were not guarded. Whose miscalculation it was - the Bulgarians or the Russian garrison in the Bulgarian capital Preslav, is unknown. Perhaps the pro-Byzantine group worked in Bulgaria itself. Outcome is known. A huge and well-armed Byzantine army calmly surrounded Veliky Preslav, where the Bulgarian Tsar Boris and the Russian detachment led by Sveneld were located. After a desperate assault, the Romans broke the resistance of a small Russian-Bulgarian garrison and took the city. At the same time, part of the squad of Sveneld managed to break out of the encirclement.

The Byzantine army began the occupation of Bulgaria. Tzimisces gave the Bulgarian capital and many other cities and fortresses to be plundered by his army. Then the Greeks went to the Danube, where Svyatoslav stood in the fortress of Dorostol with a small army. This time the enemy had a complete advantage: the ground forces blocked the fortress from the land, the fleet from the side of the river. A number of major battles took place here, and in some cases literally a miracle (natural element) saved the Romans from defeat. For more than two months, the army of Tzimiskes unsuccessfully besieged Dorostol. Both armies were exhausted in fierce battles, and did not achieve victory. Then negotiations began. Tzimisces, fearing problems in the rear and new battles with the Russians, who fought on equal terms with the enemy even in small numbers, happily signed peace. The world was honorable. Svyatoslav pledged not to fight with Byzantium and left with a lot of booty. More in the articles:; ; .

With the departure of Svyatoslav from Bulgaria, the independence of the Eastern Bulgarian kingdom fell (Western Bulgaria retained its independence). The Romans occupied the main cities, renamed them, humiliated the Bulgarians and deprived them of their statehood. Tsar Boris was overthrown, together with his brother Roman, whom the Greeks castrated, he was taken to Constantinople and took part in the solemn triumph that Tzimiskes arranged for himself. The crown of the Bulgarian kings was given to the church of St. Sophia, then in the imperial palace, Boris laid down the royal insignia - precious clothes, royal shoes. Split, drenched in blood, robbed and humiliated, Bulgaria lost its independence for two centuries. All this was the result of the treacherous policy of the pro-Byzantine ruling circles.

Obviously, Svyatoslav was not an "adventurer" who "wandered" the steppes in search of glory. He solved the main national tasks of Russia. As B. A. Rybakov noted: “His Volga-Khazar campaign was vital for the young state of Russia, and his actions on the Danube and the Balkans were a manifestation of friendship and solidarity with the people of Bulgaria, whom Svyatoslav helped to defend both his capital and his king, and political independence from the encroachments of Byzantium. ... In relation to Russia, all the swift activity of Svyatoslav was not only not an inattention to its interests or an unconscious desire to “rude”, neglect it, but, on the contrary, everything was designed to solve major state tasks that required the exertion of all forces. The most important task, which was to ensure security on the part of the Khazar Khaganate, was solved quite successfully. The second task - the creation of a peaceful trading foothold on the western coast of the Russian Sea (as the Black Sea was then called. - A.S.), in commonwealth with Bulgaria - was not completed ... ”But this is not Svyatoslav’s fault. This task will be solved by the Russian tsars for more than one century and will never complete the great work (the capture of Constantinople). Svyatoslav could continue the fight, restoring strength in Russia, but he was eliminated.

To be continued…

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Svyatoslav Igorevich was only three years old when he inherited the princely throne after the death of his father, Grand Duke Igor Rurikovich. Until Svyatoslav came of age, the reins of government of the country were taken by his mother, Princess Olga.

From an early age, Svyatoslav became close to the fighting life. Princess Olga, having decided to take revenge on the Drevlyans for the murder of her husband, went to the Drevlyane land and took four-year-old Svyatoslav with her, because. according to ancient Russian tradition, the campaign should be led by the prince himself. He was the first to throw a spear, although the child's hand was still weak, but this was his first combat command to the squad.

Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich spent most of his life on campaigns. The war for the sake of profit and glory was the meaning of his life, state affairs did not interest him. Therefore, Prince Svyatoslav placed domestic policy on the shoulders of Princess Olga.

Prince Svyatoslav made his campaigns unusually quickly, did not carry any wagons and tents with him, ate and slept like a simple warrior. The team treated him with great respect. Svyatoslav greatly valued the opinion of the warriors and, apparently, for this reason he refused to be baptized. The soul of the prince-warrior did not lie to Christianity with its meekness and mercy.

Svyatoslav did not like cunning and did not attack unexpectedly, but warned the enemy, giving him the opportunity to prepare for a combat encounter.

In 964, Svyatoslav decided to make a campaign in Khazaria. His path passed through the Vyatichi, who paid tribute to the Khazars. The Russian prince Svyatoslav forced them to pay himself and continued the campaign, reaching the Volga. The Bulgarians who lived along the Volga had a bad time: Svyatoslav's campaign against Volga Bulgaria ended in the ruin and robbery of cities and villages.

A large Khazar army with the kagan himself came out to meet the Russians. The Khazars were completely defeated (965). Svyatoslav took their city Belaya Vezha, ruined their land. After that, he defeated the Yases and Kosogs, the inhabitants of the Caucasus.

Svyatoslav did not rest long in Kyiv after a series of victories, when an embassy from the Greek emperor Nicephorus II Phocas arrived to him to ask for help against the Danube Bulgarians. In 967, Prince Svyatoslav of Kyiv went to the Danube. The Bulgarians were defeated, many cities were captured. Svyatoslav really liked the rich Bulgarian lands, which occupy an advantageous position in the neighborhood of Byzantium, and he even wanted to move the capital to Pereyaslavets.

The Khazar Khaganate for a long time was like a barrier against the raid of Asian nomads. The defeat of the Khazars by Prince Svyatoslav opened the way for a new horde, the Pechenegs quickly occupied the steppe zone.

In 968, the Pechenegs, bribed by the Byzantine emperor, took advantage of the absence of the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav and surrounded Kyiv. Princess Olga managed to call for help the governor Pretich, who was at that time on the opposite bank of the Dnieper. The Pechenegs thought that Svyatoslav himself with the army was going to the rescue of the city, and retreated. And when Prince Svyatoslav returned to Kyiv, he drove the Pechenegs far into the steppe.

Svyatoslav could not sit still for a long time, but Princess Olga persuaded him to stay, because. I felt like I was about to die.

After the death of his mother in 969, Svyatoslav did not restrain his hatred for the new faith. He killed Christians, incl. dignitaries and relatives, destroyed several temples and churches.

In the same year, Prince Svyatoslav went on a second campaign against Bulgaria, leaving his three sons to rule in his place - Yaropolk, Oleg and Vladimir. At that time, the situation in Greece had changed. Emperor Nikephoros II Phocas was killed, John Tzimiskes took over the throne.

Svyatoslav defeated the Bulgarians and captured the two sons of Tsar Boris. The new Byzantine emperor did not want Svyatoslav's dominance in Bulgaria, because. this would pose a danger to Byzantium. He sent ambassadors to the Russian prince with gifts and a demand to leave Bulgaria. In response, Svyatoslav offered the Greeks to buy out the Bulgarian cities.

The war with the Greeks began. As a result of a long hard battle, the Greeks took possession of Pereyaslavets, almost the entire Russian army perished. Svyatoslav at that time was in Dorostol, where the battle then moved. The Greeks were greatly outnumbered and better armed.

For 3 months Svyatoslav was in the besieged city, enduring hunger, want, and illness with his army. In one of the battles, he, wounded, barely escaped captivity. The Greeks, too, were exhausted by long battles.

The parties entered into an agreement under which Svyatoslav undertook to extradite all captured Greeks, leave Bulgaria and not start a war with Byzantium, and also prevent other tribes from attacking them.

While Prince Svyatoslav fought in Bulgaria, the Pechenegs devastated his lands and almost took possession of Kyiv. They say that the Byzantine emperor informed the Pecheneg leader that Svyatoslav was returning with a small number of soldiers. The Pechenegs lay in wait for the Kyiv prince, a fight ensued, and the Grand Duke Svyatoslav died with all his warriors.

According to legend, the Pecheneg leader Kurya made a cup from the skull of Svyatoslav, decorated it with gold and drank from it at feasts.