Emotion centers are located in the brain. The brain is the basis of the coordinated work of the body

American psychologists have found that patients with bilateral damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex are guided only by reason when solving complex moral dilemmas, while in healthy people emotions play an important role. In imaginary situations, the studied patients do not see the difference between a murder committed in absentia (for example, by pressing a button) and one's own hand, while the difference seems huge to healthy people. Perfectly distinguishing good and evil on a conscious level, such patients are not capable of empathy and never feel guilty.

Eric Kandel, who received the Nobel Prize in 2000 for research on the molecular mechanisms of memory, was fond of psychoanalysis in his youth and became a neuroscientist in the hope of finding out in which parts of the brain the Freudian "ego", "superego" and "id" are located (which, however, he does not succeeded). Half a century ago, such dreams seemed naive, but today neuroscientists have come close to revealing the biological foundations of the most complex aspects of the human psyche.

An article by American psychologists and neuroscientists published in the latest issue of the journal Nature, reports an important success in the study of the material nature of morality and morality, that is, that aspect of the psyche that Sigmund Freud called the "superego" (super-ego). Freud believed that the superego functions largely unconsciously, and, as it turns out, he was quite right.

It was traditionally believed that morality and morality stem from a sound awareness of the norms of behavior accepted in society, from the concepts of good and evil learned in childhood. However, in recent years, a number of facts have been obtained that indicate that moral assessments are not only rational, but also emotional in nature. For example, various disturbances in the emotional sphere are often accompanied by changes in ideas about morality; when solving problems related to moral assessments, the parts of the brain responsible for emotions are excited; Finally, behavioral experiments show that people's attitudes towards various moral dilemmas are highly dependent on their emotional state. So far, however, no one has been able to experimentally show that some area of the brain that specializes in emotions is really necessary for the formation of "normal" judgments about morality.

The authors of the article studied six patients who, in adulthood, received bilateral damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPC). It is known that this part of the brain carries out an emotional assessment of sensory information entering the brain, especially that which has a "social" coloring. VMPK also regulates the body's emotional responses (eg, increased heart rate when seeing a photograph depicting someone's suffering).

Patients were carefully examined by qualified psychologists and neuropathologists, and the examination was carried out "blindly": the doctors did not know what scientific ideas would be tested on the basis of their conclusions. It turned out that all six had a normal level of intelligence (IQ from 80 to 143), memory and emotional background (that is, no pathological mood swings were detected). However, their capacity for empathy was sharply reduced. For example, they almost did not react (at the physiological level) to "emotionally loaded" pictures depicting various catastrophes, crippled people, etc. Moreover, all six patients, as it turned out, were practically unable to feel embarrassment, shame, and guilt. At the same time, on a conscious level, they perfectly understand what is good and what is bad, that is, they are well aware of the accepted social and moral norms of behavior.

Then the subjects were asked to make their judgment about various imaginary situations. There were only 50 situations, and they were divided into three groups: "extra-moral", "moral impersonal" and "moral personal".

Situations from the first group do not require the resolution of any conflicts between the mind and emotions. Here is an example of such a situation: “You bought several pots of flowers in the store, but they all do not fit in the trunk of your car. Will you make two flights so as not to stain the expensive upholstery of the back seat?

Situations from the second group involve morality and emotions, but do not cause a strong internal conflict between utilitarian considerations (how to achieve the maximum "total good") and emotional restrictions or prohibitions. Example: “You are on duty at the hospital. Due to the accident, poisonous gas entered the ventilation system. If you do nothing, the gas will enter the ward with three patients and kill them. The only way to save them is to turn a special lever that will send poisonous gas into the ward where only one patient lies. He will die, but those three will be saved. Will you turn the lever?"

The situations of the third group required the resolution of an acute conflict between utilitarian considerations of the greatest common good and the need to do with one's own hands an act against which emotions rebel. For example, it was proposed to personally kill some stranger in order to save five other strangers. In contrast to the previous case, where the death of the sacrificed was caused by the "impersonal" turning of the lever, here it was necessary to push the person under the wheels of an approaching train with one's own hands or strangle the child.

A complete list of all situations can be read (Pdf, 180 Kb).

The responses of six patients with bilateral damage to the VMPK were compared with the responses of two control groups: healthy people and patients with comparable damage to other brain regions.

Judgments about "extra-moral" and "moral impersonal" situations in all three groups of subjects completely coincided. As for the third category of situations - "moral personal" - contrasting differences were revealed here. People with bilateral damage to the VMPK practically did not see the difference between the "absentee" murder with the help of some kind of lever and with their own hands. They gave almost the same number of positive answers in situations of the second and third categories. Healthy people and those who had other areas of the brain damaged agreed to kill someone with their own hands for the common good three times less often than "in absentia".

Thus, when making moral judgments, people with a damaged CMPC are guided only by reason, that is, by “utilitarian” considerations about the greatest common good. The emotional mechanisms that guide our behavior, sometimes in spite of dry rational arguments, do not function in these people. They (at least in imaginary situations) can easily strangle someone with their hands, if it is known that this action will ultimately yield a greater output of "total good" than inaction.

The results obtained suggest that normally moral judgments are formed under the influence of not only conscious inferences, but also emotions. Apparently, VPMC is necessary for the "normal" (same as in healthy people) resolution of moral dilemmas, but only if the dilemma involves a conflict between reason and emotions. Freud believed that the superego is localized partly in the conscious, partly in the unconscious part of the psyche. Simplifying somewhat, we can say that the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the emotions it generates are necessary for the functioning of the unconscious fragment of the superego, while conscious moral control is successfully carried out without the participation of this cortex.

The authors note that their conclusions should not be extended to all emotions in general, but only to those associated with sympathy, empathy or a sense of personal guilt. Some other emotional reactions in patients with TMJ injuries, on the contrary, are more pronounced than in healthy people. For example, they have a reduced ability to restrain anger, they easily fall into a rage, which can also affect decision-making that affects morality and morality (see: Michael Koenigs, Daniel Tranel. Irrational Economic Decision-Making after Ventromedial Prefrontal Damage: Evidence from the Ultimatum Game // The Journal of Neuroscience, January 24, 2007, 27(4): 951-956).

A practical psychologist, knowing the mechanisms of the emergence of emotions, can help people cope with them, prevent the development of negative emotions, overcome their fear, claustrophobia.

Emotions are one of the manifestations of a person's subjective attitude to the surrounding reality and to himself.

Joy, grief, fear, anger, compassion, bliss, pity, jealousy, indifference, love - there is no end to the words that define different types and shades of emotions. From a physiological point of view, they are the reactions of the body to the impact of external and internal stimuli, which have a pronounced subjective coloring and cover all types of sensitivity.

However, they are manifested not only in subjective experiences, the nature of which we can learn only from a person, and, based on them, build analogies for higher animals, but also in objectively observed external manifestations, characteristic actions, facial expressions, vegetative reactions. These external manifestations are quite expressive.

The state of emotional stress is accompanied by significant changes in the functions of a number of organs and systems, like a fire that engulfs the body. These changes in functions are so intense that they seem like a real "vegetative storm". However, in this "storm" there is a certain order.

Emotions involve in increased activity only those organs and systems that provide better interaction of the organism with the environment.

There is a sharp excitation of the sympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system. With emotions, the subjective state of a person changes. At rest, thinking is often patterned, stereotyped. In moments of emotional upsurge, inspiration comes, discoveries illuminate, the joy of creativity is experienced, and maybe vice versa.

Emotions are a state of the highest rise of a person's spiritual and physical powers only when they are positive. And negative emotions lead to a decline in mental and physical strength. For the emergence of positive emotions, a combination of two factors is necessary: 1) unmet need; 2) an increase in the probability of meeting the need. For the emergence of negative emotions, it is enough - a semantic mismatch between the predicted situation and the afferentation received from the external environment.

It is this mismatch that is observed when the animal does not find food in the feeder, receives bread instead of the expected meat, or even an electric shock. That. positive emotions require a more complex central apparatus than positive emotional states.

Positive emotions represent the apparatus of active disruption of homeostasis. In the form of response reactions of the body that occur in extreme conditions, emotions have been formed in the process of evolution as a mechanism of adaptation. But excessive in severity (positive or negative) emotional reactions can be harmful, leading to a number of diseases. The doctor should be able to prevent the possible consequences of such emotional stress. To do this, you need to know the conditions for triggering emotions. With the help of the mechanisms of emotions, a “private” shift in the body, a change in one of the links of its life activity turns into a “business of the whole organism”, restructures its current activity, mobilizes the organism as a whole to preserve its individual or species existence.

Emotions depend on the individual characteristics of a person and, first of all, on the individual characteristics of his motivational sphere, volitional qualities. But the necessary emotional reaction cannot be caused by direct volitional effort, as K.S.Stanislavsky repeatedly emphasized.

The American psychologist W. James, the creator of one of the first theories in which subjective emotional experience is correlated with physiological functions, described the huge role of emotions in human life in the following words: “Imagine, if possible, that you suddenly lost all the emotions that surround you world, and try to imagine this world as it is in itself, without your favorable or unfavorable assessment, without the hopes or fears it inspires.

This kind of aloof and lifeless performance will be almost impossible for you. For in it no part of the universe should be more important than any other, and the totality of things and events will have no meaning, character, expression or perspective. Everything valuable, interesting and important that each of us finds in his world - all this is a pure product of a contemplative personality. "Physiological bases of emotions.

Emotions are a necessary foundation for the daily and creative life of people. They are caused by the action on the organism, on the receptors and, consequently, on the brain ends of the analyzers of certain environmental stimuli associated with the conditions of existence.

The characteristic physiological processes that occur with emotions are reflexes of the brain. They are caused by the frontal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres through the autonomic centers, the limbic system and the reticular formation.

Excitation from these centers spreads along the autonomic nerves, which directly change the functions of the internal organs, cause the entry of hormones, mediators and metabolites into the blood, affecting the autonomic innervation of organs.

Excitation of the anterior group of nuclei of the hypothalamic region directly behind the optic chiasm causes parasympathetic reactions characteristic of emotions, and sympathetic reactions of the posterior and lateral groups of nuclei.

It should be noted that in some systems of the body during emotions, the sympathetic influences of the hypothalamic region, for example, in the cardiovascular region, prevail, and in others - parasympathetic, for example, in the digestive.

Excitation of the hypothalamic region causes not only vegetative, but also motor reactions.

Due to the predominance of the tone of the sympathetic nuclei in it, it increases the excitability of the cerebral hemispheres and thereby affects thinking. When the sympathetic nervous system is excited, motor activity increases, and when the parasympathetic nervous system is excited, it decreases. As a result of excitation of the sympathetic system and increased plastic tone, numbness of the muscles, the reaction of dying, the freezing of the body in a certain position - catalepsy can occur.

Brain structures involved in emotions.

Before talking about how individual brain structures interact and influence the emergence of emotions, it is necessary to consider each of them separately, their function and structure.

Only in the XX century. information about the brain structures responsible for the emergence of emotions appeared, and the physiological processes that are the basis of emotional states became clear.

The decisive role in the formation of emotions belongs to the limbic system, the reticular formation, the frontal and temporal lobes. 1) Limbic system (HP). HP includes several interconnected formations. It includes the cingulate gyrus, fornix, septum, some nuclei of the anterior region of the thalamus, as well as a small but important part of the brain located below - the hypothalamus (Hpt), amygdala, hippocampus. The last three areas of the brain are the most important, and we will pay attention to them. hpt. Hpt is the highest center of regulation of the body's internal environment. It has neurons that are activated or, on the contrary, reduce activity with changes in the level of glucose in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid, changes in osmotic pressure, hormone levels, etc.

Another way of notifying Hpt about changes in the internal environment is represented by nerve afferent pathways that collect impulses from the receptors of internal organs.

Changes in the parameters of the internal environment reflect a particular need, and Hpt, in accordance with this, forms a motivational dominant.

The neurons of the lateral Hpt interact with some structures of the limbic system, and through the anterior nuclei of the thalamus they influence the associative parietal region of the cortex and the motor cortex, thereby initiating the design of movements. When certain areas of Hpt are surgically damaged, animals lose their feelings of satiety and hunger, which are known to be closely related to the emotional state of pleasure and displeasure. As a result of the loss of these feelings, a well-fed animal devours food uncontrollably and may die from gluttony, while a hungry animal refuses to eat and also dies. Upon stimulation of the upper and anterior sections, Hpt evokes an aggressive reaction in rats, and, having once experienced it, they subsequently avoided it in every possible way.

Apparently, in this case, structures related to the formation of negative emotions are activated. "Zones of pleasure" coincided with the pathways for the transmission of excitation from the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra and the adrenergic neurons of the coeruleus. This means that the synthesis and secretion of dopamine and norepinephrine plays an essential role in the emergence of feelings of pleasure. There are many different receptors in the nuclei of Hpt. Hpt has the ability to perceive changes in the internal environment, as well as shifts in the blood constant, i.e. they have a central receptor function. The totality of currently available evidence suggests that Hpt is a key structure for the implementation of the most ancient reinforcing function of emotions.

Tonsil (almond-shaped nucleus). It's a nut-sized cluster of cells.

Animal experiments show that the amygdala is responsible for aggressive or fearful behavior.

Amygdala involvement in monkeys affects emotional and social behavior and can lead to emotional disturbances similar to those associated with schizophrenia.

The removal of the tonsils with the temporal cortex has been called "Klüver-Bucy's syndrome". Consequences of removal: the feeling of fear disappears, hyperphagia (eats everything), hypersexuality, the loss of the ability for animals to adequately evaluate the result of the committed action and internal emotional experience.

The amygdala, like Hpt, is a motivational structure, but unlike Hpt, the amygdala is guided not so much by internal events as by external stimuli.

The amygdala has more to do with emotions than primal needs, and they determine patterns of behavior by "weighing" competing emotions. "Help" to choose the right solution. With bilateral removal of the tonsils in monkeys, a loss of the ability to normal communication within the herd is observed, isolation and a tendency to solitude are found. The leader who underwent such an operation completely loses his rank, because he ceases to distinguish "good" monkey behavior from "bad". The amygdala plays a decisive role in the implementation of the behavior-switching function of emotions, in the choice of motivation that corresponds not only to a particular need, but also to the external conditions for its satisfaction in a given situation and at a given moment.

Hippocampus.

The hippocampus is located next to the amygdala. Its role in creating emotions is still not very clear, but its close relationship with the amygdala suggests that the hippocampus is also involved in this process.

Damage to the hippocampus leads to memory impairment - to the inability to remember new information.

The hippocampus belongs to information structures, its role is to extract memory traces of previous experience and evaluate the competition of motives.

Motivational excitation of the hippocampus is carried out by Hpt, some of the signals come to it from the septum, and memory traces are retrieved due to the interaction of the hippocampus with the associative cortex.

The ability of the hippocampus to respond to signals of unlikely events allows us to consider it as a key structure for the implementation of the compensatory function of emotions that replaces the lack of information.

The destruction of the hippocampus does not affect emotional behavior.

An analysis of the participation of the hippocampus in the formation of positive and negative emotional states was proposed by the experiments of L.A. Preobrazhenskaya. Experiments clearly show that the role of the hippocampus in the genesis of emotional stress is reduced to assessing the formal novelty of the stimuli acting on the animal.

Septum, fornix and cingulate gyrus.

The cingulate gyrus surrounds the hippocampus and other structures of the limbic system. It performs the function of the highest coordinator of various systems, i.e. makes sure that these systems interact and work together. Near the cingulate gyrus is located a system of fibers running in both directions; it repeats the curvature of the cingulate gyrus and connects the hippocampus with various brain structures, including Hpt. Another structure, the septum, receives input through the fornix from the hippocampus and sends output to Hpt. "stimulation of the septum can provide information about the satisfaction of all (and not individual) internal needs of the body, which, apparently, is necessary for the emergence of a pleasure reaction" (TL Leontovich). The joint activity of the temporal cortex, cingulate gyrus, hippocampus and Hpt is directly related to the emotional sphere of higher animals and humans.

Bilateral removal of the temporal region in monkeys results in symptoms of emotional apathy.

The removal of the temporal lobes in monkeys, together with the hippocampus and amygdala, led to the disappearance of fear, aggressiveness, and difficulty in distinguishing between the quality of food and its suitability for eating. Thus, the integrity of the temporal structures of the brain is necessary to maintain a normal emotional status associated with aggressive-defensive behavior. 2) Reticular formation (R.f.). R.f. plays an important role in emotions. - Structure inside the pons and brainstem.

It is this formation that is most capable of being a "generalizer" of one or another "private" need of the organism. It has a wide and versatile effect on various parts of the central nervous system up to the cerebral cortex, as well as on the receptor apparatus (sense organs). She has a high sensitivity to adrenaline and adrenolytic substances, which once again indicates an organic connection between R.F. and the sympathetic nervous system. It is able to activate various areas of the brain and conduct to its specific areas that information that is new, unusual or biologically significant, i.e. acts as a kind of filter.

Fibers from the neurons of the reticular system go to various areas of the cerebral cortex, some through the thalamus.

It is believed that most of these neurons are "non-specific". This means that the neurons of R.f. can respond to many types of stimuli.

Some sections of the R.f. have specific functions. These structures include the blue spot and the black substance.

A blue spot-dense accumulation of neurons producing in the area of synaptic contacts (to the thalamus, Hpt, cerebral cortex, cerebellum, sp. brain) the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (also produced by the adrenal medulla). Norepinephrine triggers an emotional response.

Perhaps norepinephrine also plays a role in the occurrence of reactions subjectively perceived as pleasure.

Another area of R.f. - substantia nigra is a cluster of neurons that release mediatordopamine.

Dopamine contributes to some pleasurable sensations. It is involved in creating euphoria. R.F. plays an important role in regulating the level of performance of the cerebral cortex, in the change of sleep and wakefulness, in the phenomena of hypnosis and neurotic states. 3) The cerebral cortex.

Emotions are one of the reflective sides, i.e. mental activity.

Consequently, they are associated with the cortex - the highest part of the brain, but to a large extent with the subcortical formations of the brain, which are in charge of the regulation of the heart, respiration, metabolism, sleep and wakefulness. Currently, a large amount of experimental and clinical data has been accumulated on the role of the cerebral hemispheres in the regulation of emotions.

The areas of the cortex that play the largest role in emotions are the frontal lobes, to which there are direct neural connections from the thalamus. The temporal lobes are also involved in creating emotions.

The frontal lobes are directly related to the assessment of the probabilistic characteristics of the environment. When emotions arise, the frontal cortex plays the role of identifying highly significant signals and screening out secondary ones. This allows you to direct behavior towards the achievement of real goals, where the satisfaction of the need can be predicted with a high degree of probability. Based on a comparison of all the information, the frontal cortex provides a choice of a specific behavior pattern.

Due to the anterior neocortex, behavior is oriented towards signals of high probability events, while responses to signals with a low probability of reinforcement are inhibited.

Bilateral damage to the frontal (frontal) cortex in monkeys leads to a prediction disorder that does not recover for 2-3 years.

A similar defect is observed in patients with pathology of the frontal lobes, which are characterized by a stereotypical repetition of the same actions that have lost their meaning.

Orientation to the signals of highly probable events makes the behavior adequate and effective.

However, in special conditions, in situations with a significant degree of uncertainty, with a clear lack of pragmatic information, it is necessary to take into account the possibility of unlikely events. Preservation of the hippocampal second "informational" structure of the brain is important for reactions to signals with the required probability of their reinforcement.

The frontal parts of the neocortex are directly related to the assessment of the probabilistic characteristics of the environment.

Data are gradually accumulating that testify to the role of interhemispheric asymmetry in the formation of emotions. To date, the information theory of P.V. Simonova is the only complete system of ideas about the formation of emotions, only it allows you to connect the behavioral functions of emotions with the structures of the brain necessary for these functions.

The defeat of the frontal lobes leads to profound disturbances in the emotional sphere of a person.

2 syndromes develop predominantly: emotional dullness and disinhibition of lower emotions and drives. With injuries in the region of the frontal lobes of the brain, changes in mood are observed - from euphoria to depression, loss of the ability to plan, apathy. This is due to the fact that the limbic system, as the main "reservoir" of emotions, is closely connected with different areas of the cerebral cortex, especially with the temporal (memory), parietal (orientation in space) and frontal lobes of the brain (prediction, associative thinking, intelligence). It is time to consider their interaction in the formation of emotions, their role and significance.

Nerve centers of emotions. The life of most people is aimed at reducing suffering and extracting as much pleasure as possible.

Pleasure or suffering depends on the activity of certain brain structures.

American physiologist Walter Cannon in the 30s. came to the conclusion that the flow of excitation arising from the action of emotional stimuli in the thalamus is split into two parts: to the cortex, which causes the subjective manifestation of emotions (feeling of fear or confidence), and to Hpt, which is accompanied by vegetative shifts characteristic of emotions. Later, these ideas were refined and detailed in connection with the discovery of the role of the limbic system in the formation of emotions. In the center of this system is Hpt, which owns a key position, and outside the frontal and temporal areas of the cortex interact with the limbic system.

The reticular formation of the brain stem maintains the level of activity of the limbic system necessary for the functioning. The role of individual brain structures can be judged by the results of their stimulation through electrodes implanted in the brain tissue.

Thanks to this method, extremely small areas of Hpt were identified, the stimulation of which led to the appearance of feeding or defensive behavior, accompanied by characteristic vegetative reactions. Such structures can be defined as motivational.

The most common neurotransmitter for them is norepinephrine. When using this method, areas of the brain were found, the stimulation of which was accompanied by the appearance of positive and negative emotions.

Positive emotions were obtained by stimulating the nuclei of the septum (euphoria), the limbic structures of the midbrain, and the anterior nuclei of the thalamus.

Dopamine and endorphins are the main contenders for the role of a mediator of emotionally positive structures.

An increase in the formation of endorphins leads to an improvement in mood, removal of emotional stress, reduction or elimination of pain.

Negative emotions were obtained with irritation of the tonsils and some areas of Hpt. The mediator for these structures is serotonin.

In addition to motivational and emotional structures, there are informational structures. These include the hippocampus, with irritation of which confusion is noted, a temporary loss of contact with the doctor. According to the type of mediator, such structures most often turn out to be cholinergic.

Emotions are "launched" by the brain, but are realized with the participation of the ANS. Indicators of emotional reactions are changes in blood pressure, heart rate and respiration, temperature, pupil width, saliva secretion, etc. At the same time, the sympathetic department mobilizes the energy and resources of the body. As you know, emotions do not arise by themselves, but everything begins with the needs of the body.

The needs of the body are primarily perceived by the chemoreceptors of the bloodstream and special central chemoreceptors, which are represented in the central nervous system. Some areas of the reticular formation of the brain stem and Hpt are also especially rich in them. Irritated areas are excited.

Excitation is addressed to the limbic formations of the brain.

The latter combine such morphological formations as the septum, amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, fornix of the brain and mamillary bodies. The exit of hypothalamic excitations to these brain structures is carried out through the medial bundle of the forebrain.

An analysis of the functions of the anterior neocortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and Hpt indicates that the interaction of these brain structures is necessary for the organization of behavior. With increased hypothalamic excitation, the latter through the anterior nuclei of the thalamus begins to spread to the anterior sections of the cerebral cortex.

Conclusion. In this work, we examined the interaction of individual brain structures and their influence on the emergence of emotions, and concluded that a single brain structure cannot cause an emotion, i.e. alone, no one can do anything. It's like fingers on a hand. One can do little, but together they are strong. The most valuable information about the mechanisms of the emergence of emotions contains theories. They contain the very foundations of the formation of emotional states. In some ways, the theories are similar, in some ways they are not, one continues to develop the thought of the other, the other refutes.

For example, according to James and Lange, an external stimulus causes a reaction, a complex of effector shifts in muscles and internal organs, and nerve impulses from these organs give rise to an emotional state for the second time.

Cannon refutes this theory and puts forward his own that the emergence of an emotional state is associated with the involvement of the nerve centers of the thalamus.

The specific quality of emotion is added, according to Cannon, to a simple sensation when the thalamic processes are excited.

Exploring the structures of the brain, we found out that: 1. The role of the most important motivational structure, especially if it is associated with biological needs (dominant need). It plays an important role in the formation of the reinforcing function. 2. The amygdala plays an important role, but not the primary one - a subdominant. 3. The tonsil provides a switching function. 4. The frontal and temporal areas of the cortex provide a reflective-evaluative function, but a separate frontal cortex forms emotional behavior. 5. The frontal neocortex is especially important for highlighting highly probable forecasts, actions, and events. 6. Hippocampal informational structure (if we are talking about unlikely events). Plays a role in the formation of a compensatory (replacing) function.

Emotion is a reflection by the brain of the strength of the need and the likelihood of its satisfaction at the moment.

Emotions are ideal because, on the basis of previously accumulated experience, they reflect the probabilities of the effectiveness of actions before the actions themselves begin to be realized.

Emotions always bear the imprint of subjectivity. Under the influence of a negative emotion, the system will strive to quickly satisfy the need that caused this emotion, to eliminate this need.

Features of human emotions are determined primarily by the specifics of the main human needs.

Literature. 1. Pavlov I.P. Journal of higher nervous activity // M: Science, volume 47, issue 2, 1997. 2. Human physiology.

Journal // MAIK: Science, volume 24, number 2, 1998. 3. Honey.

Bulletin: Lectures on the physiology of the central nervous system// No. 6`96. (37) 4. Danilova N.N., Krylova A.L. Physiology of GND // M: Educational literature, 1997. 5. Physiology of man and animals //ed. A.B. Kogan, M: Higher School, volume 2, 1984. 6. Human Physiology// ed. G.I. Kositsky. M: Medicine, 1985 7. Sudakov K.V. Biological motivations // M: Medicine, 1971. 8. Galperin S.I. Physiology of man and animals // M, 1970. 9. Simonov P.V. Theory of reflection and psychophysiology of emotions // M: Science, 1970 10. Simonov P.V. human GNI.

Functions of emotions

The biological significance of emotions is that they allow a person to quickly assess their internal state, the need that has arisen, and the possibility of satisfying it. For example, the true nutritional need for the amount of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, salts, etc. we evaluate through the corresponding emotion. This is an experience of hunger or a feeling of satiety.

There are several functions of emotions: reflective (evaluative), motivating, reinforcing, switching and communicative.

The reflective function of emotions is expressed in a generalized assessment of events. Emotions cover the whole organism and thus produce an almost instantaneous integration, a generalization of all types of activities that it performs, which allows, first of all, to determine the usefulness and harmfulness of the factors affecting it and to react before the localization of the harmful effect is determined. An example is the behavior of a person who has received a limb injury. Focusing on pain, a person immediately finds a position that reduces pain.

The emotional evaluative abilities of a person are formed not only on the basis of the experience of his individual experiences, but also as a result of emotional empathy that arises in communication with other people, in particular through the perception of works of art, the media.

The evaluative or reflective function of an emotion is directly related to its motivating function. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word “emotion” comes from the French verb “mouvoir”, meaning “to set in motion”. It began to be used in the 17th century, talking about feelings (joy, desire, pain, etc.) as opposed to thoughts. Emotion reveals the search zone, where the solution to the problem, the satisfaction of the need will be found. Emotional experience contains an image of the object of satisfying the need and attitude towards it, which prompts a person to act.

P.V.Simonov highlights the reinforcing function of emotions. It is known that emotions are directly involved in the processes of learning and memory. Significant events that cause emotional reactions are quickly and permanently imprinted in memory. Successful learning requires motivational arousal.

The real reinforcement for the development of a conditioned reflex (classical and instrumental) is a reward.

The reinforcing function of emotions was most successfully studied on the experimental model of "emotional resonance" proposed by P.V. Simonov. It was found that the emotional reactions of some animals may arise under the influence of negative emotional states of other individuals exposed to electrocutaneous stimulation. This model reproduces the situation of the emergence of negative emotional states in a community, typical for social relationships, and makes it possible to study the functions of emotions in the purest form without the direct action of pain stimuli.

Under natural conditions, human activity and animal behavior are determined by many needs of different levels. Their interaction is expressed in the competition of motives that manifest themselves in emotional experiences. Evaluations through emotional experiences have a motivating power and can determine the choice of behavior.

The switching function of emotions is especially clearly revealed in the competition of motives, as a result of which the dominant need is determined. So, in extreme conditions, a struggle may arise between the natural human instinct for self-preservation and the social need to follow a certain ethical standard, it is experienced in the form of a struggle between fear and a sense of duty, fear and shame. The outcome depends on the strength of motives, on personal attitudes.

There are genetically predetermined universal complexes of behavioral reactions that express the emergence of basic fundamental emotions. The genetic determinism of expressive reactions is confirmed by the similarity of expressive facial movements in the blind and the sighted (smile, laughter, tears). Differences in facial movements between blind and seeing young children are very small. However, with age, the facial expressions of the sighted become more expressive and generalized, while in the blind it not only does not improve, but even regresses. Consequently, mimic movements have not only a genetic determinant, but also strongly depend on training and education.

Physiologists have found that the expressive movements of animals are controlled by an independent neurophysiological mechanism. By stimulating various hypothalamic points in awake cats with electrical currents, the researchers were able to detect two types of aggressive behavior: "affective aggression" and "cold-blooded" attack. To do this, they placed a cat in the same cage as a rat and studied the effect of stimulating the cat's hypothalamus on its behavior. When some points of the hypothalamus are stimulated in a cat, at the sight of a rat, affective aggression occurs. She pounces on the rat with her claws extended, hissing, i.e. its behavior includes behavioral responses that display aggression, which usually serve to intimidate in the struggle for superiority or for territory. During a "cold-blooded" attack, which is observed when another group of points on the hypothalamus is stimulated, the cat catches the rat and grabs it with its teeth without any sounds or external emotional manifestations, i.e. her predatory behavior is not accompanied by a display of aggression. Finally, by changing the location of the electrode once more, the cat can be induced to behave in a rage behavior without attacking. Thus, demonstrative reactions of animals expressing an emotional state may or may not be included in the animal's behavior. The centers or group of centers responsible for the expression of emotions are located in the hypothalamus.

2. Physiological expression of emotions

Emotions are expressed not only in motor reactions: facial expressions, gestures, but also in the level of tonic muscle tension. In the clinic, muscle tone is often used as a measure of affect. Many consider increased muscle tone as an indicator of a negative emotional state (discomfort), a state of anxiety. The tonic reaction is diffuse, generalized, captures all the muscles and thus makes it difficult to perform movements. Ultimately, it leads to tremors and chaotic, uncontrollable movements.

Persons suffering from various conflicts, and especially with neurotic deviations, are characterized, as a rule, by greater stiffness of movements than others. R. Malmo with colleagues showed that muscle tension in mental patients is higher than in the control group. It is especially high in psychoneurotic patients with a predominance of pathological anxiety. Many psychotherapeutic techniques are associated with the removal of this tension, for example, relaxation methods and autogenic training. They teach you to relax, which reduces irritability, anxiety and related disorders.

One of the most sensitive indicators of changes in the emotional state of a person is his voice. Special methods have been developed that allow one to recognize the occurrence of emotional experiences by voice, as well as to differentiate them by sign (positive and negative). To do this, the voice of a person recorded on a magnetic tape is subjected to frequency analysis. With the help of a computer, the speech signal is decomposed into a frequency spectrum. It has been established that as emotional stress increases, the width of the frequency spectrum of spoken words and sounds expands and shifts to the region of higher frequency components. At the same time, for negative emotions, the spectral energy is concentrated in the lower-frequency part of the shifted spectrum, and for positive emotions, in its high-frequency zone. These shifts in the spectrum of the speech signal can be caused even by a very large physical load. This method allows in 90% of cases to correctly determine the increase in emotional stress, which makes it especially promising for studying human states.

An important component of emotion are changes in the activity of the autonomic nervous system. Vegetative manifestations of emotions are very diverse: changes in skin resistance (SGR), heart rate, blood pressure, vasodilation and constriction, skin temperature, hormonal and chemical composition of blood, etc. It is known that during rage, the level of norepinephrine and adrenaline in the blood increases, the heart rate quickens, the blood flow is redistributed in favor of the muscles and the brain, the pupils dilate. Through these effects, the animal is prepared for the intense physical activity necessary for survival.

Changes in the biocurrents of the brain constitute a special group of emotional reactions. Physiologists believe that in animals the EEG correlate of emotional stress is the alert rhythm (or hippocampal theta rhythm), the pacemaker of which is located in the septum. Its strengthening and synchronization are observed when the animal develops defensive, orienting-exploratory behavior. The hippocampal theta rhythm also increases during paradoxical sleep, one of the features of which is a sharp increase in emotional tension. In humans, such a bright EEG indicator of the emotional state as the hippocampal theta rhythm of an animal cannot be found. A rhythm similar to the hippocampal theta rhythm is generally poorly expressed in humans. Only during the performance of certain verbal operations and writing in the human hippocampus is it possible to observe an increase in the regularity, frequency, and amplitude of the theta rhythm.

The emotional states of a person are reflected in the EEG, most likely in a change in the ratio of the main rhythms: delta, theta, alpha and beta. EEG changes characteristic of emotions most clearly occur in the frontal regions. According to some data, alpha-rhythm and slow EEG components are recorded in individuals with dominance of positive emotions, and beta activity is recorded in individuals with a predominance of anger.

P.Ya. Balanov, V.L. Deglin and N.N. Nikolaenko used electroconvulsive therapy by the method of unipolar seizures to regulate emotional states in patients, which are caused by the application of electrical stimulation to one side of the head - right or left. They found that positive emotional states were associated with increased alpha activity in the left hemisphere, and negative emotional states were associated with increased alpha activity in the right hemisphere and increased delta activity in the left hemisphere.

In addition, the appearance of emotional states is accompanied by changes in the electrical activity of the amygdala. In patients with implanted electrodes in the amygdala, when discussing emotionally colored events, an increase in high-frequency oscillations in its electrical activity was found. In patients with temporal lobe epilepsy, who are characterized by pronounced emotional disturbances in the form of increased irritability, malice, rudeness, epileptic electrical activity was registered in the dorsomedial part of the tonsil. The destruction of this section of the tonsil makes the patient non-aggressive.

Brain structures involved in emotions.

Before talking about how individual brain structures interact and influence the emergence of emotions, it is necessary to consider each of them separately, their function and structure. Only in the XX century. information about the brain structures responsible for the emergence of emotions appeared, and the physiological processes that are the basis of emotional states became clear.

The decisive role in the formation of emotions belongs to the limbic system, the reticular formation, the frontal and temporal lobes.

1) Limbic system (HP).

HP includes several interconnected formations. It includes the cingulate gyrus, fornix, septum, some nuclei of the anterior region of the thalamus, as well as a small but important part of the brain located below - the hypothalamus (Hpt), amygdala, hippocampus. The last three areas of the brain are the most important, and we will pay attention to them.

hppt. Hpt is the highest center of regulation of the internal environment of the body. It has neurons that are activated or, on the contrary, reduce activity with changes in the level of glucose in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid, changes in osmotic pressure, hormone levels, etc. Another way of notifying Hpt about changes in the internal environment is represented by nerve afferent pathways that collect impulses from the receptors of internal organs. Changes in the parameters of the internal environment reflect a particular need, and Hpt, in accordance with this, forms a motivational dominant. The neurons of the lateral Hpt interact with some structures of the limbic system, and through the anterior nuclei of the thalamus they influence the associative parietal region of the cortex and the motor cortex, thereby initiating the design of movements.

When certain areas of Hpt are surgically damaged, animals lose their feelings of satiety and hunger, which are known to be closely related to the emotional state of pleasure and displeasure. As a result of the loss of these feelings, a well-fed animal devours food uncontrollably and may die from gluttony, while a hungry animal refuses to eat and also dies.

Upon stimulation of the upper and anterior sections, Hpt evokes an aggressive reaction in rats, and, having once experienced it, they subsequently avoided it in every possible way. Apparently, in this case, structures related to the formation of negative emotions are activated. "Zones of pleasure" coincided with the pathways for the transmission of excitation from the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra and the adrenergic neurons of the coeruleus. This means that the synthesis and secretion of dopamine and norepinephrine plays an essential role in the emergence of feelings of pleasure. There are many different receptors in the nuclei of Hpt. Hpt has the ability to perceive changes in the internal environment, as well as shifts in the blood constant, i.e. they have a central receptor function.

The totality of currently available evidence suggests that Hpt is a key structure for the implementation of the most ancient reinforcing function of emotions.

· Tonsil (almond-shaped nucleus). It's a nut-sized cluster of cells. Animal experiments show that the amygdala is responsible for aggressive or fearful behavior. Amygdala involvement in monkeys affects emotional and social behavior and can lead to emotional disturbances similar to those associated with schizophrenia. The removal of the tonsils with the temporal cortex has been called "Klüver-Bucy syndrome". Consequences of removal: the feeling of fear disappears, hyperphagia (eats everything), hypersexuality, the loss of the ability for animals to adequately evaluate the result of the committed action and internal emotional experience.

The amygdala, like Hpt, is a motivational structure, but unlike Hpt, the amygdala is guided not so much by internal events as by external stimuli. The amygdala has more to do with emotions than primal needs, and they determine patterns of behavior by "weighing" competing emotions. "Help" to choose the right solution. With bilateral removal of the tonsils in monkeys, a loss of the ability to normal communication within the herd is observed, isolation and a tendency to solitude are found. The leader who underwent such an operation completely loses his rank, because he ceases to distinguish "good" monkey behavior from "bad".

The amygdala plays a decisive role in the implementation of the behavior-switching function of emotions, in the choice of motivation that corresponds not only to a particular need, but also to the external conditions for its satisfaction in a given situation and at a given moment.

Hippocampus. The hippocampus is located next to the amygdala. Its role in creating emotions is still not very clear, but its close relationship with the amygdala suggests that the hippocampus is also involved in this process. Damage to the hippocampus leads to memory impairment - to the inability to remember new information.

The hippocampus belongs to information structures, its role is to extract memory traces of previous experience and evaluate the competition of motives. Motivational excitation of the hippocampus is carried out by Hpt, some of the signals come to it from the septum, and memory traces are retrieved due to the interaction of the hippocampus with the associative cortex.

Septum, fornix and cingulate gyrus.

Another structure, the septum, receives input through the fornix from the hippocampus and sends output to Hpt. "... stimulation of the septum can provide information about the satisfaction of all (and not individual) internal needs of the body, which, apparently, is necessary for the emergence of a pleasure reaction" (TL Leontovich).

The joint activity of the temporal cortex, cingulate gyrus, hippocampus and Hpt is directly related to the emotional sphere of higher animals and humans. Bilateral removal of the temporal region in monkeys results in symptoms of emotional apathy.

2) Reticular formation (R.f.).

R.f. plays an important role in emotions. - Structure inside the pons and brainstem. It is this formation that is most capable of being a "generalizer" of one or another "private" need of the organism. It has a wide and versatile effect on various parts of the central nervous system up to the cerebral cortex, as well as on the receptor apparatus (sense organs). She has a high sensitivity to adrenaline and adrenolytic substances, which once again indicates an organic connection between R.F. and the sympathetic nervous system. It is able to activate various areas of the brain and conduct to its specific areas that information that is new, unusual or biologically significant, i.e. acts as a kind of filter. Fibers from the neurons of the reticular system go to various areas of the cerebral cortex, some through the thalamus. It is believed that most of these neurons are "non-specific". This means that the neurons of R.f. can respond to many types of stimuli.

Some sections of the R.f. have specific functions. These structures include the blue spot and the black substance. A blue spot is a dense accumulation of neurons producing in the area of synaptic contacts (to the thalamus, Hpt, cerebral cortex, cerebellum, spinal cord) the neurotransmitter norepinephrine (also produced by the adrenal medulla). Norepinephrine triggers an emotional response. Perhaps norepinephrine also plays a role in the occurrence of reactions subjectively perceived as pleasure. Another section of R. f. - substantia nigra - is a cluster of neurons that release the mediator - dopamine. Dopamine contributes to some pleasurable sensations. It is involved in creating euphoria. R.F. plays an important role in regulating the level of performance of the cerebral cortex, in the change of sleep and wakefulness, in the phenomena of hypnosis and neurotic states.

3) The cerebral cortex.

Emotions are one of the reflective sides, i.e. mental activity. Consequently, they are associated with the cortex - the highest part of the brain, but to a large extent - with the subcortical formations of the brain, which are in charge of the regulation of the heart, respiration, metabolism, sleep and wakefulness.

Currently, a large amount of experimental and clinical data has been accumulated on the role of the cerebral hemispheres in the regulation of emotions. The areas of the cortex that play the largest role in emotions are the frontal lobes, to which there are direct neural connections from the thalamus. The temporal lobes are also involved in creating emotions.

Due to the anterior neocortex, behavior is oriented towards signals of high probability events, while responses to signals with a low probability of reinforcement are inhibited. Bilateral damage to the frontal (frontal) cortex in monkeys leads to a prediction disorder that does not recover for 2-3 years. A similar defect is observed in patients with pathology of the frontal lobes, which are characterized by a stereotypical repetition of the same actions that have lost their meaning. Orientation to signals of high-probability events of the case

The frontal parts of the neocortex are directly related to the assessment of the probabilistic characteristics of the environment.

The defeat of the frontal lobes leads to profound disturbances in the emotional sphere of a person. 2 syndromes develop predominantly: emotional dullness and disinhibition of lower emotions and drives. With injuries in the area of the frontal lobes of the brain, changes in mood are observed - from euphoria to depression, loss of the ability to plan, apathy. This is due to the fact that the limbic system, as the main "reservoir" of emotions, is closely connected with different areas of the cerebral cortex, especially with the temporal (memory), parietal (orientation in space) and frontal lobes of the brain (prediction, associative thinking, intelligence).

Conclusion

Emotions are a necessary foundation for the daily and creative life of people. They are caused by the action on the body, on the receptors and, consequently, on the brain ends of the analyzers of certain environmental stimuli associated with the conditions of existence. The characteristic physiological processes that occur with emotions are reflexes of the brain. They are caused by the frontal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres through the autonomic centers, the limbic system and the reticular formation. Excitation from these centers spreads along the autonomic nerves, which directly change the functions of the internal organs, cause the entry of hormones, mediators and metabolites into the blood, affecting the autonomic innervation of organs.

Excitation of the anterior group of nuclei of the hypothalamic region directly behind the optic chiasm causes parasympathetic reactions characteristic of emotions, and the posterior and lateral groups of nuclei cause sympathetic reactions. Excitation of the hypothalamic region causes not only vegetative, but also motor reactions. Due to the predominance of the tone of the sympathetic nuclei in it, it increases the excitability of the cerebral hemispheres and thereby affects thinking.

When the sympathetic nervous system is excited, motor activity increases, and when the parasympathetic nervous system is excited, it decreases.

Emotions are one of the manifestations of a person's subjective attitude to the surrounding reality and to himself. Joy, grief, fear, anger, compassion, bliss, pity, jealousy, indifference, love - there is no end to the words that define different types and shades of emotions. From a physiological point of view, they are the reactions of the body to the impact of external and internal stimuli, which have a pronounced subjective coloring and cover all types of sensitivity. However, they are manifested not only in subjective experiences, the nature of which we can learn only from a person, and, based on them, build analogies for higher animals, but also in objectively observed external manifestations, characteristic actions, facial expressions, vegetative reactions. These external manifestations are quite expressive.

Analysis of the dynamics, composition and structure of financial resources

Analysis and evaluation of optimization of the structure of debt and equity capital

Analysis of the logical structure of reasoning texts. Techniques for their construction

Consumer analysis can entail an analysis of customer trends, motivations, segment structure and unmet needs

Analysis of the current state of the organizational structure of the CSSPO RANEPA

Analysis of the composition, structure, dynamics of the organization's assets and evaluation of the effectiveness of their use

The mechanisms by which emotions arise and their influence on bodily functions are complex. They developed in the process of evolution, contributing to the optimal solution of problems that are important from a biological point of view.

The material basis of the world of human feelings, emotions - the nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, as well as two types of nerve conductors. Some originate in the tissues of internal organs, in muscles, skin, etc., where there are, as it were, microminiature sensors that receive signals about the course of life processes in tissues and environmental stimuli (temperature, pain, tactile). These signals - impulses are transmitted to the "upper floors", to the brain centers.

Signals also go from there - either to the internal organs (along the vegetative fibers), or to the muscles (along the motor ones).

The autonomic nervous system regulates the metabolism and life support of the organs and systems of the body. Some of its fibers (sympathetic) transmit impulses that originate in higher sympathetic centers. They dilate the pupil, increase the tone of blood vessels, increase cardiac activity and inhibit motor activity (peristalsis) of the gastrointestinal tract.

Fibers of another type (parasympathetic) originate in higher parasympathetic centers and have the opposite effect. They constrict the pupil, reduce the strength and frequency of heart contractions, increase the peristalsis of the stomach and intestines, as well as the activity of secreting digestive enzymes.

These are, so to speak, the lower divisions of the neuroregulatory apparatus. They are subordinate to the higher regulatory centers in the brain.

Neither sympathetic nor parasympathetic higher centers determine neuropsychic activity. But its intensity, tension and direction in a certain way affects the state and reactions of the internal organs of the cardiovascular, respiratory and other systems. The connections between the vegetative functions of organs and the emotional background of life are especially close and obvious. It has now been established which parts of the brain are responsible for the formation of emotions.

The oldest part of it is the brain stem. In its structure there is a so-called diencephalon, consisting of the thalamus and hypothalamus. Together with other formations of the brainstem, this part of the brain is called the subcortex, since it is covered from above by an evolutionarily younger section - the cortex or mantle.

This is the highest coordinating and regulating formation of the body, a kind of command post. The focus of emotions is the subcortex (the hypothalamus and some other formations), and the cerebral cortex is the highest integrator of impulses. And at the same time, the higher vegetative (sympathetic and parasympathetic) centers are organically included in those parts of the brain that are responsible for the emergence of emotions, being, as it were, part of the apparatus of emotions.

From instincts to emotions

The external environment had a decisive influence on the evolution of all living things. This was expressed not only in the fact that under the influence of its individual factors (radiation, other physical or chemical agents) new properties (mutations) arose in organisms. They also appeared under other circumstances, for example, as a result of various combinations of hereditary substances during crossing. The emerging new properties could be fixed in subsequent generations or disappear without a trace. The role of a sorter, a sorter of these properties in the process of evolutionary development was played by the same external environment.

If a new quality in the specific conditions of existence increased the adaptive capabilities of the organism, then in subsequent generations the owners of this quality became more and more. It could facilitate the way to protect or obtain food, provide a large and viable population, or contribute to the settlement of the undeveloped spaces of the planet.

If a new quality reduced adaptability, then the owners of this quality, as less adapted, quickly perished in the struggle with the external environment. The external environment, as it were, made a selection of the most successful options and gave them a "green light".

However, everyone has heard, read about meaning, heredity (mutations), variability and natural selection, and there is no point in repeating them here. It is only important to emphasize that under the influence of EVOLUTION living organisms have developed certain forms of response to external stimuli.

The simplest of them are instincts. This is a coded and transmitted from generation to generation program of the body's activity under the influence of various factors. The instincts of motherhood, protective, sexual and others are stable hereditary reactions. They are observed in highly organized animals or represent a lifelong program in insects.

The life of a bee, like that of an ant, is programmed from beginning to end. The program determines the reproduction and preservation of offspring, obtaining food, protection, etc. But this program is too rigid, non-plastic, it is not capable of adapting the body to the whole variety of external influences. In higher mammals, in the process of evolution, the main, most important reactions for the preservation of life, were programmed in the hereditary substance. In addition, in the process of evolution, they developed an apparatus for emergency response to certain environmental influences. This is the apparatus of emotions. It provides high adaptability depending on the nature of environmental influences. Thus, the apparatus of emotions is a system of biological adaptation, supplementing and refining the programmed reactions in the specific conditions of the external environment. Emotions do not arise on their own. They arise under the influence of the activity of the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex receives information about the state of the external and internal environment of the body. Through analysis and synthesis, she draws a conclusion about their condition and only if necessary (danger / damage to the integrity of the body or threat to it, lack of food, etc.) turns on the apparatus of emotions.

Here is an approximate scheme for the emergence of one of the simplest emotions - the feeling of hunger. When the body uses up the nutrients it has received from food, it begins to experience unpleasant, restless feelings, which we call hunger. The mechanism of their appearance is as follows. Deficiency of nutrients and especially blood glucose irritates the nerve endings. Impulses are transmitted to the subcortical formations of the brain (thalamus and hypothalamus), and then to the cortex. After analyzing the impulses and evaluating the state of the external environment (lack of food), the cortex draws a conclusion and sends discharges to the formations of the subcortex, which we called the apparatus of emotions. This is where the discomfort comes in. Excitation from the apparatus of emotion is again sent to the cerebral cortex and changes its activity. All activities are stopped, except for one, aimed at searching, obtaining food. This is how a behavioral act is formed under the influence of the apparatus of emotions. For a predatory animal, for example, it will be a search and hunt for a victim. It can be seen that the behavioral response is adequate to the state of the organism. The mechanism of occurrence of other simple emotions (fear, pain, rage) is the same. It has no fundamental differences between humans and animals.

Emotions, once arising as a result of any motivation, exist until purposeful actions eliminate the cause that caused them. In case of hunger, this will be saturation, in case of danger, it will be avoiding it or defeating the enemy, etc. At the same time, negative emotions are replaced by positive ones.

Incidentally, this is the basis for the development of conditioned reflex connections, and, consequently, for learning and the accumulation of life experience. The apparatus of emotions in a person has reached an extremely high degree of development, which is due to the influence of the social environment. The world of his emotions is not limited to elementary physiological reactions, as in animals. A person has emotions of a higher order - these are his feelings caused by the social environment, we will bring them up, they are crucial in the emergence of emotions in a person.

A few more words about positive emotions. Positive emotions always bring pleasure. Scientists know that any emotions tone up, enhance the activity of the cerebral cortex. In the learning process, positive emotions are of great importance. It was shown that in the case when the student likes the subject, his assimilation occurs much faster than in the case of an indifferent attitude to the subject.

The emotional complex (positive or negative) has visible and invisible components. The visible components of emotions include speech, facial expressions, gestures and motor reactions in general, while the invisible components include changes in the activity of internal organs and systems. First of all, the tone of the autonomic nervous system changes, followed by the activity of the cardiovascular system, endocrine glands and metabolism. Invisible components are uncontrollable, and visible components can be suppressed by willpower. Education can achieve the suppression of the external component of emotions, but not the internal one. The same upbringing can ensure that emotions do not arise at all under the action of certain factors of the social environment. So, for example, people who are accustomed to work either do not experience any emotions at the same time, or they have a feeling of satisfaction. If a person is not accustomed to work, work always gives rise to negative emotions.

CHAPTER 16

Most people believe that emotions only prevent us from making intelligent choices, but this is not the case. Emotions (as opposed to mood) arise in response to events in the world around us and help our brains focus on crucial information - from the threat of physical harm to social opportunities. Emotions help us choose these behaviors to achieve the desired goal and avoid what we fear.

Most decisions in life cannot be based solely on logical reasoning because the information we have is usually incomplete or ambiguous. How easy it is to decide whether to change jobs, if you know in advance how you will cope with the new one and how much it will satisfy you. Usually, however, all we have is an intuition that we should try. This works great as long as your orbitofrontal cortex, a key part of the brain's emotional system, is in order.

When this area is damaged, people face big problems. One famous patient, EVR, was the CFO of a small company living with his wife and two children when, at the age of 35, he was diagnosed with a tumor in the front of his brain. During the operation, most of his orbitofrontal cortex was removed. After that, he was still able to have reasonable conversations about the economy, imports, and current events, and to reason about difficult financial and ethical situations. His memory and intelligence hadn't changed, but it wasn't him anymore. EVR ran into problems when trying to make the simplest solution. He spent a long time comparing different shirts in the morning, trying to determine which one was better. More difficult choices were not easy for him. Pretty soon he lost his job, his wife left him, and after an unsuccessful attempt to start a new business, he moved in with his parents. EVR married a prostitute, but she left him six months later.

Such catastrophic outcomes are common in people with damage to the orbitofrontal cortex (although the outcome of brain damage also depends largely on individual genes, life history, and personal characteristics before the onset of the defect). Many patients retain the ability to plan and execute complex sequences of actions, but they do not seem to consider the consequences of their behavior. They don't show much concern in the face of a very risky venture, they don't get embarrassed by acts that most of us would find offensive.

In fact, they do not seem to feel the social emotions that would be appropriate in certain situations, although they do have other emotions. This may be due to the fact that it is difficult for them to track their own behavior and how it corresponds to social rules. If the damage occurs in adulthood, then patients may correctly name the existing rules, but usually they simply do not apply them in life. Those whose brains were damaged in childhood cannot even describe the existing norms of social interactions, and not only follow them.

Did you know? Emotions and memory

Chances are, you remember your last vacation better than your last visit to the post office. Psychologists have long known that emotionally charged events leave more vivid memories. Emotional uplift provides a longer storage of important details of experience, sometimes at the expense of forgetting less important details. People with damaged amygdala do not have this enhanced memory for the basic details of an emotionally charged event, which means that this part of the brain is most likely responsible for the influence of emotions on memory. The amygdala is involved in the process of remembering important situations in both positive and negative emotions.

An emotional high causes the release of adrenaline, which activates the vagus nerve - part of the sympathetic nervous system (controlling the so-called "fight or flight" reflex). The vagus nerve transmits information to the trunk, from there it enters the amygdala and the hippocampus, which perform important functions in the process of memorization. As a result of this activity, synaptic plasticity increases in both areas of the brain, a process thought to underlie learning (see Chapter 13). Blocking the receptors for this information in the amygdala prevents adrenaline from enhancing memory, while activating them improves this process.

Stressful situations also lead to the release of glucocorticoids (stress hormones). These hormones act directly on the hippocampus and amygdala to improve memory. Damage to the amygdala prevents glucocorticoids from enhancing memory in the hippocampus, so it appears that amygdala activity is required in this process.

In some conditions, stress can damage memory. Glucocorticoids interfere with the process of working memory by affecting the prefrontal cortex. Chronic stress can damage the hippocampus (see Chapter 10), leading to persistent problems remembering all types of information, not just emotionally charged events.

Now that we've explained why emotions are so important, let's look at other parts of the brain. The amygdala is best known for its role in generating the fear response (see Chapter 13), but it also responds quickly to positive stimuli. Moreover, the amygdala plays an important role in focusing attention on emotionally significant events in the world. Neurons in the amygdala respond to light, sound, touch, and sometimes all three stimuli at the same time. Many neurons specialize in objects, especially those that are meaningful (such as faces or food). The activity of these neurons changes depending on the needs of the animal. So, the neuron responsible for the need for fruit juice in an animal stops responding after the animal has drunk.

Removal of the amygdala reduces some fear responses in both animals and humans. But especially this damage lowers the physical manifestation of anxiety. For example, when playing cards, people with an amygdala defect do not show a reaction to risk - their palms do not sweat and their heart rate does not increase. (You might think that this would give them a great time in Las Vegas, but it doesn't. It turns out that emotional responses are necessary for humans to make the right decision in an uncertain situation.) Similarly, animals with a damaged amygdala are less responsive to anxiety-provoking situations. showing less vigilance and fear.

Animals with damage to a specific part of the amygdala face problems in tasks that require critical perception of the value of an object or situation. Otherwise, it may turn out that you put a piece of chocolate in your mouth, and it turns out that it is licorice (and it does not matter at all what you prefer). These animals retain normal taste preferences and work for a treat, although they lose the ability to critically evaluate the offered food and cannot learn to avoid food, which then makes them sick.

Most emotions are generated by general areas of the brain, but there are a few specific regions that specialize specifically in emotions. Certain types of brain damage can affect manifestations of disgust or fear without affecting other emotions. In Chapter 17, we will take a closer look at the role of the amygdala in creating the emotion of fear.

Disgust is an emotion that arose long ago in the process of evolution in order for maturing animals to learn to identify edible food. The subcortical nodes and the islet of the brain are mainly responsible for disgust.

Electrical stimulation of the insula in humans results in a state of nausea and an unpleasant taste. Rats with damage to one of these areas had difficulty identifying the food that made them sick.

In humans, the role of these regions is expanded to include the ability to recognize similar sensations in others. Patients in whom these regions were damaged could not recognize the expression of disgust in humans, as is the case in patients with Huntington's disease (a motor disease caused by degeneration of neurons in the striatum (part of the basal ganglia).

It is noteworthy that the same areas of the brain make us wrinkle our nose not only in front of spoiled food, but also in violation of accepted moral norms. For example, an insula is activated when people remember something that makes them feel guilty, an emotion reminiscent of self-loathing.

A more general activity of the island can be considered a feeling of the state of our body and the awakening of those emotions that will motivate us to do what our body needs. Of course, one cannot always trust what our body wants, since the islet activates the body's need for drugs or nicotine in the same way. The insula sends information to areas involved in decision making, such as the prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex. The island is also involved in the organization of social behavior. It helps us to guess about a person's emotions (for example, embarrassment) based on his physical condition (flashed face). The insula is one of several brain systems that respond in a similar way to their own activity or state, and to the state of another person. The other is the mirror neuron system (see Chapter 24).

Our emotions (and the brain systems that generate them) are similar to the reactions of animals. However, human emotions are particularly complex, in part because of the large frontal cortex. While mice can be frightened, it's hard to imagine a mouse feeling shame. Emotions control our social behavior in many ways, so it's not surprising that the areas of the brain associated with generating emotions are just as important in controlling social cues. The so-called social emotions (guilt, shame, envy, embarrassment, pride, etc.) arise later in development than the basic emotions of happiness, fear, sadness, disgust, and anger. These emotions guide our social behavior, including the desire to help others and the desire to punish deceivers, even to our own detriment. Experiments have shown that people with a stronger manifestation of emotional states are more prone to altruism or forced compliance with social norms.

Now let's think about how the situation can affect our emotional state. For example, if your loved one didn't show up at the restaurant on time, you might get angry with them, or you might get scared thinking they had an accident. Finding out that he was late because he helped a person who had a heart attack, you can feel pride and happiness.

This example illustrates how our brain is able to change the emotions we experience depending on our intentions or perception of events. Several regions of the cerebral cortex send information to the central emotional system to change the perception of an emotional response. The simplest form of emotional regulation is distraction, switching attention to something else, usually temporarily. Studies have shown that when the switching is working, the activity in the emotional systems decreases. Distraction can reduce the negative emotions associated with physical pain. This is partly due to a decrease in activity in some areas involved in the response to pain (eg, insula), while activity in areas associated with cognitive control is increased (mainly in the prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex). Similarly, anticipation of a situation in which a positive or negative emotion would normally occur often activates the same areas of the brain that are responsible for the reaction in that situation.

An effect similar to distraction can also be caused consciously. For example, some yoga masters claim that they do not feel pain during meditation. Scientists scanned the brain of a meditating yogi. Then the laser began to stimulate a certain area, which normally should have caused very strong pain, but no manifestations of pain were noticed, and the activity in the islet increased only slightly.

A longer-term way of regulating emotions is re-evaluation. Reappraisal occurs when you rethink the meaning of an event, causing your emotions to change as well. For example, if your little daughter burned her hand on a hot stove, you might get angry because she didn't listen to you and then feel guilty because you weren't careful enough to prevent her from getting burned. However, after some thought, you may realize that the burn is not serious and will pass quickly, and that your daughter has learned a good lesson in the importance of following your instructions. Both of these reflections will help you not get too upset about the incident.

Did you know? How our brain recognizes humor

Humor is hard to define, but we can feel it. There is a theory that humor contains surprise - the end of the story is not what we expect, because of which we reinterpret the meaning of what we heard earlier so that it fits with an unexpected ending. An anecdote, unlike a logical riddle, is a coherent but not very logical story.

Some patients with damage to the frontal lobe of the brain, especially the right one, do not understand jokes at all. This is usually because they have difficulty with the reinterpretation stage. For example, if you tell them the beginning of a joke and offer several endings to choose from, they will not be able to tell which one will be funny.

Laughter or a sense of amusement in epileptic patients was elicited by stimulation of the prefrontal cortex or lower temporal lobe. Brain scans have shown that the lower and middle regions of the prefrontal cortex are activated when a person perceives a joke. Since humor includes both emotional and cognitive components, it makes sense because these pre-frontal areas integrate both functions.

Humor improves a person's well-being, probably because it activates the pleasure center, which is also responsible for other pleasant things, such as food and sex (see Chapter 18). When combined with surprise, a sense of pleasure can cause laughter. Perhaps back in ancient times, laughter was a signal that an alarming situation was in fact safe. Various types of humor activate brain regions that respond to emotional stimuli - the amygdala, midbrain, anterior cingulate cortex, and insular cortex. These last areas are also activated in situations of uncertainty or absurdity, so they can participate in the process of reinterpretation when understanding a joke. The funnier the joke seems to a person, the more these areas (and the pleasure center too) are activated. The positive effect of humor is not only about feeling good. The ability to make other people laugh can improve social relationships, help you find a life partner, or effectively communicate your ideas to others.

Humor reduces the effects of stress on the heart, immune system, and hormones. So if you're laughing at something that other people don't find funny at all, remember that you're probably the one who will have the last laugh.

Reappraisal occurs in the prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex. During experiments, people who tried to interpret emotional stimuli differently had increased activity in these areas. As a result of successful reappraisal, another area of the brain was activated that was responsible for the physical manifestations of emotional change, such as the decrease in amygdala activity when someone tried to reappraise stimuli and make them less frightening. These brain changes remarkably resemble the activity patterns that occur in response to placebos, another example of how people can perceive the same situation differently depending on their own beliefs.

People who are capable of reappraisal tend to be more emotionally stable and adapt more easily to different situations. What many people want in therapy is to improve their ability to productively reassess situations. In general, as mammals with a large frontal cortex, we can learn to control our emotional responses. Reappraisal, unlike most mental abilities, improves with age, perhaps as a consequence of the maturation of the prefrontal cortex or simply as a result of practice. This fact may explain why older people tend to feel happier and experience fewer negative emotions.

Therefore, the next time you hear the phrase: “You don’t have to be so emotional!”, you will know the truth. Your emotions, both positive and negative, are your quick-response guide to effective behavior, helping you predict the likely consequences of actions when there is not enough information to infer. Don't worry and show your emotions. As long as your emotion regulation system is up and running, you are more likely to make the right choice.

Humor can be cut into pieces like a laboratory frog, but then it will die in the process, and its internal organs will dishearten anyone but a real scientist.

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