Danilevsky Kabanov Medushevsky source study theory history method. Source: Theory

The textbook systematically presents source studies as a scientific discipline and method of scientific knowledge. The concept of the textbook is based on the current status of source studies as a rigorous science, understanding of the historical source as an objectified result of human activity / product of culture and the transformation of the object of source study from a historical source through the specific system of a corpus of historical sources to the empirical reality of the historical world. Special attention is paid to the philosophical and epistemological foundations of source studies, its theory and method. The fundamental novelty of the textbook lies in the fact that for the first time the three components of modern source studies are clearly separated. In the first section, source study is presented as a scientific discipline and as a system-forming foundation of humanitarian knowledge. In the second section, source studies are positioned as a method for obtaining new rigorous knowledge about a person and society in their historical perspective. In the third section, source study is considered as a tool for historical research.

For students enrolled in bachelor's and specialist's programs, and undergraduates in the humanities, as well as for all those interested in the nature of historical knowledge and ways to obtain it.

The work belongs to the genre History. Historical sciences. It was published in 2015 by the Higher School of Economics (HSE). On our site you can download the book "Source Studies" in fb2, rtf, epub, pdf, txt format or read online. Here, before reading, you can also refer to the reviews of readers who are already familiar with the book, and find out their opinion. In the online store of our partner you can buy and read the book in paper form.

Source: Theory. Story. Method. Sources of Russian history: Proc. allowance / I.N. Danilevsky, V.V. Kabanov, O.M. Medushevsky, M.F. Rumyantseva. - M.: Russian. state humanit. un-t, 1998. - 702 p.
ISBN 5-7281-0090-2

The textbook corresponds to the new status of source studies in the modern epistemological situation, characterized by the strengthening of polymethodology, the desire to humanize historical knowledge, and the strengthening of integration processes. object of various humanities with a variety of their subject.

Considerable attention is paid to methodological problems: the source study criterion of comparative historical research is substantiated, and interdisciplinary links in source study are revealed. Source studies are considered as an integrating discipline in the system of the humanities; various methodological approaches to solving the most significant problems are shown, as well as the development of a methodology for studying the main types of historical sources.

The review of the main types of sources of Russian history, given in the 2nd part of the textbook, is of a universal nature, since it reflects trends common to the source base of the history of different countries.

Part I. THEORY, HISTORY AND METHOD OF SOURCING

Section 2. FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOURCE STUDIES (O.M. Medushevsky)
(p1s2.pdf - 775K)

Section 3. SOURCE STUDY METHOD AND INTERDISCIPLINARY ASPECTS (O.M. Medushushskaya)
(p1s3.pdf - 483К)

Part 2. SOURCES OF RUSSIAN HISTORY

Section 1. HISTORICAL SOURCES OF THE XI-XVII CENTURIES (I.N. Danilevsky)

Section 2. HISTORICAL SOURCES OF THE XVIII - BEGINNING OF THE XX CENTURY (M.F. Rumyantseva)

Tutorial. - M.: Russian State University for the Humanities, 1998. - 702 p. - ISBN 5-7281-0090-2. Medushevsky O.M. Theory, history and method of source study.
Source theory.
Source study: a special method of knowing the real world. (The real world and its knowledge. Fixed sources of information about reality).
Source: the phenomenon of culture and the real object of knowledge.
Source: Humanities Anthropological Landmark.
Formation and development of source studies.
Criticism and interpretation as a research problem.
Source study as a problem of national history.
Source as a self-sufficient research problem.
Sources as a means of knowledge for the historian.
Positivist methods of historical research.
Overcoming the positivist methodology.
Methodological isolation of the sciences of culture.
Historical fact and historical source in the concept of "Annals".
The historical past in the mind of the historian.
Humanitarian knowledge as strictly scientific.
Source study paradigm of the methodology of history.
Source study in Russian reality.
Source as a cultural phenomenon.
Theoretical problems of source studies.
Source study problems of human sciences. (From historical source study to the methodology of humanitarian research: problems of theory. Interdisciplinary problems of source study: source, text, work, author. Source as an anthropological landmark of humanitarian knowledge).
Source study method and interdisciplinary aspects.
Source study analysis and source study synthesis.
The structure of the source study. (Historical conditions for the origin of the source. The problem of source authorship. Circumstances of creating the source. The author's text, the work and its functioning in the socio-cultural community. The functioning of the work in culture. Interpretation of the source. Analysis of the content. Source study synthesis).
Classification of historical sources.
Sources in human sciences. Danilevsky I.N. Sources of Russian history.
Historical sources of the XI-XVII centuries.
Chronicle. (Chronicles as a historical source and methods of their study. The Tale of Bygone Years and the Codes preceding it. Local chronicle of the XII-XIII centuries. Chronicle of the XIV-XV centuries. All-Russian annals of the late XV-XVI centuries. Chronicle writing and other historical works of the XVII century. Chronographs) .
Legislative sources. (Monuments of legislation as a historical source and methods of their study. Monuments of secular law. Monuments of ancient Russian canon law).
Acts. (Actual material as a historical source and methods of its study. The appearance of acts in Ancient Russia. Acts of the specific period. Acts of the XV-XVII centuries).
Literary works. (Techniques of source study analysis of works of literature. Translations of literary works in ancient Russia and their source study significance. Original Old Russian literature).
Rumyantseva M.F. Historical sources of the 18th - early 20th centuries.
Changes in the Corpus of Historical Sources during the Transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Times.
General properties of historical sources of modern times. (Quantitative growth of historical sources. Simplification of the content of a single document. Increase in the number of varieties of historical sources. Publication and replication of historical sources).
Mass sources.
Legislation. (Historiography. Law: attempts to define the concept. Changing the relationship between custom and law as sources of law. The divergence of public and private law. Adoption of the principle “ignorance of the law does not exempt from responsibility.” Formation of the system for publishing legislative acts. Ensuring the effectiveness of legislation. The problem of codifying legislation. Classification legislative acts).
Acts. (Private legal acts. Acts related to the implementation of the peasant reform (charter letters and redemption acts). New types of acts at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries - acts of joint-stock entrepreneurship. Problems of source study of acts).
Business materials. (Legislative basis of office work. Varieties of office materials. Evolution of the form of office work sources. Influence of form on content. Special systems of office work. Reference publications. Problems of source study of office documentation).
Materials of fiscal, administrative and economic accounting. (Accounting for the population for fiscal purposes. Church and administrative-police registration of the population. Accounting for officials. Economic accounting in privately owned farms. Accounting for industrial production).
Statistics. (Organization of statistics. Demographic statistics. Agrarian statistics.
industrial production statistics. labor statistics. Zemstvo statistics).
Publicism. (Author's publicistic works. Journalism of mass popular movements. Projects of state reforms and constitutions).
Periodical press. (Censorship. Newspapers as a variety of periodicals. Features of the study of periodicals).
Sources of personal origin. (Definition and classification. Evolution. Historiography.
Memoirs are "modern stories". Memoirs-autobiographies. Essay. Confession).
Changes in the corpus of historical sources during the transition from modern to modern times.
The problem of transition from modern times to the latest. Changes in the main types of historical sources. Changes in the typology of the corpus of historical sources). Kabanov V.V. Historical sources of the Soviet period.
Typological changes in the corpus of sources in the 20th century.
Features of Soviet sources.
Legislation and legislative sources. (Methodology of source analysis. Some features of the development of legislation in the 70-80s).
Program, statutory and directive documents of political parties and public organizations. (Documents of the CPSU. Documents of other political parties (period of the revolution).
Documents of political parties and amateur politicized organizations of our time.
Acts.
Applications. Documents of the rural gathering (scheme of collection and publication).
Paperwork materials of state institutions and public organizations.
Statistics. (General characteristics of statistical sources. Agricultural statistics. Population statistics. Problems of using demographic and other statistics).
Materials for planning the development of the national economy.
Publicism.
Periodical press. (Official periodical press. Unofficial, free, alternative periodical press. Newspaper analysis technique).
Sources of personal origin. (Memoirs and diaries. Letters).
Sources of Russian emigration. (First emigrant publications at home. Main groups of sources. Documents of political parties and unions, public groups, creative associations, national and religious organizations).
Archival materials.
Publications of historical sources and literature.

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OPEN SOCIETY INSTITUTE BBC 63.2 I 73 I91 Reviewers: Dr. ist. Sciences A.P. Nenarokov Dr. of Economics. Sciences L.V. Poletaev Dr. ist. Sciences A.L. Yastrebitskaya Educational literature in the humanities and social disciplines for higher education and secondary specialized educational institutions is prepared and published with the assistance of the Open Society Institute (Soros Foundation) as part of the Higher Education program. The views and approaches of the author do not necessarily coincide with the position of the program. In particularly controversial cases, an alternative point of view is reflected in the prefaces and afterwords. Editorial Board: V.I. Bakhmin L.M. Berger E.Yu. Genieva G.G. Diligensky V.D. Shadrikov © I.N. Danilevsky, 1998 © V.V. Kabanov, 1998 © O.M. Medushovskaya, 1998 © M.F. Rumyantseva, 1998 © Open Society Institute, 1998 © Russian State University for the Humanities, original layout, 1998 on historical sources. The works that people create in the process of conscious, purposeful activity serve them to achieve specific goals. They also carry valuable information about those people and about the time when they were created. To obtain it, it is necessary to understand the features of the emergence of historical sources. However, it must not only be extracted, but also critically assessed and correctly interpreted. When studying fragments of past reality, it is important to be able to make logical conclusions about what the very fact of their presence means, to be able to reproduce on their basis an interconnected picture of that culture, that society, of which they are a remnant. This knowledge and skills are necessary not only for historians, but also for a wider range of specialists in the humanities. Human experience, everyday way of life, relations between people of different generations, customs and mores, ability to exist in the natural environment, desire to know the past of one's city, village, region, one's people or ethnic group, family or family; myi make people turn to documents, archives, antiques, photographs. The range of problems that are of interest to historians has also expanded significantly. The new historical science, unlike the traditional one, deals not only and not so much with the events of political life, but is turned to the global history of mankind. Festivities and rituals, myths and fairy tales, the upbringing of children, crafts and crafts, trade and exchange, art and beliefs, prohibitions and hobbies - everything is learned in comparison and gives rise to new thoughts and judgments. Therefore, historians actively cooperate in the study of these phenomena with representatives of other humanities and natural sciences - sociologists, anthropologists, ethnologists, psychologists, historians of science and art, researchers of language and literary texts. Specialists in the humanities study historical sources, finding in them inexhaustible resources of new information about humanity, its creative possibilities and various ways to capture their experience, express their inner world in material images. Historian, anthropologist, sociologist, psychologist, politician - each of them turns to the sources with their own questions, trying to find out what the subject of the studied spider is. But they all draw their information from a common set of sources created by people. Therefore, a specialist must understand that the total set of sources is a projection of culture in time, a treasury of human knowledge and world experience. He must be able to find and select those types of sources that are especially important and interesting for a given spider; be able to raise questions, find answers in the sources, be able to distinguish the voices of people of the past, conveyed to us by historical sources, and interpret these data in accordance with the modern level of science and culture. The science that specifically develops these problems is source science. In traditional historical science, the methods of source study were usually considered in relation to the history of a particular country or era. The country studies approach orients the researcher towards a review of the main sources on the history of the country, which, of course, is very important and necessary. However, at present it is obvious that it is possible to study a particular era or a particular region, a country only in a broader framework, in a long historical perspective, using comparative approaches. And then it becomes obvious that the emergence of sources has its own logic, many types of sources appear (and sometimes disappear) naturally, expressing certain recurring, comparable cultural situations. Therefore, it is possible to single out general problems of source studies and develop principles and methods for working with sources. This is what this textbook is devoted to, which provides the main scientific guidelines for studying source studies and its method. The authors show why source study is important and necessary for historical education, for scientific activity in the field of humanitarian knowledge, for self-education and cultural self-identification. The manual opens approaches to historical sources, reveals the method of source study as a general humanitarian one, as a special way of knowing reality. INTRODUCTION 7 The textbook is based on a single concept. It is implemented in the theoretical-methodological and concrete directions. First, the general properties of sources and the principles of their learning are considered; it is shown that these general properties and the methods of study themselves were developed within the framework of general historical research. Only in recent times have they become the subject of methodological works. On the basis of modern ideas about sources, a method of source study analysis and synthesis has been formed, which is being studied separately. In those parts of the manual that highlight the problems of the typology of sources, their main types and methods for studying them - specific specific methods, the authors refer to the sources of studying Russian history, analyzing them in a historical perspective - from ancient times to modern times. This became possible because source studies as a science of sources in Russia developed by the end of the 19th century. and develops throughout the 20th century. By now, a new status of source studies in the system of the humanities has been determined. Its essence lies in the fact that a historical source (a product of culture, an objectified result of human activity) acts as a single object of various humanitarian sciences with a variety of their subjects of study. Thus, it creates a unified basis for interdisciplinary research and the integration of sciences, as well as for comparative historical analysis. The change in the status and content of source studies, as well as the very nature of the current epistemological situation, necessitates a new approach to teaching source studies. The available textbooks were created on the basis of the methodology of positivism, and in some cases they are written in an ideologized spirit, which makes it difficult for a methodologically poorly prepared reader to perceive the factual material that has not lost its value. They lack a systematic exposition of the theory of source studies, little attention is paid to the methods of source study research, and their development is not shown. In Soviet times, source studies could develop mainly in conjunction with archives, which partly explains its focus on the sources of Russian history. In the educational literature, an overview of the corpus of domestic sources will be given (Tikhomirov M.N. Source study of the history of the USSR. M., 1962; Source study of the history of the USSR XIX - early XX century. / Ed. I.A. Fedosov. M., 1970; Source study of history 8 INTRODUCTION USSR / Ed. I.D. Kovalchenko. M., 1981; Chernomorsky M.N. Source study of the history of the USSR: the Soviet period. M., 1976). The literature that considers sources from other countries is represented by a few textbooks and lecture courses on the source study of modern and recent history (textbooks by I.V. Grigoryeva, R.S. Mnukhina, a course of lectures by I.Ya. Biska), which are overview or fragmentary. The exception is the fundamental work of A.D. Lyublinskaya "Source Studies of the Middle Ages" (L., 1955), the factual material of which is extensive and enduring. At the same time, due to the thematic presentation, a comparative consideration of the sources of the Middle Ages is difficult. In modern conditions, when interest in comparative historical research is growing, it is necessary to expand the scope of the presentation and move from the regional-geographical to the problem-species principle of presenting the material. At the same time, the review of the sources of Russian history will retain not only applied, but also methodological significance. The typology and periodization of the evolution of the corpus of Russian historical sources, as the most systematically and holistically developed ones, provide the basis for typological consideration and comparative study of the corpus of historical sources from other countries. A modern textbook should not only provide the required amount of knowledge, but also form the ability to work independently in a given branch of science. To achieve this goal, it is necessary: firstly, the clarity of the methodological position while simultaneously highlighting fundamental issues in other scientific paradigms; secondly, increased attention to the methodology and technique of source study research; thirdly, as a synthesis of the first two positions - historiographic presentation, revealing the dependence of the method of researching historical sources on general scientific and historical methodology. The authors - to the best of their ability - sought to balance the coverage of historical sources that arise in the personal, public and state spheres; substantiate the source-criterion of comparative historical research; reveal the interdisciplinary connections of source studies, considering source studies as an integrating discipline in the system of the humanities; show different methodological approaches to solving the most significant problems; explore the development of methods for studying the main types of historical sources. INTRODUCTION 9 This approach makes it possible to study written sources in conjunction with other types of historical sources (material, figurative, technotronic, etc.), to overcome the previously developed limitation by the range of sources that arose in the system of socio-economic and political relations. The textbook presented to the attention of readers summarizes the experience of the scientific and pedagogical school of the Moscow Institute of History and Archives. Its theoretical basis is a holistic concept of humanitarian knowledge, developed at the beginning of the 20th century. outstanding Russian scientist A.S. Lappo-Danilevsky. What specifically distinguishes this school of source studies? Let us dwell on three fundamental points: the definition of the concept of “historical source” (subject of research), the structure of source analysis (research method), the role of the researcher’s consciousness in historical knowledge (methodology) . System-forming value for any scientific discipline is the definition of its subject. In Soviet historical science, the definition dominated (and in many respects continues to hold its positions) is the definition that a historical source is everything from where you can get information about the development of society. Thus, the nature of the historical source, its substance, is not revealed, but only the function (to serve in historical knowledge) of some unknown object or phenomenon is indicated. In the presented textbook, a historical source is considered as a work created by man, as a product of culture. The emphasis is on understanding the psychological and social nature of the historical source, which determines its suitability "for the study of facts with historical significance." The indicated differences in the definition of a historical source have a deep methodological basis, since, ultimately, they are caused by a different understanding of the object of historical knowledge. The first definition proceeds from the premise of the invariance of the historical past, its realization in certain forms, which makes the past an object of historical knowledge. The general method of such knowledge is the more and more precise modeling of this only possible past. We understand the historical past as a reconstruction. It is based on the dialogue of the consciousness (and psyche in general) of the researcher with the consciousness (and psyche) of people who lived before. The dialogue begins with an understanding of the “other” (a person of the past), the objective (reified) basis of which is the “realized product of the human psyche” - a historical source. It is he who allows, in the course of interpretation, to reproduce the “animation” (psyche, individuality) of his creator. Different understanding of the subject of source study leads to differences in the understanding of its method. A.S. Lappo-Danilevsky, defining a historical source as “a realized product of the human psyche, suitable for studying facts with historical significance”, sought to understand its author, a man of the past, by interpreting a historical source. Further, on this basis, a historical construction is carried out, i.e., the historical fact is comprehended not only in the co-existent (coexisting), but, first of all, in the evolutionary whole. In other words, from the standpoint of modernity, one can reveal the value and effectiveness of a fact, its historical significance. Moreover, in order to understand Lappo-Danilevsky's concept, it is important to constantly remember that he separated source study and historical construction only analytically. In the process of research, and he understood this very well, these components are inseparable. In the Marxist paradigm, a historical source is considered only as a repository of facts that a historian needs to build (reconstruct) an invariant past. It is precisely because of this that both in science and in teaching, the source study method often turned into a technique for obtaining “reliable” information. At the same time, the method of source study itself was lost. Recognition of the unity of the source study method in the source study school of the Historical and Archival Institute gives a holistic understanding of source study analysis and synthesis, which are considered as a system of research procedures. None of the elements of the system can be omitted without compromising the correctness of the final result. Primary attention is paid to the characteristics of the author, the circumstances of the creation of a historical source, its significance in the context of the reality that gave rise to it. And only the study of the whole complex of problems related to the origin of the source and its functioning in the era that gave rise to it, allows us to move (in the analytical, and not in the temporal sense) to the interpretation of the content, evaluation of information and the source as a whole. . A distinctive feature of the source study paradigm, which goes back to the legacy of Lappo-Danilevsky, is that it considers not only the relationship between the source and reality, but also the interaction of the cognizing subject and the source in an interconnected analysis of these aspects. At the Institute of History and Archives, special attention has always been paid to distinguishing between the views of the author of a historical source, the views that have developed in historiography at different stages of its development, and the point of view of a researcher. Without this, an independent historical synthesis is impossible. Moreover, there is a sharp increase in the danger of unconsciously introducing the points of view and assessments that have developed in historiography into another era, into the context of another evolutionary whole. A novice researcher is constantly focused on analyzing the content of his own consciousness, revealing the origin and structure of those historical ideas that he developed while studying historiography and in the process of his own research work. Therefore, in the concept of the Historical and Archival Institute (in contrast to the dominant traditional model of education), the emphasis is on clarifying the cognitive process. At the same time, the development of factology is considered as a means of developing the ability of critical judgment. The change in ideological ideas in post-Soviet society has led to the loss of methodological foundations. At the same time, a significant part of the humanities) continue to think within the framework of a paradigm that can be called "Marxist" only because of ignorance of Marx's concept. This led to attempts to rethink and write an "objective" history without revising the actual research methodological apparatus. In such a situation, the source study component of the concept provides the basis for the desired objectivity and allows a new approach, first to source study analysis, and then - under the influence of systemicity - to historical synthesis. This epistemological system provides an adequate way to solve the most urgent problems of modern humanities knowledge: “the principle of recognizing someone else's animation” and the concept of Lappo-Danilevsky allows turning history towards a person. Recognition of the product of culture as a common object of the humanities and social sciences (while their subjects differ) provides a basis for comparative historical and interdisciplinary research. The postmodern challenge poses many new epistemological problems, but at the same time blurs the boundaries of strictly scientific humanitarian knowledge in the minds of researchers. Under these conditions, the concept of sources, the idea of a historical source as a realized product of the human psyche, a system of historical sources as a projection of spiritual life, allows humanitarian knowledge to find ground for various interpretations. The idea of a co-existential and evolutionary whole and understanding of the ways of its construction provides a philosophical basis for a holistic perception of the historical process. The development of source studies as one of the historical sciences, the formation of its interdisciplinary links and the differentiation of the courses taught have led to a new approach to the structure and content of the source study course. In the study of the corpus of Russian historical sources, a significant role is given to the principles of comparative consideration of sources from different countries, regions, and civilizations. The purpose of the textbook is to substantiate the main positions of modern source study, primarily its special method. This method makes it possible to study historical sources as an integral set (systemically), as a set of works created in the course of the historical process, the activities of people who sought to solve their own important problems through them. Accordingly, this set of sources has a universal homogeneity, interconnectedness, typological characteristics. This method makes it possible to understand the typology of historical sources (based on the purposes of their creation and functions in social reality) and to find common approaches to their study. Such are the possibilities of source studies as an anthropologically oriented paradigm of a new historical science, covering, in essence, all aspects of history and the functioning of culture. Therefore, the authors talk about a general humanitarian approach to historical sources using this method. In the first part of the textbook, the method of source study is shown from a general theoretical position, in its formation and modern form. The ways of studying the integral set of historical sources, specific source studies situations, their differences at different stages of the development of society are shown. In this part, the relevance of source study and its method in the system of humanitarian knowledge in the modern epistemological situation, which is characterized by the desire for the integration of sciences and interdisciplinary interaction, is substantiated. Under these conditions, the question of the object of humanities acquires special significance, in connection with which the concept of a historical source, the subject and tasks of source study are considered. The historical source is interpreted as an objectified result of human activity, as a carrier of fundamentally verified information, as a phenomenon of culture, which makes it possible to reveal the backbone value of source studies in humanitarian knowledge. In the second part of the manual, the source study method is revealed on the basis of the sources of Russian history in its integrity and temporal duration. Such a choice of the object is quite consistent with the goal. Consideration of the corpus of sources of Russian history allows the reader to understand how the method of source analysis and synthesis is used when working with specific material, how specific methods are formed that take into account the characteristics of various historical sources. The study of the sources of specifically Russian history allows the authors to rely on the rich traditions and achievements of the Russian source culture and the teaching of source study as a special discipline. In turn, a regional historian who seeks to understand the source situation of the country he is studying (culture, ethnos, etc.) receives a sufficiently developed model of approach to a holistic set of historical sources, he will clearly see the research situations, problems and possible solutions. The proposed approach thus brings to a new level the identification of the general and the special in the source heritage, which can be studied from the comparative positions of the unity of human experience and its individual originality. The principle of periodization of the evolution of the corpus of sources, adopted in the textbook, also requires explanation. The initial chronological boundary is the 11th century. - the time from which the written sources of Ancient Russia have been preserved. The species structure of their complex, characteristic of the Middle Ages, was formed, which was reflected in the first section of the second part of the textbook. At the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. and during the 18th century. in Russia there were cardinal changes in the properties of historical sources, their specific structure. At the same time, such types of sources as annals, hagiographic literature lost their paramount importance, memoirs, fiction, scientific works, including historical, periodicals, and statistical sources, appeared. The nature of legislation, acts and office materials has changed significantly. If we are not limited to the study of only written sources, then it can be noted that almost simultaneously with such personal sources as memoirs, portraiture was also born in Russia. Such significant changes in the structure of the corpus of sources in Russian history were due to profound changes both in Russian society and in the mentality of an individual. Similar changes occurred around the same time in other European countries. As a hypothesis explaining the reasons for these changes, the authors accept the concept of the evolution of the self-consciousness of the human personality and changes in the relationship between man and society. The processes noted above are connected with the isolation of a person from the social environment surrounding him, the awareness of its historical variability, which is characteristic of the transition from the Middle Ages to the new time. The corpus of sources also changes significantly in the transition to modern times. The fixation of these changes makes it possible to detect in the history of individual countries a period of transition from one era to another. At this time, the unifying influence of the social environment on the human personality and the determining influence of the social group on the self-consciousness of the individual are intensifying, which, apparently, is largely due to the formation of factory production, which changed the nature of labor, increased the alienation of man from the final result of his labor activity and unified the living environment surrounding a person. An analysis of the corpus of sources of Russian history shows that the changes corresponding to the transition from modern to modern times are found in the second half of the 19th century. and at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. There is a tendency to unify the form and content of many types of written sources - office materials, periodicals, up to such a personal source as memoirs, partly dependent on the picture of events formed by the media. In general, the proportion of sources, initially, already at the time of their appearance, intended for publication in one form or another, increased significantly. In addition, at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. The types of sources also began to change: photographic and film materials appeared, and later - machine-readable documents, which probably testified to global changes in the history of mankind. And in this regard, it is possible that the emergence of machine-readable documents is comparable to the emergence of writing and the emergence of written sources. After all, types of sources, like types, do not appear simultaneously. And the sequence of appearance of the main types of sources: material - pictorial - written - fully corresponds to the sequence of three stages in the development of mankind: savagery - barbarism - civilization. INTRODUCTION 15 Sources of the Soviet period have been singled out from the corpus of modern sources. This is due, first of all, to a strong ideological impact on all spheres of public life and the suppression of the individual, which determined the specifics of historical sources. However, we note that the historical sources of the Soviet and post-Soviet times also bear the most significant features of the sources of the new and recent times. This manifested continuity with the corpus of sources of the previous period of Russian history, which is explained by the traditionalism of Russian society and the typological similarity of the absolutist and totalitarian states. Mastering the sources of modern and recent times differs significantly from the study of the corpus of Russian sources of the period of ancient and medieval Russia. Considering the evolution of types of sources of the Middle Ages, one can and should focus on the most prominent monuments, such as The Tale of Bygone Years, Russkaya Pravda, etc. Due to the huge quantitative growth of sources in modern and recent times such an approach is not possible. It is necessary to build a model of the species and trace its evolution, using individual monuments as real samples. To prove these constructions, the reader can use as examples any sources known to him (memoirs, journalistic works, etc.). The study of source studies assumes that the student is already familiar with history, at least at the level of factography. Therefore, the historical events mentioned are not explained, biographical information about persons known from the general course of history is not given, and a chronologically consistent presentation of the material is not given. Source analysis and synthesis is a system of research procedures, none of the elements of which can be omitted without compromising the final result. This system, set out in the first part of the tutorial, is equally applicable to all types of sources, which are reviewed in the second part. That is why the chapters of the second part do not pay special attention to the method of source study research, however, the source study analysis of each type of historical sources has its own specifics, which are revealed as necessary in the corresponding chapters. The review of historical sources presents not the method of their source study analysis, but those of its individual elements that are typical for a given species. The student's task is to independently apply source study analysis to each type of historical sources in full. We also note the inevitable uneven presentation of the material. Those sections are written in more detail that are completely absent in the available educational literature, as well as those that contain the results of the authors' own research activities, have been tested in teaching practice, but are not sufficiently represented in scientific publications or reflect approaches that are radically different from the generally accepted ones. In general, the textbook summarizes the experience accumulated in historiography in the development of certain types of historical sources. The theoretical and epistemological (epistemological) and corresponding pedagogical concept of the authors is based on the idea of a historical source as a common object of the humanities and a systemically interconnected carrier of information in the human sciences. Therefore, source study acts as one of the fundamental disciplines in the education of a specialist in the humanities, and the method of source study - source study analysis and synthesis - is the research method that a professional humanist should master. SECTION 1 THEORY OF SOURCE STUDIES CHAPTER 1 Source studies: a special method of knowing the real world IN HUMAN activities it often happens that in the process of achieving specific goals, valuable experience is simultaneously acquired. For example, while traveling, people accumulated experience and knowledge about the Earth. Practical geography was formed from the experience of traveling, and then the science - geography. Something similar happens when mastering the wealth of human experience - historical science, historical anthropology, the science of man. There are two ways to get information about people - direct observation, communication, dialogue. However, this method has significant limitations: we see only what is happening here and now. In order to learn about what is happening in another place, another way is needed - indirect. At the same time, we study works consciously and purposefully created by people - manuscripts, books, things. We also use the same method when we ourselves create works, expressing our inner world in them, giving a message about ourselves to people, to humanity. These works as sources of knowledge - historical sources have long been the subject of attention of researchers, primarily historians, because historical science specifically refers to the experience of the past. In an effort to generalize its methods of working with historical sources, the science of man forms a special area of research. Due to its main content, it became known as source study. 20 SECTION 1 Source studies developed as a special discipline, primarily within the framework of the methodology of historical research, since it is historical science that systematically uses historical sources for the purposes of knowledge. In the course of its formation, source studies generalize research and publishing (archaeographic) experience accumulated in the process of working with literary, artistic, philosophical, legal works in classical philology, philosophical hermeneutics, literary criticism and linguistics, history of law and other areas of knowledge. A special group of disciplines has long been formed that have accumulated experience in working with certain types of sources - the so-called auxiliary historical disciplines (paleography, sphragistics, diplomacy, codicology, and many others). They help researchers read texts correctly, identify them, and prepare historical documents for scientific publication and use. Traditionally, source study is associated with the research activity of a historian, and therefore, sometimes they talk about historical source study, historical sources. However, at present it is obvious that the problems that source studies specifically develop are considered not only in historical science, but in a much broader interdisciplinary space of humanities research. At the same time, source study methods are important for many areas of humanitarian knowledge. Therefore, the study of the problems of source studies should begin not with the history of its formation, but with questions of theory - its theoretical-cognitive (epistemological) foundations. Source study is currently a special method of humanitarian knowledge. Humanitarian knowledge aims to increase and systematize knowledge about a person (in the fullness and integrity of this phenomenon) and society (a phenomenon of humanity in its temporal and spatial unity). Methods of source study also serve common purposes. Source study improves its methods and cognitive means in accordance with the general epistemological (epistemological) principles of humanitarian knowledge and, in turn, enriches knowledge about man and humanity with specific cognitive means. The methodology of source study is represented by a system of knowledge that was originally formed primarily in historical science, as well as in other humanitarian sciences. It has a unity of theoretical postulates, historical and practical experience of development and a research method. SOURCE STUDY THEORY 2 1 Source study has its own specific subject and uses a special method of cognition of objective reality. As is known, in objective reality there are both natural objects that arise outside of human activity and independently of it, and cultural objects created in the process of purposeful, conscious human activity. Objects of culture are created, processed, nurtured by people who pursue specific practical goals in their creation. It is these objects that carry special information about the people who created them, and about those types of public organizations, human communities, and for whom these goals were set and realized. Objects created by nature outside of human participation are not specially studied by source studies, since they do not have special (natural-science) methods for this. To obtain additional information, it refers, among other things, to natural science areas of knowledge. The study of cultural objects as sources of information about a person and society is the main task of source studies. 1. The real world and its cognition Thus, source study is a method of cognition of the real world. The object in this case is cultural objects created by people - works, things, records-documents. Through what properties of cultural objects is the real world known? Since people create works (products, things, records-documents, etc.) purposefully, these works reflect these goals, ways to achieve them, and the opportunities that people had in at one time or another, under certain conditions. Therefore, by studying works, one can learn a lot about the people who created them, and mankind widely uses this method of cognition. In the early human communities of oral culture, people in the most diverse way used things created by other people - tools, tools, household or luxury items, weapons, and much more - not only for the intended purpose of these items, but also as sources of information. Considering, comparing, evaluating, logically reasoning, people extracted for themselves important information about a culture that was new to them. Therefore, many customs associated with the dialogue of cultures are accompanied by the exchange of gifts. These customs, dating back to ancient times, make it possible to significantly supplement the social information that can be conveyed verbally in direct personal communication. They can be used to judge the wealth of the country, which people have already learned to use, the level of development of technology, crafts, lifestyle, system of value orientations, levels of science and culture. This method of obtaining information about the human community provides great opportunities, because it is focused on the main human property - the ability to create, create, objectify one's thoughts and ideas in material images. The emergence of writing, and later the technical means of recording and transmitting information, its replication significantly expanded the information field of human civilization, qualitatively changed and are changing it. “One of the main differences is between spoken and written language. Of these, the former is purely temporal, while the latter relates time to space. If we listen to running sounds, then while reading, we usually see stationary letters in front of us, and the time of the written flow of words is reversible for us: we can read and reread, moreover, we can run ahead. The subjective anticipation of the listener turns into an objectivized anticipation of the reader: he can look ahead of time at the end of a letter or novel,” wrote the linguist and literary critic P.O. Jacobson 1 . The object of source study is fixed speech - time associated with space. This condition is necessary and sufficient for research (and not just perception). 2. Fixed sources of information about reality How do people transmit social information, exchange it? This happens primarily at the level of personal communication - with the help of words (verbal communication) and various non-verbal ways of transmitting information - facial expressions, movements, gestures (non-verbal communication). More often than not, one complements the other. This way of human cognition is quite informative. But it has a significant drawback - personal communication is limited in time (occurs here and now) and in space. Everything else may remain unknown, because it happened either a long time ago, or it happened or is happening in another place. Man differs from other living beings in that he has learned to create works that express his goals and intentions, and has managed to understand that these works can become sources of information. This situation will create the potential possibility of a source study approach. As a result, people accumulate everyday experience and pass it on to future generations. To do this, they encode information in material objects (creating a document, record, drawing, product, product), i.e., in fixed sources of information. This point is fundamentally important for understanding the method of source study. This is a method of cognition of the surrounding world through fixed sources of information. The ability to create works makes a person a Master, creator, creator; gives him the opportunity to realize himself, his power over time and space. It gives him a way to communicate with his own kind, which other living beings do not have. That is why it is prayed to speak of Homo sapiens as a creator, and to the extent that a person is aware of this ability in himself, as an artist and craftsman. The need for creativity - transmission in a material-fixed form (a thing or record - an image or designation) is a truly human feature. Man is always instinctively aware of it as vital. The impossibility of its realization destroys him as a person, and, on the contrary, any possibility of creativity serves for his self-identification. In this sense, source study is based on an essential human property and therefore is an anthropologically oriented method of cognition of the real world. The use of a product, a work, a thing created by a man as a source of information about him (and about his time and space) is inherent in humanity, and therefore is taken for granted. Paradoxical as it may seem, for a long time people did not ask themselves how this information is obtained, what happens in the process. Source studies study these issues purposefully. Thus, source study is a special scientific method of cognition of the real world. The focus is on the cognitive space in which this way of knowing the world is realized: how exactly a person (cognizing subject) finds and studies an object (which serves as a source of knowledge for him), what questions he poses, what logic he guides. Xia, seeking response information, in other words - what method does he use? Source studies considers a question that people have not thought about for a long time: what actually happens when studying information from historical sources. Constantly referring to this way of knowing the real world, social practice has accumulated rich experience in communicating with works of art, literature, legal, social information. This experience began to be generalized within the framework of the methodology of history. After all, it is precisely the science of history that is particularly deficient in direct observation of what it would like to study. It is sometimes said that the science of history studies the past. This definition is very arbitrary and imprecise. First, because the concept of "past" is indefinite. It is not so easy to draw a clear time line between the “past” and the “present”. Apparently, the distinction between the past and the present requires a different, non-chronological, approach. Based on the source study paradigm, we will adhere to the literal meaning of these concepts: the past is what has passed, i.e., completed, and the present is what is in the process of change. The present is happening here and now, it can, therefore, be observed, realized, emotionally perceived, etc. But it continues, and therefore, strictly speaking, it cannot be studied by scientific methods. That is why humanity has always sought to “stop the moment”, persistently inventing means for this purpose - drawing, writing, printing, photography, cinema, sound recording. Of essential importance is the fundamental possibility of repeated, repeated reference to the past reality, its image fixed in the form of a material image. A necessary condition for the scientific study of reality is the possibility of its fixed imprinting. These fixed impressions are the main source of knowledge. Source study is a special method of studying these sources. It is quite obvious that historical science cannot do without sources, since it studies the past, including those that are very far from the present. Source study acts in this case as a method of studying the past reality through human perception, recorded in the sources. Another thing is also obvious: cognition of reality is generally impossible without reference to sources. Consequently, the method of source study is necessary for humanitarian knowledge in general. SOURCE STUDY THEORY 25 CHAPTER 2 Source: a phenomenon of culture and a real object of knowledge SCIENCE (by definition) - reliable and systematized knowledge about reality - cannot pass over in silence the question of its object. It is assumed that it is cognizable by scientific means if it exists as a phenomenon that has certain properties: accessibility to observation; stability (causing the possibility of repeated treatment); independence from the researcher (the research procedure does not affect these properties). Of course, any science proceeds from the general methodological premises of the relativity of cognition, but nevertheless, in the sciences of nature, the reality of the thing in itself is not disputed, and the path to cognition is paved thanks to the improvement of research methods and techniques. The cognitive situation in the human sciences is not so unambiguous. What, in fact, can act as a real phenomenon available for scientific analysis? In historical science, as is known, very little is available to direct observation. As for the phenomena of human communication, even under the condition of their fixation (oral history) or a purposeful experiment (survey, interview, etc.), there are huge cognition difficulties associated with the interpretation of the data obtained and with the emerging interaction of the subject and object (sometimes, as ethnologists note, changing places). Complex cognitive problems come to the fore when we raise the question of the phenomenon of man and the future of a unified science of humanity. Mankind is a special, endowed with consciousness part of the world whole. In turn, it can be studied only as a whole - an evolutionary and co-existential whole of humanity. How does this approach solve the problem of the sources of knowledge of this whole? How to represent an integral set of sources of knowledge, adequate to a given cognitive goal? The sciences about man (more precisely, about humanity) have an object that meets the conditions of scientific knowledge. This object is available for observation, stable and sovereign (that is, separated from the cognizing subject). This refers to an integral set of works created in the process of purposeful human activity and serving as sources of knowledge (in traditional terminology, historical sources). These works (historical sources of all types, types and forms of fixation) are presented in material form. As objects of research, they are independent of the cognizing subject, because they were created for other purposes and at another time; in their totality, they reflect the interaction of a person with nature, society, the state and with another person, which is realized in the global human history. It is important to emphasize that works created by people of a certain era (country, environment, culture) at the time of their creation and subsequent functioning are correlated with each other. Each of them can only be interpreted in terms of these systemic connections. This position is still not sufficiently understood and little studied. Any science - history, sociology, psychology - refers to the sources of social information, but it does so, as a rule, selectively, at the angle of its specific cognitive goals. The totality of works, considered as an integral systemic object, as a historical source, is the subject of source study. For source studies (as a science about sources), these works act both as an object and as a subject of study. Source studies explore works created by people purposefully and consciously as a holistic, internally interconnected object, as a combination with typological and specific properties inherent in a given era (culture), methods of functioning, features of the information field. Studying the properties of sources, source studies on a real basis develops methods for obtaining a variety of social information, its critical verification and interpretation, and forms criteria for evaluating works as cultural phenomena. Therefore, source study for a historian (sociologist, ethnologist, etc.) is not only an auxiliary discipline, as it seemed to be the traditional methodology of history, but a self-sufficient field of knowledge, the science of sources. It develops (not yet always purposefully) specific epistemological problems of fundamental importance. Therefore, a representative of the humanities must have a clear idea of what source study is, its method, and what are the prospects for its development. Sources form the objective basis of the humanities as sciences about man and his activity. The key point of the source study paradigm of the methodology of history is the concept of a source as a product of purposeful human activity, a cultural phenomenon. In turn, this orients towards a systematic study of sources, towards an appeal to the entire volume of works of culture (in the broad sense) created in the process of human activity and reflecting the social, psychological, ecological and geographical, communication and information, managerial and other aspects of the development of society and personality, power and law, morality, motives and stereotypes of human behavior. This concept, aimed primarily at studying primary sources and creatively developing the ideas of an interdisciplinary approach to them, creates the basis for a holistic, systematic study of a number of special problems of historical and political sciences, economics and demography, social psychology and mentality in their specific, always special, specific space-time conditions. A humanities professional (of any specific narrow specialization) must possess such a theoretical, cognitive and practical system of knowledge that opens the way for him to directly address the primary sources of studying his problem - office documentation, graphic, pictorial, audiovisual sources, legislative acts , literary and journalistic, philosophical, religious, normative and instructive, educational and propaedeutic and other works of the era. The unity of view on all this variety of works of culture of a certain era, on their original genetic functional connection at a given moment of the historical process is provided by a holistic concept of source studies, knowledge of its theory, the method of source study analysis, the idea of historical disciplines as elements of a common method of cognition of sources. The methodology of source study is thus based on the fundamental unity that the object itself possesses: everything created by people (to one degree or another) is a product of a purposeful and conscious unity of purpose, creativity. The methodology of source study has the unity of its approach, the subject of study. For source studies, the key is the definition of culture in the broadest sense. Culture is everything created by people, as opposed to created by nature without their participation. Culture includes the objective, materially existing results of people's activities - tools, structures, works of art, i.e. - the entire objective, material world, formed and created by people in the process of their purposeful, meaningful activity. What is created by people has a different purpose, forms, infinitely diverse properties and can, of course, be studied from the most diverse angles. Everything created and created by people - from ancient times to the present - 28 SECTION 1 can be an object of study as a whole. In turn, the unity of the approach, the subject of research is due to the fact that these objects are studied in this case as sources of social information, as historical sources. There is a very important dependence that is of universal human significance. A person, creating his work, expresses himself in it, more broadly - his contemporary society, since a person is a social being. A work created by a person, in turn, can be used to understand its creator, to obtain information about him. Modern knowledge is characterized by a global approach to the problems of culture, a comparative study of various interacting types and areas of culture, and an integrated approach to the study of man. The object of research is expanding unusually quickly both horizontally and vertically. Horizontally - in geographic space, when the object of study is all new areas of different cultures, coexisting in one period or another, in a certain interaction with each other: at the beginning of the 20th century. Eurocentrism of the last century is gradually, and then faster and faster, being replaced by an appeal to the societies and cultures of other continents. The expansion along the vertical time axis comes from the traditional for science past, almost exclusive attention to the history of European antiquity, the Middle Ages and modern times to the history of societies of ancient and modern times. Such a change in the object of research in itself contributes to the differentiation of scientific knowledge, since it is associated with the study of new languages, specific texts, unusual types of human behavior, lifestyle and mentality, the comprehension and interpretation of which require special knowledge and methods. At the same time, there is a complication in the direction characteristic of the second half of the 20th century. and for the present. This is manifested in the unusual growth of the interest of the widest sections of society in another, different, alien and sometimes further exotic culture; in a person's desire to deal with this other culture directly, to try to understand it (or through it oneself). It found a vivid expression in mass visits to museums, appeal to archival documents, fashion for collecting art objects and various historical realities. Behind the bizarre manifestations of interests and preferences of the mass consciousness, a completely objective, previously unusual, new socio-cultural situation can be traced: turning to the culture of the past, or rather, to a culture that is inaccessible to direct perception, becomes a spiritual need not only a specialist, a scientist in the humanities, whose prerogative was traditionally, but a much wider circle of people - people of a humanitarian worldview. Compared with the situation that existed in the first half of the 20th century, marked by technocratic priorities, boundless faith in the possibilities of the natural sciences, the power of technology, this situation is new and significant. However, it raises certain difficulties. It is clear that the volume of information related to the study of the diversity of world cultures and, moreover, their interactions, is increasing indefinitely. This cannot but lead to qualitative changes in research methodology. Achievements of the middle of the XX century. made it possible to attract new technical means for recording, transmitting, processing social information, which significantly accelerated the pace of information retrieval, qualitatively changed the possibilities of reproduction, replication of texts, and their accessibility to the consumer. The ways of processing social information from mass sources, the possibilities of correlation analysis of the relationship of social phenomena, and modeling have changed. The use of these new opportunities for the humanities has become an important area of scientific research. No less significant for the humanities is the development of audiovisual sources, which significantly changed the ratio of written and sound recording fixation of information, written and oral evidence in the information field of the 20th century. Modern technical means, on the one hand, facilitate access to information, shorten its path to the consumer, on the other hand, contribute to an even faster increase in the total amount of information, create new types of sources. The object of source study - the historical source - becomes even wider. Therefore, it is important to identify the general principles of approach to historical sources, to find something essentially common that allows you to work with sources on a fundamentally unified basis. The word "source" has many meanings. With an almost literal coincidence of the meanings of the word, the scope of the concept of “source study” has a different content. It is known that any concept must be interpreted systematically, in the context of the scientific school in which it is created and functions. It is important for us to determine the content of the concept of "source-knowledge" in domestic science. Source study is the study of the source, which is of fundamental importance for humanitarian knowledge in general. Humanitarian knowledge, if we talk about its main purpose, should help a person who is busy solving his own, very specific, life problems - political, economic, professional, national, family, whatever, to involve all the experience in their solution. that humanity has accumulated. Humanitarian knowledge, therefore, should give an answer to how people acted in this or that case. We see that right now, in the era of critical events and emergencies, mass consciousness is turning to the experience of the past. Moreover, he does it instinctively, almost at random, using the available opportunities, preferring, in particular, memoirs and documentary publications to scientific works. The adjective “historical” in the phrase “historical source” specifies not the specifics of the source, but the feature of the field of knowledge that attracts sources for its research purposes - for knowing the past, studying the history of mankind (in this case, historical science ). At the same time, the phrase “historical source study”, which is often used as a synonym for the term “source study”, indicates the connection between source study and historical science, emphasizes that it arose and developed for a long time in connection with historical science, in the process of working with the sources of historians. The scope of application of source study methods is not limited to historical science proper. Expanding the scope of its methods in anthropology, ethnology, sociology, historical psychology, historical geography, cultural studies, source studies at the same time retains its traditionally established relationship with historical science. Source studies study not just a historical source. It studies the system of relations: man-work-person. This triad expresses a universal human phenomenon: one person communicates with another not directly, but indirectly, with the help of a work created by another person and reflecting his personality. Works created by people in the process of purposeful creative activity are deliberately clothed by them in a realized, materialized material form in which these works can freely function in a particular socio-cultural environment. These works (or their surviving fragments) may well record the information embedded in them about the people who created these works and also (to a certain extent, regardless of the intentions of the author) - about that historical time and place (chronotops), in which the emergence of these works and their subsequent functioning turned out to be possible. On this fundamental idea of sources as a cultural phenomenon, as a realized intellectual product of human activity, the system of methods of source study, its methodology is based. The methodology of source studies interprets works or their surviving fragments as cultural phenomena and as sources for its study. Thinker and cultural historian L.P. Karsavin in his textbook "Theory of History" (1920) rightly noted that it is the sources that create a real possibility of scientific knowledge of the past. “Through the source, as part of the past,” he wrote, “we get used to the unity of this past and, knowing the part, we already know the whole in it.” The scientist rightly saw in the study of sources the potential of humanitarian knowledge: “With a sufficient understanding and correct assessment of sources, as parts of the past, complaints of subjectivity and unreliability in comparison with the methods of the natural sciences of the method become pale and lose their power. historical" 2 . Thus, the ability to work with empirical data, freely navigate in their research space for any scientist - both a representative of the natural sciences and the humanities - is fundamentally necessary. For a practicing humanist, these empirical data are real historical sources. It is obvious that the scientific methodology of their research - search (heuristics), typology, interpretation of the information they contain, is of great importance. Complex research methods make it possible to recreate a fragmentary preserved work as a cultural phenomenon of its time, to reveal the typology and specifics of the cultural whole in which this phenomenon took place. These methods are logically interconnected and constitute a single system - the methodology of source study. It is based on a systematic approach, historicism, develops and improves methods of typology of sources, source analysis and synthesis. Without touching on all aspects of the more complex problem of the relationship between historical and sociological methods, we note only the very formulation of the question: is it really possible to draw a clear line between the past and the present? The events of the past are woven into the living fabric of modern reality, and it is difficult to separate one from the other. New works of psychologists, researchers of the problem of perception show that in this situation we are talking not about hours, and not even about minutes, but only about seconds. The human mind, according to the latest research, is able to perceive a complete picture within 2.9 seconds. As for what follows, here it is already necessary to turn to sources of fixed information. So, from the source point of view, direct contact is very short, and very soon it becomes necessary to turn to written, graphic, pictorial fixation of an event that has just flashed by. Unlike instantaneous now and here, direct observation, the appeal to sources makes communication independent of both time and place of action. A human-created work provides information about its creator whenever the need arises. Thus, through the medium of the created work, a person makes himself known to other people. CHAPTER 3 Source: Anthropological Landmark of the Humanities The HUMANITIES develop under the influence of complex phenomena of reality, reflecting the awareness of mankind of new problems for itself and the search for ways to solve them. Discoveries made in special areas of knowledge cause changes in the entire system of human sciences as a whole. Source study with its own method exists in the general space of humanitarian knowledge and is also engaged in the search for specific answers to the general requirements of the time. Therefore, first of all, we should dwell on the general situation in modern cognition. In the XX century. the global nature and interconnectedness of all social processes became apparent. The social facts of the new reality are not directly reflected in the sources of the traditional type - they require the construction of models of phenomena, and not their description. Under the conditions of the dominance of stereotypes of mass consciousness, the human personality faces the alternative of losing its uniqueness or a sharp struggle for it. The stable, mostly Eurocentric base of information sources developed in the previous centuries, and the methods of its research that corresponded to traditional tasks, in the new conditions reveal their incompleteness and discrepancy in the study of that “silent majority”, whose moods increasingly influence the course of the social process. The traditional methods of the social sciences need to be rethought. In modern times, the humanities are focused on the study of not so much objects as the interaction and mutual influence of man and nature, people among themselves. But interactions are more difficult to study than objects. Interaction is changeable, transient, p. difficult to interpret, inadequately reflected in the sources. Therefore, each of the humanitarian sciences is forced to rethink its object, expanding the possibilities of observing interactions. Sociologists create complex models of interaction between the individual and society (theories of the mirror “I”, social action, etc.), historians reconstruct models of the relationship of the historian as a subject of knowledge with his (already unobservable) object. There has been a sharp increase in interest in such sciences that put interaction and communication at the center of their research (information sciences and the sciences of language, their interpretational aspects). Global history must be based on a broad, completely different empirical base of sources than the one that historical science has at the present time. Western science, in the course of comprehension of this problem, has proposed two answers, in which there is something in common - they seem to take the solution of this problem beyond the limits of the historical methodology proper. One of the approaches to the problem of global history is philosophical. “... To understand a part, we must first of all focus on the whole, because this whole is a field of study, intelligible in itself” 3 . Another approach is interdisciplinarity, understood primarily as the use by one science of data obtained by other sciences. The question of the real object of research, which has a common goal - the formation of global history and the universal science of man, remains open in both approaches. In the concept of source studies, the ideas of a universal human principle and a historical source are actively promoted as a means of not just knowing the facts, but expanding the possibilities for an individual to communicate with world culture. The concept of source studies is based on the fundamental human need to overcome the limits of space and time and to interact with people, with the culture of other eras through historical sources that act as cultural phenomena. In a traditional society, contact with a great work of thought, skill was cultivated as a special art and intellectual enjoyment. Modern technological means open up new unlimited possibilities for such communication. The importance of source studies in modern humanitarian knowledge and culture is growing immeasurably. The theory, method and research practice of working with sources is a single whole. Therefore, we consider the main theoretical propositions and methods of their application to specific source material in three interrelated directions. First, in connection with the conditions in which these theoretical ideas were formed and developed; secondly, in the system of the method of source analysis and synthesis. Methods of source study are studied, moreover, in their application to the sources of Russian history. Here, the general principles of the source study approach are considered primarily on the basis of the specific classification of sources. This makes it possible to identify both the general and the special in the theory and research practice of source study. Notes 1 Jacobson R. Language and the unconscious. M., 1996. S. 233. 2 L.P. Kapsavin. Introduction to History: (Theory of History). Pg., 1920. P. 38. See for more details: Source studies in Russia in the 20th century: scientific thought and social reality // Soviet historiography / Ed. ed. Yu.H. Afanasiev. M., 1996. S. 54-55. 3 Toynbee L. Comprehension of history. M., 1991. S. 20 -21. SECTION 2 FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOURCE STUDIES CHAPTER 1 Criticism and interpretation as a research problem READING a great book, a manuscript for the sake of communicating with its creator and creator was an organic need in traditional culture. Such a work was guarded, surrounded by a halo of high reverence, it was treated with reverence and indifference, it was reread again and again, searching for a deep meaning that was not immediately revealed. It was a communication with the author of a work, which could be continued by one's own notes, for example, marginal notes, owner's signs in a manuscript or bookplates in a book. On this basis, the ability to understand the works of antiquity, to distinguish between the originals, to judge the value of the work and the features of the author's style was developed. Based on the material of philology, methods of referring to authorship as a way of understanding a work were formed. The concept of the source and its criticism, its understanding (hermeneutics) arose in connection with the philological interpretation of the most important works of literature of classical antiquity. These questions were dealt with by the interpreters of the texts of Holy Scripture - exegetes, humanists, thinkers and scientists. On this basis, at the beginning of the XIX and. there were general principles of addressing the work and authorship as a way of understanding the work, penetrating into the deep meaning of the text. 36 SECTION 2 The general principles of interpretation were practically inseparable from the specifics of the real text, serving the main goal for source studies - a better understanding of the author's intention, the meaning of the work, laid down in it by its creator. In essence, the desire, for example, of the researcher of Russian chronicles A.-L. Schlozer (1735-1809) to restore the “purified Nestor” was a vivid expression of attention to the author of the work, understanding of the author’s intention. Schlozer, a Russian historian and philologist of German origin, an adjunct of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, and later a professor at the University of Göttingen, suggested that The Tale of Bygone Years was the work of not only the monk of the Kiev Caves Monastery Nestor, but also his successors and scribes. He believed that there was one main text. A well-known German theologian and philosopher F. Schleiermacher (1768-1834) formulated the general doctrine of the principles of approaching a work as a source based on the study of the texts of the New Testament. In his work “On Hermeneutics and Criticism, Especially in Their Relation to the New Testament”, he distinguished two approaches to the study of a work: the doctrine of hermeneutics and the doctrine of criticism. He defined the doctrine of hermeneutics as "the art of understanding someone else's speech", and singled out grammatical and psychological interpretations. The psychological interpretation, according to the scientist, is to understand the complex of the author's thoughts as a kind of "life moment" in his development. Schleiermacher interpreted the doctrine of criticism more broadly than other scientists, who most often defined criticism as the art of understanding the works of antiquity and distinguishing between genuine and non-genuine, as well as judging their merits. The concept of criticism turned out to be not quite clear, since the art of understanding a work, on the one hand, and establishing authenticity, on the other, are very different in their tasks and methods. A clear separation of hermeneutics and criticism contributed to the clarification of both concepts. Schleiermacher noted that the task of criticism confronts the researcher of a work when he notices that the source “has something that should not be in it”. In other words, when there is a suspicion that the source under study contains some errors that require a critical attitude; he divided them into mechanical ones (for example, typographical errors of the text scribe) and into errors depending on the free will of the person who is recognized as the author of this work. Nevertheless, he paid the main attention to the consideration of the tasks of criticism, methods of establishing authenticity and inauthenticity, and not to solving more complex problems of reliability. FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOURCE STUDIES 37 At the beginning of the 19th century, works on classical philology were of great importance for the development of methods for studying a work and its authorship. This area of humanitarian knowledge was then understood very broadly. So, the German philologist F.L. Wolf (1759-1824) considered philology as a field of knowledge of classical antiquity in its entirety. He was especially interested in the “philological reconstruction” of the works of private and public life of the Greeks and Romans. Wolf's writings on the authorship of the Iliad and the Odyssey had a great influence on the development of the science of classical antiquity and its methods. Wolff's overly broad understanding of philology (he came to the conclusion that "the goal of philology is purely historical"), however, did not arouse support from either philologists or historians. A great contribution to the development of historical criticism was made by the German historian B.G. Niebuhr (1766-1831), founder of the scientific-critical method and the study of history. In his classic book Roman History, he argued for the legendary nature of the ancient history of Rome using a critical method of analyzing historical evidence. The development of methods of criticism and interpretation of sources was facilitated by the works of legal historians, especially the work of the head of the historical school of law, the German jurist F.K. Savigny (1779-1861). In the works on the political history of Western Europe of the XVI-XVII centuries. German historian L. von Ranke (1795-1886) proclaimed the need for an objective critical study of sources and facts in order to write history exactly as it “actually happened”. This thesis was associated by many of his followers with an appeal to original sources, with the need for a critical check of their reliability. Scientific and critical study of the history of the New Testament and early Christianity was continued by F.K. Baur - an outstanding German Protestant theologian (1792-1860), professor at the University of Tübingen. Among French historians, the medieval historian P. Donu (1701-1840) showed particular interest in the problems of source criticism. As a major archivist, Donu is known for developing the principles for classifying documents in national archives. In addition, for a number of years he lectured on the historical criticism of sources. First third of the 19th century characterized by a special interest of scientists in the study of works of culture, in historical works, the problems of authorship and genre of these works. 38 SECTION 2 CHAPTER 2 Source study as a problem of national history A GREAT influence on the development of methods for analyzing historical sources was exerted by major scientific discoveries of the first third of the 19th century. They contributed to the study of many historical sources and the improvement of methods for their critical analysis. One of the largest initiatives is connected with the publication of the famous series of historical monuments of German history (“Monumenta Germaniae Historica”), which to a large extent influenced the creation of the union of German states. Thus, the failures of Prussia in the war with Napoleon prompted the government to liberal reforms, strengthened the desire of the German states to unite. An important role in the formation of national identity was assigned to the publication of historical documents of German history. At the origins of the publication was a statesman and liberal reformer, the head of the Prussian government in 1807-1808. G.F. von Stein. In 1815, von Stein withdrew from political activity and undertook this major scientific and historical publication at his own expense. As a result of this initiative, the scientific society Die Gesellschaft für ältere Geschichtskunde was founded in 1819. His activities were aimed at the study of documents, sources of German history and their subsequent scientific-critical publication. The general long-term plan for collecting, scientific criticism and publication was developed by the historian G.G. Pertz. In this way, the successful and still famous series “Monuments of German History” was launched. The first issue was published in 1826. The publication became a true school for the study of sources, their scientific criticism. It was divided into five major sections according to source types: Scriptores (historical writers in the broadest sense); Leges (laws and legal collections); Diplomata (documents); Epistolae (letters); Antiquitates (antiquities), not quite defined by species composition. The historian and bibliographer G. Weitz (1813-1886) was directly involved in this publication. From 1875 he became the editor-in-chief of the publication. With his works, he laid the foundation for a special historical school of studying the history of state institutions and the social system of medieval Germany. His name is also associated with the creation in 1830 of the well-known bibliography “Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte” (“Source Studies FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOURCE STUDIES 39 of German History”). This work is also interesting from the point of view of the formation of the term "source study". For the first time, this word was used to name a whole area of research. It replaced the inaccurate and difficult-to-translate “historical studies” that was originally part of the name of the scientific society for the study of sources founded by von Stein. It should be noted that the bibliography “Source Studies of German History”, in the preparation of which, in addition to G. Waid, the statesman F.K. Dahlmann (1785-1860), is a complete retrospective bibliography of source studies presented in a systematic manner. It is highly appreciated by experts. (The first edition appeared in 1830, the tenth in the 1980s). Constant reprints of the book testify to the fact that it has not lost its significance to this day. So, the concept of "source study" arose as a result of collecting, studying and systematizing historical sources. In other words, the tremendous work done by G. Weitz, together with his associates, to identify, scientific criticism and evaluation of historical sources, and made up that scientific research direction, the development of which contributed to the formation of source studies as a science. In Russia, the collection and publication of historical sources became especially lively after the Patriotic War of 1812, which played an important role in the formation of historical consciousness and the rise of interest in the past. Back in 1811, a commission for printing state letters and treaties was established at the Moscow Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. After 1812, its activities intensified with the support of Chancellor Count N.P. Rumyantsev (1754-1826). The monumental “Collection of state letters and treaties kept in the State Collegium of Foreign Affairs” included state acts of 1229-1696. Since 1834, the publication of historical documents was concentrated in the Archaeographic Commission, created under the Ministry of Public Education. The commission published a number of multi-volume publications. According to a single plan and rules with. In 1837, the Complete Collection of Russian Chronicles began to be published. The Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire, whose publication was headed by the famous statesman, author of the plan of state reforms under Alexander I M.M., has not lost its scientific significance so far. Speransky (1772-1839). These and many other major initiatives of collecting, studying and publishing historical documents served as a powerful stimulus for the development of source studies and scientific criticism of sources. 40 SECTION 2 CHAPTER 3 Source as a self-sufficient research problem CHARACTERISTIC for the first half of the 19th century. the socio-cultural type, the way of humanitarian thinking, was distinguished by a direct appeal to the source, the desire to fully perceive the work, and through it the personality of its author. This is connected with great attention to the form, to the genre features of the work. An essential feature of that time is the historicism of culture, the connection between history and politics: statesmen participated in historical research and publications and, conversely, professional historians were engaged in state policy. "Note on ancient and new Russia" N.M. Karamzin, the past of the country, its present and development prospects form a single concept; historical works of A.S. Pushkin, state leaders, and not only Russia, in terms of the codification of legislation and the publication of monuments of state and law, act as convincing examples for understanding the prevailing in the first half of the 19th century. situations. A better understanding of the relationship between history and politics for the humanities of that time comes from direct participation in the activities of the archives. The whole political system of the country passes before him, its structure, social stratification and, which is also very important, the ways of its functioning (through the preserved documents). This type of humanist is not necessarily a historian or a writer. He is a statesman by way of thinking. If this is a historiographer, like Karamzin, then he is also the author of Notes on Ancient and New Russia, i.e., a political scientist and reformer. If a poet, then he thinks like a sociologist, for example, like Pushkin in Boris Godunov and historical novels. If a diplomat, then a major politician like A.M. Gorchakov, or the poet - teacher of the heir, the future tsar - culturologist V.A. Zhukovsky, or a diplomat-philosopher, like F.F. Tyutchev. Common to all is a scientific approach to the source as a phenomenon, a large-scale view of the country and its historical destinies, an understanding of the political system of the state, the relationship between people and power. In the second half of the XIX century. a different cultural situation has been created. The synthesis of a historian-official - a statesman in one person is no longer traceable. The outstanding historian S.M. Solovyov (1820-1879) was not a state historiographer, like N.M. Karamzin. Liberal professors, philosophers and jurisprudence 4 1 K.D. Kavelina, B.N. Chicherina, M.M. Kovalevsky, as a rule, are removed from public service and university teaching for many years. The gap between the government and society is growing, becoming critical. Attention to historical works as such, on the one hand, and the need to turn to new sets of historical documents in connection with the rise of national consciousness in European countries, on the other, caused in the middle of the 19th century. a significant rise in interest in historical research; Accordingly, the problems of special training for the implementation of such studies have become more important. University education of a general type turned out to be clearly insufficient for this purpose. At the same time, the same problem arose as a practical problem of archives. It was realized first of all in France. Here, as a result of the largest event in the history of modern times - the Great French Revolution, there was a change in the entire administrative apparatus, institutions, and political system. The old institutions ceased to exist, thus creating both the possibility and the need for the centralization of the archives of the new time. It was about the archives of the political system, the power and administration of the old regime, about the documents of political, administrative, religious archives not only of the state, but also of the nation. At the same time, a new problem arose - the provision of archives as the property of the nation at the disposal of citizens. Historical education of the old type could not solve such problems, form a new specialist. In 1821, the School of Charters was established in Paris. Its goal was to train archivists and librarians, specialists to work with a huge array of documents of the medieval history of France. Usually, when they talk about the School of Charters, they pay attention to the fact that it was here, and at that time only here, that paleography, diplomacy, and other historical disciplines were taught, which made it possible to conduct research work with documents of the medieval era. Since 1846, the cadre of French archivists was formed mainly from graduates of the School of Charters, since 1850 this position became mandatory. Following the School of Charters, similar higher schools were created in other countries of Western Europe, in particular, in 1854 in Vienna, the German historian and polymath T. von Zikkel (1826-1908) founded the Institute of Austrian Historical Research. Zikkel spent several years in Paris studying at the School of Charters. Diplomacy, paleography and other historical disciplines related to the criticism of sources were especially widely developed in the institute he created. In 1856, the School of Diplomacy was opened in Madrid under the auspices of the Academy of History, in 1857, the School of Palaeography and Diplomacy in Florence, under the direction of Fr. Bonaini (1806-1874), Italian polymath and archivist. Led by archivist historians, mostly medievalists, the archives became research centers for historical science. Yes, Fr. Bonaini reformed the archives of Tuscany and the repositories of state archives in Florence, Pisa, Sienna, Lucca, the Belgian historian and archivist L.P. Gashar (1800-1885) - archives of Belgium, English historian and archivist F. Palgraf (1788-1861) - archives of Great Britain. This generation of scientists created valuable descriptions of large archival funds, opened up the possibility of publishing documents that are most important for the history of the country. All these facts allow us to take a fresh look at what constitutes a type of source study education that is different from university education in the traditional sense. Usually, the main emphasis is on the knowledge of methods of working with sources: paleography, diplomacy, etc. For all its fidelity, this approach does not cover the essence of the problem in its entirety: aside from direct participation in research and publishing work, there are major state politicians, mostly of a liberal direction (H. von Stein - in Prussia, Fr. Guizot - in France , M. M. Speransky and N. P. Rumyantsev - in Russia). These are politicians who well understood the state and political significance of publications of sources, their role in shaping the image of the country both among its citizens and in the European world. The formation of nation-states, the development of ideas of legal and civil rights of the individual, the growth of historical consciousness have formed a special approach to the historical document, which has turned into a document of history in the eyes of society. The historian, archivist, and statesman share the common ideas of national self-identification, linking with it a careful, interested, and even professional attitude to national historical memory. Creation of the School of Charters in France, a grandiose social and scientific initiative to publish a fundamental series of historical documents (“Monuments of the History of Germany”), the activities of Russian educators-philanthropists in Russia, a special type of intellectuals - keepers of the national historical tradition (“ archival youths” of Pushkin’s time) laid the foundations for the concept of the activity of an archivist as a specialist of the highest qualification, a masterful study of historical texts. However, what for a long time served as the main professional dignity and pride of a professional archivist, historian, textual critic, in the changing conditions of the late XIX - early XX centuries. began to be viewed critically. The focus of attention of this type of intellectual was on a country-specific, rather highly specialized model of a specialist. Orientation towards the fundamental erudite study of traditional institutions and office materials and act sources made the highest demands on a highly specialized complex of auxiliary historical methods closely related to a specific type of documentation. A historian-researcher-country expert, an archivist-historian of institutions, a diplomatist-textologist, researching specific issues, could hardly move on to a theoretical understanding of professional methods. A specialist of this type experienced great difficulties when the transition from regional studies to global generalizations turned out to be necessary. Such a specialist is not ready for a theoretical generalization of the accumulated empirical experience. L. Febvre (1878-1956) wrote about their attitude to historical knowledge: "History is history - this was the starting point for its definition" 1 . Unwillingness to comprehend their own research practice put such a specialist in a critical situation. “The new century,” A. Toynbee wrote about this situation in historical science, “has outlined its field of research, not limited by the boundaries of one nationality, and scientists will be forced to adapt their method to intellectual operations on a wider scale” 2 . The formation of the methodology of history and the isolation of the methods of historical research as a special subject of professional historical education became in the late XIX - early XX century. characteristic trend of the new mentality of historians-intellectuals. CHAPTER 4 Sources as a means of knowledge for the historian IN THE SECOND half of the 19th century. public consciousness has noticeably changed. The methodology of the social and natural sciences was increasingly influenced by positivism, which considered scientific knowledge only as the cumulative result of specific special sciences. In the humanities culture, there has been a departure from the study of author's works as the subject and purpose of the study. They began to be regarded primarily as a preliminary stage to the creation of sociological constructions. The idea of the purpose of historical science, of the methodology for achieving historical knowledge has also changed. The monographs and textbooks of that time reflect a positivist approach to the concept of the methodology of history. The most striking expression of this was the book of two major French scientists and teachers of higher education, Ch.-V. Langlois (1863-1920) and Ch. Segnobos (1854-1942) "Introduction to the study of history" (1898) 3 . It met the objectives of the new liberal arts education carried out in accordance with the 1864 reform of higher education in France. In connection with the reform, the School of Higher Studies was created at the Sorbonne with a department of history and philosophy. The main idea was to prepare young people for original research of a scientific nature. “There should have been an attempt to do for all parts of world history what had been done for a long time in the School of Charters in the limited area of the medieval history of France.” According to Langlois, in the time elapsed from the time of the Duruy reform to the end of the 19th century, all these institutions, once so dissimilar, began to work in one direction for the sake of one common cause, although each retained its name, autonomy and its traditions. , and their evolution has undoubtedly led to beneficial consequences. It was at this time, in 1890-1897, lecturing students of the Sorbonne about what is and what should be the study of history, Langlois and Segnobos came to the conclusion that a special manual should be created on this problem. Their "Introduction to the Study of History" did not aim to replace the future historian with his professional training: it was supposed to encourage the specialist to reflect on the methods of studying historical material, which are sometimes applied as if mechanically. At the same time, for the public reading the works of historians, the book was supposed to show how these works are written and from what positions it is possible to judge them correctly. In the new reality of the historical consciousness of the second half of the XIX century. the study of a separate work, the integrity of the author's intention faded into the background. All disciplines that made it possible to perceive the works as a whole began to be interpreted as purely auxiliary. The graphics, the texture of the manuscript, its external features, i.e. the fact that, in essence, there is only an expression of the existence of the document, its inner meaning, could be interpreted from a technical, one might say formal, rony. Diplomatics, paleography, sphragistics, textual criticism were interpreted, whether not as technical methods, ways of overcoming the annoying barrier of illegibility, incomprehensibility of the text. According to the concept of Langlois and Segnobos, there are three main stages in historical knowledge. The first is the stage of “preliminary information”, which includes, first of all, the search for and collection of documents necessary for the historian (the authors use the term “heuristics” to designate this stage). Here, in particular, the most important reference publications (such as catalogues, inventories of archives, libraries and museums, materials of historical bibliography, all sorts of indexes and reference books) that help to find documents are considered. All “auxiliary sciences” are related to this stage. They are interpreted precisely as “the technical training of a historian and erudite,” as a kind of stock of technical knowledge that neither natural talent nor even knowledge of the method can replace. The teaching of these “auxiliary sciences” and “techniques” is highly valued by the positivist authors of the “Introduction to the Study of History”: the teaching of auxiliary sciences and technical methods of research was introduced only for medieval (French) history and only in the special School of Charters. . This simple circumstance ensured for the whole 50 years for the School of Charters a noticeable advantage over all other higher educational institutions, not only French, but also abroad; she brought up a number of brilliant researchers who published a lot of new data. The technical training of people involved in medieval history was best developed precisely at the School of Charters, primarily thanks to courses in Romance philology, paleography, archeology, historiography, and medieval law. Many manuals on paleography, epigraphy and diplomacy appeared. The second research stage in historical knowledge was defined by Langlois and Segnobos as “analytical processes”. This term denoted both external (preparatory) criticism of the source, referring to its origin and authorship, and internal criticism, understood as its interpretation and critique of reliability. The main criterion for the latter is the judgment about the accuracy and sincerity of the author of the document. It is important to note that positivist scholars presented criticism precisely as a preparatory stage in the activity of a historian. The analysis of the source within the framework of this approach ends with parrying the data contained in it, separating trustworthy facts from unreliable ones. Considered in this way, the document turns into "a long series of author's concepts and evidence of facts." With this approach to criticism and interpretation, the document (source) is not evaluated as a whole. The preliminary analytical stage is necessary and sufficient for the subsequent, more complex stage of the historian's work, which in this concept is called synthesis, the synthetic process. At this highest stage, individual facts are systematized, a historical construction is carried out, general formulas are created, and, finally, a historical presentation is given. Valuable in this technique is a careful study of the relationship between personal characteristics (the creator of the source) and the information that he could and wanted to communicate. Langlois and Segnobos used for their model of critical study of sources detailed questionnaires created under the direct influence of the achievements of sociology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By posing the questions they formulated in sequence, one can better understand the complex circumstances of the creation of the source and the level of reliability of the information reported. In the textbook by Langlois and Segnobos, one can trace the orientation, characteristic of the positivist paradigm, towards the systematization of the material at the disposal of the researcher. Interpretation and historical construction, historical synthesis - as a stage of research work - is presented in the book precisely by ordering schemes for the distribution of individual isolated facts according to chronological or thematic principles. The distinction between sources containing primary and secondary (second-hand) information, as well as disputes about the advantages of documentary (diplomatic) sources over narrative sources date back to the 17th-18th centuries. German methodologist and historian I.G. Droysen (1808-1884) in his "Historian" based the classification of sources on the principle of correlation between source and fact; some historical facts have come down to us directly (historical remnants), while others - in the testimonies of other people about them (historical traditions). Droysen did not rule out, however, the possibility of mixing these features (singling out, in particular, mixed sources, for example, real ones with an explanatory inscription, etc.). Great interest in ordering the objects themselves - historical sources - is a characteristic feature of another classic methodological work - "Textbook of the historical method" by E. Bernheim (1850-1942) 4 . The most detailed and thorough author developed the classification of historical sources. Classification as a division of the set of studied objects into logical classes is of great importance in science, not only for streamlining knowledge about the fragments of reality, but, above all, for identifying the properties and features of these objects. At a certain level of development of any science, classification becomes necessary and possible. In the cognitive situation represented by the Eurocentric model of historical science, it was both timely and possible. E. Bernheim built his classification according to the degree of closeness of the source to the facts, respectively distinguishing between historical remnants and historical tradition (traditions). This classification became fundamental in Bernheim's concept for the development of methods for verifying the reliability of sources. With regard to the remains, it was necessary to verify their authenticity (correspondence to the parameters of time, place and authorship declared in them). When checking indirect evidence sources, all possible research methods within the framework of traditional evidence criticism come to the fore. Bernheim, like Droysen before, as a practicing historian, of course, perfectly understood that this classification principle cannot be carried out consistently enough, since it is very difficult to correlate direct and indirect, primary and secondary evidence of a source. Applying this classification, he managed to draw the attention of scientists to the difference in social information in the studied sources and the need to use different methods of its interpretation; some must rely on the material side of the source, its spatial characteristics, when the source acts as a fragment of the past reality, its remnant; others require a logical-meaningful analysis of the content of the text. CHAPTER 5 Positivist Methods of Historical Research As a result of the success of the natural sciences in comprehending regularities in the natural world, positivism has had a certain influence on the humanities as well. The rejection of speculative judgments, a priori schemes and arbitrary interpretations of facts, the desire for evidence and reproducibility of the results of scientific research, the deepest respect for science and the personality of a scientist - all these priority psychological attitudes for the positivist paradigm typical for the humanities of this type. The methodology of historical research is isolated as a subject of special consideration and becomes an academic discipline. Quite in the spirit of the positivist paradigm, this methodology was focused on identifying, describing, and ordering the empirical data of scientific objects. “People doing historical research at the end of the nineteenth century had very little interest in the theory of what they were doing. In full accordance with the spirit of the positivist era, historians of that time considered it a professional norm to more or less openly despise philosophy in general and the philosophy of history in particular” – this is how the English methodologist R.J. Collingwood (1889-1943) 5 . As already mentioned, the positivist principles of the historical method are most clearly expressed by Sh.-V. Langlois and C. Segnobos in Introduction to the Study of History. For a historian, according to the positivist, the main thing is the presence of a real object, a document, a "text": "History is studied with the help of texts." Even the severe critic of this approach, L. Febvre, does not deny the undeniable persuasiveness of this positivist formula. “The famous formula: to this day it has not lost all its merits,” writes Febvre, “and they are undoubtedly invaluable. For honest workers, legitimately proud of their erudition, oma served as a password and a battle cry in battles with lightweight, somehow concocted opuses” 6 . Written by the researcher of the "Political History of Modern Europe" professor of the Sorbonne, Ch. should have been long forgotten, like so many others. But this did not happen, which means that she correctly expressed her time. Let's think about her secret. The book presents the image of a historian who is confident in the reality of his empirical data, in the comprehensibility of his sources, which he so much needs. This is the situation of the Eurocentric historical model, on which more than one generation of scientists has worked. This situation is described by A. Toynbee, an adherent of a fundamentally different paradigm, a historian of another generation, as follows: “From the time of Mommsen and Ranke, historians began to spend most of their efforts on collecting raw material - FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOURCE STUDIES 49 inscriptions, documents, etc. - publishing them in the form of anthologies or private notes for periodicals. When processing the collected materials, scientists often resorted to the division of labor. As a result, extensive studies appeared, which were published in series of volumes... Such series are monuments to human diligence, “factualism” and the organizational power of our society. They will take their place along with marvelous tunnels, bridges and dams, liners, cruisers and skyscrapers, and their creators will be remembered among the famous engineers of the West” 7 . Methods for criticizing evidence received from eyewitnesses of events and from those who received information from the second or third hand, or used reliable documents, have been improved and refined many times since the publications of the 17th century. Is it because, when reading the methodological work of Langlois and Segnobos, we are not left with a feeling of lightness, as if we are not moving along the path of creating a historical narrative, but, as it were, floating above it, we see it from above, and it is all from the beginning? (preparatory processes) to successful completion (statement) - logically verified and familiar. So, first of all - the search for documents (heuristics); then analysis (external, preparatory, criticism); internal criticism (criticism of interpretation - hermeneutics, negative internal criticism of reliability - through checking the sincerity and accuracy of evidence and, as a result, establishing private facts). Next comes the stage of synthesis, which, in the spirit of the positivist paradigm, is achieved by grouping the previously identified facts and constructing general formulas. The presentation of the research results completes the creation of a historical narrative. Thus, on the basis of the Eurocentric model of historical science empirically provided with sources, publications, archival documents, a certain type of historical professionalism can be traced, based on the effect of “cognition of the known”: knowledge of a document, a certain amount of established facts, methods of critical selection of testimonies formed by the intellectual efforts of generations. Each stage of the research work is open to the scientific community and available for its control. The methodology of “knowledge of the known”, developed in the spirit of the positivist model of Eurocentric historiography and based on relatively stable ideas about the object of historical knowledge, soon came into conflict with reality. The positivists developed their own methods, their own criteria for the objectivity of historical knowledge and the corresponding requirements for historical images.

Source study. Theory. Story. Method. Sources of Russian history 1998/fin.pdf PUBLICATIONS OF HISTORICAL SOURCES AND LITERATURE * TO PART 1 Study guides Medushevsky O.M. Source study of the socialist countries: Proc. allowance. M., 1985. 103 p. Medushovskaya O.M. Modern bourgeois historiography and questions of source study; Proc. allowance M., 1979. 72 p. Medushovskaya O.M. Modern foreign source studies: Proc. allowance. M., 1983. 143 p. Medushovskaya O.M. Theoretical problems of source studies: Proc. allowance. M., 1977, 80s. Continuing editions Archaeographic Yearbook on / USSR Academy of Sciences (RAS). Department of History Archeographer, comis. M., 1957-1994. Auxiliary historical disciplines: Sat. L. (St. Petersburg), 1968-1994. Issue. 1-25. Source study of national history: Sat. Art., M., 1973-1989. [Issue. 1-7]. Source research / AN GruzSSR. Komis. according to the sources of the history of Georgia. Tbilisi, 1979-1988, [Iss. 1-3]. Bernheim E. Introduction to historical science. 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Origins of Stalinism// Science and Life. 1988. No. 11, 12; 1989. Mil 1, 2. Shmelev G. Do not dare to command! // October. 1988. Mb 2. Shmelev N. Advances and debts // New World. 1987. No. 6-7; He is. From the memorandums of an economist // Znamya. 1989. No. 12. Yakovlev A.N. Bitter Cup: Bolshevism and the Reformation of Russia, Yaroslavl, 1994. 461 p. PUBLICATIONS OF HISTORICAL SOURCES AND LITERATURE 691 To chapter 10. Periodicals Menshevik and Socialist-Revolutionary leaflets of 1917-1918 // Otech. story. 1993. No. 1. pp. 15-173. Moscow news [for 1987]: Reprint. M., 1988. Newspapers of the first years of Soviet power, 1917-1922: Code. bibliography catalog / GBL USSR im. IN AND. Lenin. M., 1990. Ch. 1-4. Newspapers of the USSR, 1917-1960: Bibliography. directory / All-Union. book. ward. M., 1970-1984. T. 1-5. Periodical press of the USSR, 1917-1949: Bibliog. ukaz.: Journals, works, bulletins: Svodn. decree. M., 1955-1963. [T. 1-10]. Political parties, informal amateur organizations and the independent press of the USSR: (Catalog-reference book) / Prepared. D.F. Levicheva M., 1990. 307p. Russian emigration in Europe: Consolidated catalog of periodicals: In 2 volumes. Paris, 1981-1990. Petrov V.A. The newspaper of the labor collective as a historical source (on the material of the newspaper "Kirovets") // Auxiliary historical. disciplines. L., 1990. Issue. XXI, pp. 66-73. Romanovsky V.K. Workers' letters as a source for studying the social makeup of the working class in the 1920s. // Auxiliary historical disciplines, L., 1990. Issue. XXI. pp. 54-65. Strekopytov S.P. Journal "Socialist Reconstruction and Science" ("SORENA") as a source on the history of the organization of science and the system of the Supreme Council of National Economy - People's Commissariat for Heavy Machinery of the USSR 1931-1986. // Auxiliary historical disciplines. L., 1991. Issue. XXII. pp. 73-87. To chapter 11. Sources of personal origin Amalrik A.A. Notes of a dissident. M., 1991. 432 p. Andrei Dmitrievich: Memories of Sakharov. M., 1990. 367 p.: ill. Bukovsky V. "And the wind returns ...", Letters from a Russian traveler. M., 1990. Vishnevskaya G.P. Galina: The story of life. SPb., 1994. 526 p.: ill. Memories of General Baron N.P. Wrangel: At 2 h. M., 1992. Part 1-2. Memoirs of Tolstoyan peasants, 1910-1930s / Comp. A.B. Roginsky, M., 1989. 479 p.: ill. Memories of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin: In 10 vols. M., 1989-1991. T, 1-8. Gippius Z.N. Petersburg diary. M., 1991. 127 p. From the correspondence of A.M. Gorky: Letters of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) V.I. Lenin (1921) // News of the Central Committee of the CPSU. 1991. No. b. pp. 152-156. From the correspondence of A.M. Gorky (1930-1935) // News of the Central Committee of the CPSU. 1991. M 8. S. 151-157. Kerensky A.F. Russia at the historical turn: Memoirs. M „ 1993. Maryanov G.B. Kremlin censor. Stalin is watching a movie. M „ 1992. Makhno N.P. Memories / Intro, Art. S.S. wolf; Comment. S.S. Volka, I.A. Gypsy. M., 1992. 334 p. Mikhailovsky G.N. Notes: From the history of the Russian Foreign Ministry, 1914-1920: In 2 books. M., 1993. Book. 1-2. October Revolution: Memoirs / Comp. S.A. Alekseev. M., 1991. 426 p. Sakharov L.D. Memoirs: In 2 vols. M., 1996. 692 Simonov K.M. Through the eyes of a man of my generation. Reflections on I.V. Stalin: [Sat.] / Comp. and ed. foreword L. Lazarev. M., 1990. 428 p. Sorokin P.A. Long road: Autobiography / Per. from English, general ed., comp., foreword. and note. A.V. Lipsky. M., 1992. 304 p.: ill. Chuev F.I. One hundred and forty conversations with Molotov: From the diary of F. Chuev / Afterword. S. Kuleshova. M., 1991. 604 p.: ill. Trotsky L.D. My life: an autobiographical experience. M., 1990. Trotsky L.D. Portraits of revolutionaries. M., 1991. Khrushchev N.S. Union pensioner. M., 1991. Chernov B.M. Before the storm M., 1993. Alekseev V.V. Workers' letters to newspapers as a source of sociological information // Data selection methods, document analysis, experiment. M., 1985. Peasants about socialism (letters to the "Peasant newspaper" on the 10th anniversary of Soviet power / Publication by T.P. Mironova // Soviet archives. 1987. No. 5. Kurnosov A.A. Collecting documents of personal origin of participants in the Great Patriotic War war, system of values, tendencies and problems // Archeographic Yearbook for 1990. M., 1992. P. 3-8 Mironova T. P. Experience of using content analysis in the study of social consciousness of the pre-collective farm peasantry // Perestroika in History Science and Problems of Source Studies and Special Historical Disciplines: Abstracts of Reports and Communications, Kyiv, 1990, To Chapter 12. Sources of the Russian Emigration Arane D. Russian Bibliography Abroad: Review Experience // Soviet Bibliography, 1990, No. 1. pp. 140-148 Baskakov VN New Bibliographies of Russian Emigrant Literature // Russian Literature 1990 No 3 Zernov N Russian Writers of Emigration: Bibliographic Information and Bibliography of Their Books on Theology, Religious Philosophy, Church History rii and Orthodox culture 1921-1972. 1973. Cossack V. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Russian Literature since 1917. London, 1988. Literature of the Russian diaspora returns to its homeland. M., 1993. Issue. 1. Ch. 1-2. Materials for the bibliography of Russian scientific works abroad. Belgrade, 1932-1941. T. 1-2. Materials for the consolidated catalog of periodicals and continuing publications of the Russian abroad in the libraries of Moscow (1917-1990). M., 1991. Postnikov S.P. Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War. 1917-1921 Prague, 1938. Russian emigration: journals and collections in Russian, 1920-1980: Consolidated index of articles. Paris, 1988. Pages of Russian foreign press. Munich; Moscow, 1990. Index of periodicals of emigration of Russia and the USSR for 1919-1952. Munich, 1953. FosterL. Bibliography of Russian foreign literature, 1918-1968, 1971. T. 1-2. Shatav M.V. Bibliography of the liberation movement of the peoples of Russia during the Second World War. New York, 1961. Literature of the Russian Diaspora: Anthology: In 6 volumes / Ed. int. Art. and scientific ed. A.L. Afanasiev. M „1990-1991. T. 1-2. Argunov A. Between two Bolshevisms. Paris, 1919. PUBLICATIONS OF HISTORICAL SOURCES AND LITERATURE 693 Brutskus B. Rise and collapse of the Soviet planned economy // Sovremennye zapiski, 1983. V. 51; He is. Hunger and collectivization // Ibid. 1934. T. 52; He is. The fate of the five-year plan // Ibid. 1932. T. 48. Memoirs of General Baron P.I. Wrangel, M., 1992. Part 1-2. Wrangel P.N. Notes; At 2 p.m. // White business. Berlin, 1928-1929, Vol. V-VI. Gippius Z. Living Faces: Memoirs, Tbilisi, 1991. Golovin N.N. Russian counter-revolution in 1917-1918. B.M. Ch. 1-5. Book. 1-10. Denikin A.M. Essays on Russian Troubles. Paris, 1921, T, 1, Issue, 1-2, Paris, 1922, T, 2; Berlin, 1924. Vol. 3; Berlin, 1925, T, 4; Berlin, 1926. T, 6. Denikin A.I. Essays on Russian turmoil: The collapse of power and the army, February-September 1917, M., 1991; He is. Essays on Russian Troubles; The struggle of General Kornilov; August 1917 - April 1918, M, 1991. Drozdovsky M.G. Diary. Berlin, 1923. Kerensky A.F. Russia at a historical turn // Vopr. stories. 1990. No. 6-8. Margulis M.S. year of intervention. Berlin, 1923. Book. 1-3. Martov L. Lenin against communism // Sociolistic. messenger. 1921. No. 10. Makhno N. Memories. M., 1992. Mensheviks after the October Revolution: Sat. articles and memoirs by B. Nikolaevsky, S. Volin, G. Aronson. Vermont, 1990. Milyukov P.N. Memoirs, M., 1991. Nemirovich-Danchenko G.V. In the Crimea under Wrangel. Berlin, 1922, Nesterovich-Berg M.A. In the fight against Bolshevism. Paris, 1931. Obolensky V.A. Essays on the past, Belgrade, 1981. Polovtsev L.V. Knights of the Crown of Thorns. Prague, b.g. Rakovsky G.N. In the camp of the whites, Constantinople, 1920; He is. End of whites. Prague, 1921. Rodzianko A.P. Memories of the North-Western Army, Berlin, 1921. Rodzianko M.V. The collapse of the empire. Kharkov, 1990. Ustryalov N.V. Under the Sign of Revolution, Harbin, 1925, pp. 23-24, 45-46, Fedotov G. Litigation about Russia // Sovremennye zapiski. Paris, 1936, T, 60, Khodasevich V.F. Necropolis; Memories. M, 1991. Tsereteli I.G. Memories of the February Revolution, Paris, 1963, Book. 1-2. Chernov D.M. Before the storm M. 1993; He is. Destruction instead of creation // Will of Russia. 1924. No. 1-2; He is. Constructive socialism, Prague, 1925. Vol. 1, Shulgin V.V. 1920 Sofia, 1921. Shulgin V. Years - Days - 1920. M., 1990. Yuryevsky E. Peasants, collective farm and state // Russian notes. 1941, T, 19; He is. From the first five-year plan to the second // Modern notes. Paris, 1934. Vol. 55; He is. Behind the scenes of the five-year plan // Ibid. 1932. V. 49. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION .................................................. .................................................5 PART I THEORY, HISTORY AND METHOD OF SOURCE STUDIES SECTION 1 THEORY OF SOURCE STUDIES (O.M. Medushushskaya) .........................19 Chapter 1. Source studies: a special method of cognition of the real world.... ................................................. ..............................................19 1. The real world and its cognition ................................................. ..........21 2. Fixed sources of information about reality .................................. ................................................. .......22 Chapter 2.

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