Section 187. Modern ideas about the integral model of human sound behavior are described in detail in the book by S.V. Kodzasov and O.F. Krivnova "General phonetics" (M., 2001). We will briefly outline here only the main provisions of this concept.
The communicative function of language is based on its symbolic nature. Language signs (first of all, words, as well as morphemes) are the main building material of speech messages. The initial form of verbal communication is sounding speech, in which information is physically transmitted from one person to another in the form of sound vibrations (another, secondary, form of communication, written, is also widespread in human society). Oral speech is based on the skills of pronunciation and sound perception, which allow a person to transmit information when speaking and extract it from an audio signal when perceived. These skills are unconsciously formed in a person in early childhood and are largely automated in an adult, so that they do not require special conscious effort when using them in the communication process. Sound transformations are carried out by a special mechanism that includes three relatively independent, but at the same time closely interacting systems:
sound system of the language(a set of sound means and rules for the formation of a phonetic characteristic of an utterance);
speech production system(a set of speech organs and articulatory-motor skills);
speech-perceiving system(a set of auditory organs and perceptual skills).
Let's take a concrete and greatly simplified example 61 to consider what happens in a single act of sound communication, the scheme of which is given at the end of the paragraph. Suppose a mother asks her son: " Who are you walking with?"Son replies:" With Earring".
First, the son (the speaker) must understand that he is being addressed with a question and formulate his communicative task - a message about the person's name. This stage (1) is called the stage formation of the communicative purpose of the message.
Next on linguistic stage(2) the speaker builds a linguistic expression that conveys the necessary information - for this, the necessary morphemes (or words in a certain grammatical form, and in the case of several words, their order is chosen) are extracted from the sign dictionary. At the same time, a phonetic characteristic of the utterance is built:
2.1. Produced dictionary substitutions, i.e. shells of morphemes (and/or words) are "taken out" from the dictionary of signs in the form of their phonemic (symbolic) notation 62 - this is a deep symbolic representation:
<с> + <с"ер"óж>
+ <к> + <оj>
2.2. The sequences of segments obtained after substitutions can violate the laws of compatibility and rhythmic organization in a given language - for example, unstressed [e] and the combinations "voiced noisy + deaf noisy", "hard consonant + homeorgan soft" are impossible in SRLP. Required context transformations(softening, stunning / voicing of consonants, reduction of vowels, etc.) are produced by the corresponding phonological (linguistic) rules. As a result, a surface symbolic representation is formed, consisting of sound types:
At the stage articulatory synthesis(3) based on the phonetic characteristics of the utterance, a motor program- a program for controlling the movements of speech organs. Until now, the shell of the utterance was written in the form of abstract symbolic units, similar to signs of phonetic transcription. These symbols are now replaced by articulatory correlates; substitutions of the form "sound typetarget articulation" occur. The elements of the resulting sequence of target articulations must be coordinated with each other (the most convenient route for passing these goals, the most convenient sequence of muscle contraction, should be set, as it were). This leads to the phenomena of coarticulation; in our example, this is a weakening of [j] in a position not before a stressed vowel, labialization of [p "] in a position before a labialized [o], anteriorization of the initial phase [o] in a position after a palatalized [p"] and a final phase [b] before [i]. We note once again that the phenomena of coarticulation do not apply to linguistic rules.
Stages 2-3 are called the stages of sound synthesis or phonetic coding of the utterance.
The movements of the speech organs lead to the occurrence of certain aerodynamic and acoustic processes in the speech tract, which ultimately creates acoustic speech signal(stage 4), which is the result of the speaker's speech activity.
From stage 5, the activity of the listener begins. The speech signal reaches the internal organs of hearing, which produce the primary auditory analysis sound vibrations, turning the acoustic signal into the so-called "auditory spectrogram" - a special spectral-temporal image in which the human auditory system highlights useful acoustic features necessary for the transition to the symbolic representation of sound units and their identification.
This identification is carried out on linguistic stage of analysis(6), as a result of which, on the basis of recognizable sound information, a dictionary of signs and linguistic rules, the original deep symbolic representation is reconstructed: <с с"ер"óжкоj>.
Stages 5-6 are called the stages of sound analysis or phonetic decoding of the utterance.
In the last step (7), the listener matches the reconstructed language expression with his request:
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1. Formation of the communicative purpose of the message. |
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2. Linguistic stage of synthesis: 2.1. Dictionary substitutions deep symbolic representation<с с"ер"óжкоj> 2.2. Context transformations superficial symbolic representation. |
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3. Articulatory synthesis: 3.1. The transition from symbolic representation to motor-motor target articulations. 3.2. Development of a motor program, coarticulation articulatory gestures. |
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4. Voice signal. |
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5. Auditory analysis: Spectral-temporal image of a speech signal, extraction of useful features from the signal, transition to the symbolic representation of sound units. |
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6. Linguistic stage of analysis: Identification of symbolic sound units by useful features, restoration of the phonemic composition of the utterance <с с"ер"óжкоj>. |
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7. Understanding: Correlation of the linguistic form of the utterance with the meaning. |
LITERATURE .
Kodzasov S.V., Krivnova O.F.. General phonetics. M., 2001.
Kodzasov S.V., Krivnova O.F. Phonetics in the model of speech activity // Applied aspects of linguistics. M., 1989.
S.V.Kodzasov, O.F.Krivnova. Modern American Phonology. M., 1981.
Fundamental trends in American linguistics. M., 1997.
Chomsky, Noam and Morris Halle. The Sound Pattern of English. N.Y. 1968
1 In a transcription based on the Latin alphabet, a labialized back high vowel is denoted by the sign [u], a labialized front high vowel by the sign [ü].
2 Let us repeat once again that language as a whole is also a part of consciousness, but in this case we are talking about the fact that a sound type is such a linguistic unit, the existence of which an ordinary native speaker is able to realize. We can say that a phoneme is a unit of a theoretical description of a language, and a sound type is a unit of human linguistic behavior: the number of phonemes in a language is determined by linguistic analysis of this language, and the number of sound types is determined by the linguistic consciousness of a native speaker.
3 The symbolic nature of phonemes is somewhat similar to letters: letters are used to fix speech on paper, and phonemes are used to record words in our memory. But although in writing letters often designate the phonemic, and not the sound composition of the word (see below in the Spelling section), there is no complete coincidence between them and phonemes.
4 That is, the transition from sound type to phoneme and back in various phonological theories may or may not be one-to-one.
5 Phonemes, unlike sounds, are usually enclosed in broken lines (<и>) or slash (/ and/) brackets.
6 It is easy to see that for one word this question seems to be insignificant: remembering 12 forms of a noun is practically the same as remembering 1 root and 12 endings. But if we take into account that the vocabulary of the language includes several tens of thousands of lexemes, then the difference will be very significant. So, even for 1000 regular nouns of the same type of declension, one can imagine either a lexicon consisting of 1012 morphemes (1000 roots and 12 endings), or a lexicon consisting of 12,000 word forms. Thus, the lexicon of morphemes provides significant savings in memory space. On the other hand, the dictionary of word forms is simpler in terms of generating an utterance, since it allows you to "take out" ready-made units from memory, and not build them from morphemes according to the rules. Most likely, both word forms and morphemes are stored in memory (after all, we are able to build grammatically correct forms of even words completely unknown to us - for example, it is obvious that the form of the genitive case from the word brooks(if it is understood as a noun) will be brooks-a, dative - brooks-y, genitive plural brooks etc., although you have never heard all these forms, and they were still absent in your memory).
7 For strong phonemes (see below, § 173).
8 "The subject of phonetics is: a) consideration of sounds from a purely physiological point of view, the natural conditions for their formation and their classification ... b) the role of sounds in the mechanism of language... c) the genetic development of sounds, their history "(see I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. Selected Works on General Linguistics. M, 1963. T. I. pp. 65-66).
9"Phoneme\u003d a single representation belonging to the world of phonetics, which arises in the soul through the merging of impressions received from the pronunciation of the same sound - the mental equivalent of the sounds of the language. A certain sum of individual anthropophonic representations is associated (associated) with a single representation of the phoneme, which are, on the one hand, articulatory representations, that is, representations of physiological articulatory works that are perfect or can be perfect, and, on the other hand, acoustic representations, that is, representations of heard or able to be heard the results of these physiological works" (ibid., pp. 271-272). Thus, this definition of a phoneme in this sense almost completely coincides with the modern definition of a sound type as a unity of an articulatory gesture and the corresponding auditory image, see § 10 above.
10 "Sounds that, while differing phonetically, indicate, however, a common historical origin or are historically related ... that is, historically originate from the same phoneme ... In the word feet- the same phoneme g as in words noga,nogami, and the difference between them is the difference in pronounced sounds, the difference is not mental, but physiological, depending on the conditions of pronunciation: one phoneme g two sounds correspond here, g and k"(ibid., pp. 273-274, 351).
11 In modern phonetics, the first is usually called a sound type (or phoneme in the theory of L.V. Shcherba), and the second is called a phoneme (in the theory of IPF).
12 "The connecting link between individual pronunciation acts, whether it be a certain sound or a phonetic word ... are representations, memory images, and during self-pronunciation, these memory images become a stimulus, an incentive to set in motion the organs of speech in an appropriate way. In this case, two cases are possible: either the physiological conditions, which consist in the activity of the organs involved in pronunciation, make it possible to complete the group of phonation works assumed by the brain center, or the named physiological conditions do not allow this. In one case there is complete agreement (ex.: za, ra, ar, Polish roaboutdu, mroaboutzu...); in another case, there is a conflict between the phonetic intention (goal) and its implementation (for example, zta with voiced z...rud, wud-ka With d). In this latter case, in the event of a collision, our phonetic habits, as well as the general human conditions of phonetic connections, force us to slightly change the pronunciation of the proposed combinations, namely: sta With s instead of z... rut, wut-ka With t instead of d"(see I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. Selected works on general linguistics. M, 1963. T. I. p. 278).
13 "Elements of sound representations, similar to Russian a, i, s, v etc., are usually called "sounds"; but in order to emphasize their psychic nature and distinguish them from sounds in the strict and direct sense of the word, it is expedient to give these elements some other name. The term "phoneme", proposed by Baudouin, will, in my opinion, be quite appropriate in this case ... The variety of elements of acoustic representations is extremely large: if we consider the stressed vowels of the Russian language, pronounced in words, it turns out that the shades, while observed, constitute an almost continuous scale. Meanwhile, consciousness ... distinguishes a relatively small number of them in each given language, whole groups of shades excite the same, typical performance..." (op.cit., pp. 7-9).
14 "Semantic representations are associated with some general sound representation of a particular word, with sound word-type, which may correspond to a fluctuating pronunciation ... However, all these fluctuations fine we are not aware of, remaining below the threshold of consciousness" (op.cit., p. 3)
15 "First of all, we perceive as identical everything more or less similar from an acoustic point of view, associated with the same semantic representation, and on the other hand we distinguish everything capable itself be associated with a new meaning. In words children and kids we perceive t and t" like two different phonemes, because in dressed, dressed, undressed, undressed, tuk-tuk they differentiate meaning; but we perceive different shades of the first vowel as one phoneme, since we will not find a single case in the Russian language where the differentiation of meaning would be supported only by these two shades, and such a case cannot be imagined even in an artificial Russian word. We see exactly the opposite in French, where in words dé and dais the whole difference of meaning rests on the distinction between two phonemes [e] ( e narrow) and [] ( e wide)" (op. cit., p. 9).
16 "A phoneme is the shortest general phonetic representation of a language that can be associated with semantic representations and differentiate words and can be distinguished in speech without distorting the phonetic composition of the word ... Phonemes are a product of our mental activity. They are, although typical, but still specific phonetic representations. In other words, we strive to "pronounce phonemes" in the same way in all positions. It is not difficult to verify the validity of what has been said: in the word children we pronounce very closed e depending on the softness of the subsequent consonant; but this shade e is not an independent phoneme, and instead of it, a normal phoneme inevitably appears e(corresponding to the phoneme), as soon as we happen to stretch it e... Shades are not identical with phonemes only because there are always factors in pronunciation that automatically change the actual implementation of our intention "(op.cit., pp. 14,15,19).
17 The sign [∂] in Latin transcription approximately corresponds to the sign [b].
18L.V. Shcherba describes the pronunciation characteristic of the older orthoepic norm with the vowel [and e], which differs from [and] in the first pre-stressed syllable after soft consonants.
19Reformatsky A.A. From the history of Russian phonology. M., 1970.
20Other features include, for example, dorsal/laminal features (for anterior lingual), round-slit/flat-slit (for slit), etc.
21 Phonemes in the system of N.S. Trubetskoy are enclosed in slash brackets.
22For the phoneme /ц/, another solution is also possible: hardness can be considered a differential feature, and the place of formation can be considered an integral feature.
23 Any gradual or equipole opposition can be represented as several privative ones. So, vowel opposition<и>//<е>//<а>in SRLP can be considered as a gradual opposition on the basis of "rise"; then the phoneme<и>has the sign of "upper rise",<а>- "lower rise", and<е>- "medium rise". On the other hand, for phonological analysis it is often useful to describe the phonological content of phonemes using binary (binary) features. Then the same opposition can be considered as two oppositions - according to the signs "upper rise" and "lower rise"; in this case the phoneme<и>has the signs "+ top rise" and "- bottom rise",<а>- “+ bottom rise” and “- top rise”, and<е>- "- lower lift" and "- upper lift".
24In Russian transcription - [s] / [sh].
25This restriction is significant, since, strictly speaking, the minimum element of semantic distinction is a differential feature (for example, the words there-dam differ in the values of DP deafness / sonority). However, differential features are not linear units: unlike phonemes, they are not arranged in a linear order, they do not follow each other.
26Recall that a differential feature (DP) is a feature that participates in the opposition of a given phoneme to other phonemes of the language (see § 134 above).
27 So, for example, in SLL the phonemes<ц>, <ч>,
28Phonemes in the phonological transcription of the IPF are enclosed in angle brackets (<>).
29 In the works of IDF representatives, there is another use of the terms "strong position", "weak position" and "absolutely weak position". Thus, a strong position is sometimes called the position of the least conditionality, in contrast to other positions, which are called weak. Obviously, this definition is not entirely successful, since it is difficult to determine in which position the conditioning is greater and in which it is less. So, the labialization of the consonant in the position before [y] is due to this vowel, however, the position of the consonant before [y] is certainly strong. R.I. Avanesov calls the positions of maximum distinction of phonemes strong, the other positions are weak. M.V. Panov calls an absolutely strong position, which is both significatively and perceptually strong.
30In phonemic transcription, a hyperphoneme can be denoted in different ways: for example,<о/а>or< о а >.
31 The term "morphophoneme" or "morphoneme" was coined by G. Ulashin, in the above understanding was used for the first time by N.S. Trubetskoy.
32In phonemic transcription softness<ч">may not be indicated, since this feature can be considered non-differential for this phoneme.
33 An idiolect is a dialect (language system) of a particular native speaker.
34 For a discussion of this problem, see the following works: Avanesov R.I. Long hissing in Russian // Avanesov R.I. Russian literary and dialectal phonetics; Zinder L.R. The phonemic essence of the long palatalized [w":] in Russian // Philological Sciences, 1963, N2; Bulygina T.V. About Russian long sibilants // Phonetics. Phonology. Grammar. M., 1971.
35cases type half an apple represent two phonetic words, since, firstly, they have two stresses, and secondly, in this case, the effect of assimilation by softness is blocked: in the word floor- the final consonant is solid even before the following [l"]: half a lemon, half a liter
36In a word shake the first two phonemes are voiced (cf. in a strong position in the same morpheme [in] about[h] remember).
37 Let us recall that consonants of one place of articulation are called homoorganic.
38Sm. about it: Skalozub L.G. Palatograms and roentgenograms of consonant phonemes of the Russian literary language. Kyiv, 1963.
39Record<с>[w] means "phoneme<с>realized by the sound [w]."
40Sometimes in phonetic transcription, for simplicity, instead of the sign of the implosive consonant, the sign of the corresponding affricate is used: about[dfj] at,on[h "h"] istit,on[h "w"] italy.
41Which, in turn, can be a realization of dental fricatives<с>, <з>, <с">, <з">as a result of the assimilation of the subsequent anterior palatal affricate.
42 The mechanism of this phenomenon is that in the sequence "fricative noise + stop + fricative noise" of one place of formation, the stop part of the affricate is lost. Cases like be[w "h"] icy with assimilation and the presence of a bond.
43For<у>there may be a weak position in an unstressed syllable before the unstressed [y] of the next syllable, where not only the phoneme can be realized by the sound [y]<у>(cf. toat kuruza), but also (due to the likeness to the subsequent [y]) phonemes<о>and<а>: [pu y] tram(in the morning), [well] deep(on the corner). In addition, in unstressed syllables, delabialization [y] can lead to neutralization<у>with other vowel phonemes: [съ] crazy like [s] movar, Politb[and] ro how P[and] ro G.
44 In other words, this is the question of whether a word form or a morpheme is the main unit of the lexicon - a dictionary of sign units stored in memory.
45See, for example, Reformatsky A.A.. From the history of Russian phonology. M., 1970.
46Some adherents of the Moscow phonological school, for example, A.A. Reformatsky, mistakenly saw in this attempt an attempt to synthesize the ideas of the IPF and LFS.
47 This concept corresponds to the concept of "phoneme" by N.S. Trubetskoy.
48This concept corresponds to the concept of "archiphoneme" by N.S. Trubetskoy.
49In the IMF concept, this concept corresponds to the term "phoneme".
50We accept the method of depicting hyperphonemes proposed by M.V. Panov. It consists in the fact that in one vertical row all those phonemes that are part of a given hyperphoneme are shown; that is, the phonemes that can be realized by a given sound in a given position. The advantage of this method is that it is open to reflect any orthoepic options.
51Recall that a position - strong or weak - is determined only by its significative quality; the quality of positions from a perceptual point of view does not play any role in determining the phonemic composition of a word.
52Except for the position before<л>, <л’>,
53More precisely, not in the weak, that is, in the strong or "none".
54Compound words can have several root morphs.
55 In this word, the stress on the second syllable is also possible: leaning on.
56In the word form [p'ok] pitch another morph is presented.
57 Position of the dental fricative before<п>is strong regardless of its deafness or sonority. Because the<.з>and<з’>opposed to<б>(cf. thread-thin), then for phonemes<с>and<с’>position before<п>can be considered strong.
58Avanesov R.I. Phonetics of the modern Russian literary language, p.213.
59 Chomsky, Noam and Morris Halle. The Sound Pattern of English. N.Y. 1968; a detailed presentation, critical analysis and review of the main modifications of this model is contained in the book: Kodzasov S.V., Krivnova O.F. Modern American Phonology. M., 1981.
60 The current state of American phonology is described in the book Fundamental trends in American linguistics. M., 1997.
This example is greatly simplified also because it does not take into account the elements of the supersegmental organization of the utterance (stress and intonation).
62 If a vocabulary item has more than one phonetic shell (for example, the preposition with/with), then the one that matches the context is substituted (for example, With friend, but co me).
1) A moment of cleansing.
- Listen to the poem and say the spelling of which letter we will remember in a minute of calligraphy
This hook is familiar to all of you,
It is called a soft sign.
There is a letter, but no phoneme.
This is where the whole secret lies.
That's right, soft sign
What is interesting about the soft sign?
Fizmin "Let's stretch our fingers."
Tell me, guys, what are the letters? What about sounds?
How are letters different from sounds?
Formulate the topic of the lesson.
What is the goal of today's lesson? (learn to make a sound scheme of words) (Slide)
2) Working with illustration.
Guys, guess the riddle:
The streams rang
the rooks have arrived.
Bee in the hive
brought the first honey.
Who's to say, who knows
when does it happen?(Spring)
(Demonstration of the picture "Spring")
Right! In the spring!
Come up with a proposal for spring. Write down -Leaves appear on the trees in spring.
Spring. Great time of the year. Nature comes to life, leaves appear on trees, flowers bloom, insects wake up. (On the slide are drawings of apple trees)
Seeing the apple orchard, someone flew in to visit us. Guess who it is? (slide)
Miracle city-town, noisy houses in a row!
A whole year of amber honey, in barrels does not end!
And all summer all the people sway on the flowers.
Guys, but the trouble is, the flowers on the trees have not yet blossomed. How will bees collect nectar?
In order for the flowers to bloom, you need to quickly complete tasks. Let's help. (As the tasks are completed, flowers on apple trees will open)
1. Write down the word - bee.
Let's put the stress, highlight the syllables, count how many letters, how many sounds.
Tell me, guys, with what help did we write down the words? (using letter signs), and what did we say? (sounds)
Can you record sounds?
Let's go to the textbook. Open lesson 40, read the rule to yourself. Imagine that we are researchers. Looking for an answer to a question
D e t i c h i t a y t
So what did you find out?
Indeed, with the help of square brackets, you can write sounds.
What is the name of such a scheme?
Such a scheme is called transcription (slide)
Let's write down the transcription of the word - bee.
How to designate the softness of sound in transcription. Let's go back to the textbook. Imagine that we are explorers. Looking for an answer to a question
What does a soft sign mean in words? (Indeed, the softness of a consonant) And in transcription?
Let's write down the transcriptions of the words-objects of our sentence (Leaves appear on the trees in spring
Spring-______, tree-______, leaves-______
Fizminutka
Work in a group.
Now, we will work in a group. Form groups of 4 people. On the cards, the task: “Fill in the gaps: write down the transcription for the words”:
Tiger - _____
Cake - ______
Meadow - _______
Onion - _________
Pass the cards.
Let's check.
What unusual thing did you notice in the transcriptions?
What transcriptions are similar?
Why? (Slide)
In PT s. 28 perform independently ex. four
Let's check
Guys, what are we talking about today?
What new did you learn in the lesson?
Has the goal of the lesson been achieved?
You guys did a good job today, and the bees did their best. (We mark active guys, we talk about shortcomings in the work).
The bees want to thank you and say something. They will take letters out of the hive, and you, completing the task, quickly make a word from these letters. (Well done)
Now read the word: GOOD FELLOWS!
- Guys, analyze your work in the lesson
Raise the picture. (1 picture - I understood everything! 2 picture - It's not clear to me, I want to know more about it. 3 picture - I don't understand anything).
The use of schemes in teaching children to read and write has a long history in the Russian school (M.I. Timofeev, N.E. Bochkarev, S.P. Redozubov, A.I. Voskresenskaya, D.B. Elkonin, etc.).
A scheme is “a drawing depicting a system, device or relative position, connection of something” (Dictionary of the Russian Language: in 4 volumes. Edited by A.P. Evgenyeva.- M .: Russian language, 1988. -vol. 4. - S.316). What is the reason for the use of schemes? When teaching literacy using the sound analytical-synthetic method, mastering the analysis of sounding speech is recognized as the most important condition for the development of reading and writing skills in children.
Analytical exercises begin to be carried out already in the preparatory period of literacy: students identify a sentence from speech, determine the number and order of words in a sentence, analyzing a word, establish the number and order of syllables in a word, distinguish vowels and consonants, recognize their sequence in a syllable and in a word . In part, analytical exercises are also carried out when getting acquainted with the letter: the words taken as the source are analyzed, the number of syllables and sounds in them is established, those sounds that correspond to the studied letter are distinguished and characterized. Analysis is also carried out when revealing the mechanism for reading syllables and words of different structure, when compiling words from a split alphabet, and when writing words. It is very difficult for a child to analyze the structure of a sentence or a word by ear. Therefore, schemes play the role of an external means of fixing the analyzed speech. These are visual supports that make it easier for the child to analyze words and sentences. The schemes used in teaching literacy are graphic models of various segments of speech, they generally present the structure of a sentence or word.
Analytical exercises based on diagrams are carried out in different ways: firstly, it is drawing diagrams on the board (in advance or with the collective participation of the class); secondly, this is work with ready-made schemes on the pages of textbooks on teaching literacy; thirdly, a type-setting canvas can be used, which demonstrates model diagrams in the form of cardboard rolls, either handicraft or available in the appendix to literacy textbooks.
Modern textbooks offer sentence and word schemes. They help students to visualize the structure of the sentence and the syllable-sound structure of the word. The proposal scheme in a generalized form reflects the following features:
1) the sentence stands out from the speech (you can fix how many sentences are indicated or heard in the form of horizontal dashes);
2) the sentence has a length in time (indicated by an elongated rectangle, a “ribbon” drawn from left to right, which will subsequently facilitate the transition to writing the sentence in letters);
3) the sentence has a beginning and an end (the beginning is indicated by a vertical line protruding from the left above the rectangle; a pause at the end of the sentence is indicated by a period, and subsequently also by a question or exclamation mark).
The scheme of the sentence, divided into words, reflects the following features:
1) the sentence consists of words;
2) each sentence has a certain number of words;
3) words are arranged in a certain sequence, you can specify the first, second, third, etc. word in a sentence.
The scheme of a word divided into syllables reflects the following features: the word is divided into parts (syllables), which is indicated by a cross line;
2) a word can have a different number of syllables (one, two, etc.);
3) one of the syllables, which is pronounced more slowly, is stressed (indicated by the stress sign above one of the rectangles).
The model of the syllable-sound structure of a word contains the following information:
1) sounds are vowels and consonants;
2) a syllable can have a different number of sounds;
3) there must be a vowel in the syllable;
4) consonants in a syllable can be before or after a consonant, several consonants can be pronounced in a row (one after another);
5) the sounds in the syllable are interconnected in different ways: a consonant after a vowel is pronounced one after another, adjoins each other (indicated by successive squares), a consonant with a subsequent vowel form a merger, are pronounced inextricably (indicated by a rectangle divided diagonally so that symbolizes the imposition of the articulation of one sound on another, their interpenetration).
Schemes-models have recently been given a more significant place in the system of teaching children initial reading and writing. They are used not only in the preparatory period, but also in subsequent classes, and not sporadically, but constantly, systematically, from lesson to lesson. When analyzing a word, relying on visual diagrams helps students master a number of skills: divide words into syllables, determining their number by vowels; find a stressed syllable in a word, designating it with a special icon; distinguish between vowels and consonants in a word, establish their number and sequence in a word; be aware of the different structures of syllables, highlighting the merging of consonants with vowels (SG) and sounds outside the merger (in the syllables CGS, SSGS, etc.). The success of first-graders in mastering the techniques of syllabic reading and error-free writing of words will depend on the formation of these skills - without skipping letters, especially vowels.
The teacher has the opportunity to reduce or increase the degree of participation, activity and independence of students in analytical work, conducting it in two directions:
1) correlation of sounding speech with a finished model scheme;
2) modeling of a sentence, word, its syllable-sound composition, independent drawing up of a diagram.
To organize independent work on the compilation of model diagrams, a type-setting canvas and cardboard cards made handicraft or from applications available for the alphabet are used. These are red squares for vowels, blue and green for consonants, as well as rectangles for SG (fusion).
Children do not experience serious difficulties when working with diagrams in the process of analyzing sounding (pronounced and audible) speech, since first-graders are introduced to the schematic designation of speech and language units (words, syllables, stress, vowels and consonants, fusion of SG) gradually, new information are communicated each time on the basis of previously learned and contribute to the deepening of what the children have already mastered. The analysis becomes more complicated - the scheme-models become more meaningful. The initial diagrams for conducting syllabic-sound analysis are diagrams that indicate only the number of syllables in a word (a cross line is used), stressed and unstressed syllables (stress mark at the top), the number and order of sounds, the degree of their articulatory fusion in a word: SG and vowels, and consonants outside the confluence (squares and a rectangle with a diagonal).
Carrying out analysis based on gradually becoming more complex schemes, children learn to reason, justify their answers. The acquired skills are applied and improved in various exercises. For example, the use of schemes can be combined with the use of a split alphabet in reading and writing lessons: when teaching reading and writing in the fresh traces of analysis. Already by the beginning of the main period of teaching literacy, students master the skill of correlating sound and letter, designating sound with a letter, finding the corresponding letters in the cash register and putting them on a typesetting canvas.
Along with the use of schemes-models of the syllable-sound composition of words, located above the graphic (printed or written) word and suggesting how to read it, an increasing place in literacy lessons is given to students reading words according to auxiliary marks: a solid transverse line is an indicator of a syllabic boundary, a dotted one is an indicator that the syllable has a composition that does not coincide with G (vowel) or SG (merging a consonant with a vowel). Thus, the child's attention switches to the graphic features of the word. Only in those cases when there are difficulties in translating a visible word into a sounding one, does it become necessary to return to the use of the scheme. Gradually, as the reading skill is mastered, the use of model diagrams is reduced to a minimum.
Section 187. Modern ideas about the integral model of human sound behavior are described in detail in the book by S.V. Kodzasov and O.F. Krivnova "General phonetics" (M., 2001). We will briefly outline here only the main provisions of this concept.
The communicative function of language is based on its symbolic nature. Language signs (first of all, words, as well as morphemes) are the main building material of speech messages. The initial form of verbal communication is sounding speech, in which information is physically transmitted from one person to another in the form of sound vibrations (another, secondary, form of communication, written, is also widespread in human society). Oral speech is based on the skills of pronunciation and sound perception, which allow a person to transmit information when speaking and extract it from an audio signal when perceived. These skills are unconsciously formed in a person in early childhood and are largely automated in an adult, so that they do not require special conscious effort when using them in the communication process. Sound transformations are carried out by a special mechanism that includes three relatively independent, but at the same time closely interacting systems:
sound system of the language(a set of sound means and rules for the formation of a phonetic characteristic of an utterance);
speech production system(a set of speech organs and articulatory-motor skills);
speech-perceiving system(a set of auditory organs and perceptual skills).
Consider, using a concrete and greatly simplified example, what happens in a single act of sound communication, the scheme of which is given at the end of the paragraph. Suppose a mother asks her son: " Who are you walking with?"Son replies:" With Earring".
First, the son (the speaker) must understand that he is being addressed with a question and formulate his communicative task - a message about the person's name. This stage (1) is called the stage formation of the communicative purpose of the message.
Next on linguistic stage(2) the speaker builds a linguistic expression that conveys the necessary information - for this, the necessary morphemes (or words in a certain grammatical form, and in the case of several words, their order is chosen) are extracted from the sign dictionary. At the same time, a phonetic characteristic of the utterance is built:
2.1. Produced dictionary substitutions, i.e. shells of morphemes (and/or words) are "taken out" from the dictionary of signs in the form of their phonemic (symbolic) notation - this is a deep symbolic representation:
<с> + <с"ер"óж> + <к> + <оj> ®
2.2. The sequences of segments obtained after substitutions can violate the laws of compatibility and rhythmic organization in a given language - for example, unstressed [e] and the combinations "voiced noisy + deaf noisy", "hard consonant + homeorgan soft" are impossible in SRLP. Required context transformations(softening, stunning / voicing of consonants, reduction of vowels, etc.) are produced by the corresponding phonological (linguistic) rules. As a result, a surface symbolic representation is formed, consisting of sound types:
At the stage articulatory synthesis(3) based on the phonetic characteristics of the utterance, a motor program- a program for controlling the movements of speech organs. Until now, the shell of the utterance was written in the form of abstract symbolic units, similar to signs of phonetic transcription. These symbols are now replaced by articulatory correlates; there are substitutions of the form "sound type ® target articulation". The elements of the resulting sequence of target articulations must be coordinated with each other (the most convenient route for passing these goals, the most convenient sequence of muscle contraction, should be set, as it were). This leads to the phenomena of coarticulation; in our example, this is a weakening of [j] in a position not before a stressed vowel, labialization of [p "] in a position before a labialized [o], anteriorization of the initial phase [o] in a position after a palatalized [p"] and a final phase [b] before [i9]. We note once again that the phenomena of coarticulation do not apply to linguistic rules.
Stages 2-3 are called the stages of sound synthesis or phonetic coding of the utterance.
The movements of the speech organs lead to the occurrence of certain aerodynamic and acoustic processes in the speech tract, which ultimately creates acoustic speech signal(stage 4), which is the result of the speaker's speech activity.
From stage 5, the activity of the listener begins. The speech signal reaches the internal organs of hearing, which produce the primary auditory analysis sound vibrations, turning the acoustic signal into the so-called "auditory spectrogram" - a special spectral-temporal image in which the human auditory system highlights useful acoustic features necessary for the transition to the symbolic representation of sound units and their identification.
This identification is carried out on linguistic stage of analysis(6), as a result of which, on the basis of recognizable sound information, a dictionary of signs and linguistic rules, the original deep symbolic representation is reconstructed: ®<с с"ер"óжкоj>.
Stages 5-6 are called the stages of sound analysis or phonetic decoding of the utterance.
In the last step (7), the listener matches the reconstructed language expression with his request:
| 1. Formation of the communicative purpose of the message. |
| 2. Linguistic stage of synthesis: 2.1. Dictionary substitutions ® deep symbolic representation<с с"ер"óжкоj>2.2. Context transformations ® superficial symbolic representation . |
| 3. Articulatory synthesis: 3.1. The transition from symbolic representation to motor-motor ® target articulations. 3.2. Development of a motor program, coarticulation ® articulatory gestures. |
| 4. Voice signal. |
| 5. Auditory analysis: Spectral-temporal image of a speech signal, extraction of useful features from the signal, transition to a symbolic representation of sound units. |
| 6. Linguistic stage of analysis: Identification of symbolic sound units by useful features, restoration of the phonemic composition of the statement ®<с с"ер"óжкоj>. |
| 7. Understanding: Correlation of the language form of the statement with the meaning. |
LITERATURE .
Kodzasov S.V., Krivnova O.F.. General phonetics. M., 2001.
Kodzasov S.V., Krivnova O.F. Phonetics in the model of speech activity // Applied aspects of linguistics. M., 1989.
S.V.Kodzasov, O.F.Krivnova. Modern American Phonology. M., 1981.
Fundamental trends in American linguistics. M., 1997.
Chomsky, Noam and Morris Halle. The Sound Pattern of English. N.Y. 1968
In a transcription based on the Latin alphabet, a labialized back vowel is indicated by the sign [u], a labialized front vowel by the sign [ü].
Let us repeat once again that language as a whole is also a part of consciousness, but in this case we are talking about the fact that a sound type is such a linguistic unit, the existence of which an ordinary native speaker is able to realize. We can say that a phoneme is a unit of a theoretical description of a language, and a sound type is a unit of human linguistic behavior: the number of phonemes in a language is determined by linguistic analysis of this language, and the number of sound types is determined by the linguistic consciousness of a native speaker.
The symbolic nature of phonemes is somewhat similar to letters: letters are used to fix speech on paper, and phonemes are used to record words in our memory. But although in writing letters often designate the phonemic, and not the sound composition of the word (see below in the Spelling section), there is no complete coincidence between them and phonemes.
That is, the transition from sound type to phoneme and back in various phonological theories may or may not be one-to-one.
Phonemes, unlike sounds, are usually enclosed in broken lines (<и>) or slash (/ and/) brackets.
It is easy to see that for one word this question seems to be insignificant: remembering 12 forms of a noun is practically the same as remembering 1 root and 12 endings. But if we take into account that the vocabulary of the language includes several tens of thousands of lexemes, then the difference will be very significant. So, even for 1000 regular nouns of the same type of declension, one can imagine either a lexicon consisting of 1012 morphemes (1000 roots and 12 endings), or a lexicon consisting of 12,000 word forms. Thus, the lexicon of morphemes provides significant savings in memory space. On the other hand, the dictionary of word forms is simpler in terms of generating an utterance, since it allows you to "take out" ready-made units from memory, and not build them from morphemes according to the rules. Most likely, both word forms and morphemes are stored in memory (after all, we are able to build grammatically correct forms of even words completely unknown to us - for example, it is obvious that the form of the genitive case from the word brooks(if it is understood as a noun) will be brooks-a, dative - brooks-y, genitive plural brooks etc., although you have never heard all these forms, and they were still absent in your memory).
For strong phonemes (see below, § 173).
"The subject of phonetics is: a) consideration of sounds from a purely physiological point of view, the natural conditions for their formation and their classification ... b) the role of sounds in the mechanism of language... c) the genetic development of sounds, their history "(see I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. Selected Works on General Linguistics. M, 1963. T. I. pp. 65-66).
"Phoneme\u003d a single representation belonging to the world of phonetics, which arises in the soul through the merging of impressions received from the pronunciation of the same sound - the mental equivalent of the sounds of the language. With a single representation of the phoneme, a certain sum of individual anthropophonic representations is associated (associated), which are, on the one hand, articulatory representations, that is, representations of physiological articulatory works that are perfect or can be perfect, and, on the other hand, acoustic representations, that is, representations of heard or able to be heard the results of these physiological works" (ibid., pp. 271-272). Thus, this definition of a phoneme in this sense almost completely coincides with the modern definition of a sound type as a unity of an articulatory gesture and the corresponding auditory image, see § 10 above.
"Sounds that, while differing phonetically, indicate, however, a common historical origin or are historically related ... that is, historically come from the same phoneme ... In the word feet- the same phoneme g as in words noga, nogami, and the difference between them is the difference in pronounced sounds, the difference is not mental, but physiological, depending on the conditions of pronunciation: one phoneme g two sounds correspond here, g and k"(ibid., pp. 273-274, 351).
In modern phonetics, the first is usually called a sound type (or a phoneme in the theory of L.V. Shcherba), and the second is called a phoneme (in the theory of MFSH).
"The connecting link between individual pronunciation acts, whether it be a certain sound or a phonetic word ... are representations, memory images, and during the pronunciation itself, these memory images become a stimulus, an incentive to set in motion the organs of speech in an appropriate way. In this case, two cases are possible: either the physiological conditions, which consist in the activity of the organs involved in pronunciation, make it possible to fully carry out the group of phonation works assumed by the brain center, or the named physiological conditions do not allow this. In one case there is complete agreement (ex.: za, ra, ar, Polish roodu, mroozu...); in another case, there is a conflict between the phonetic intention (goal) and its implementation (for example, zta with voiced z... rud, wud-ka With d). In this latter case, in the event of a collision, our phonetic habits, as well as the general human conditions of phonetic connections, force us to slightly change the pronunciation of the proposed combinations, namely: sta With s instead of z... rut, wut-ka With t instead of d"(see I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. Selected works on general linguistics. M, 1963. T. I. p. 278).
"Elements of sound representations, similar to Russian a, i, s, v etc., are usually called "sounds"; but in order to emphasize their psychic nature and distinguish them from sounds in the strict and direct sense of the word, it is expedient to give these elements some other name. The term "phoneme", proposed by Baudouin, will, in my opinion, be quite appropriate in this case ... The variety of elements of acoustic representations is extremely large: if we consider the stressed vowels of the Russian language, pronounced in words, it turns out that the shades, while observed, constitute an almost continuous scale. Meanwhile, consciousness ... distinguishes a relatively small number of them in each given language, whole groups of shades excite the same, typical performance..." (op.cit., pp. 7-9).
"Semantic representations are associated with some general sound representation of this or that word, with sound word-type, which may correspond to a fluctuating pronunciation ... However, all these fluctuations fine we are not aware of, remaining below the threshold of consciousness" (op.cit., p. 3)
"First of all, we perceive as identical everything more or less similar from an acoustic point of view, associated with the same semantic representation, and on the other hand we distinguish everything capable itself be associated with a new meaning. In words children and kids we perceive t and t" like two different phonemes, because in dressed, dressed, undressed, undressed, tuk-tuk they differentiate meaning; but we perceive different shades of the first vowel as one phoneme, since we will not find a single case in the Russian language where the differentiation of meaning would be supported only by these two shades, and such a case cannot be imagined even in an artificial Russian word. We see exactly the opposite in French, where in words de and dais the whole difference of meaning rests on the distinction between two phonemes [e] ( e narrow) and [e] ( e wide)" (op. cit., p. 9).
"A phoneme is the shortest general phonetic representation of a language that can be associated with semantic representations and differentiate words and can be distinguished in speech without distorting the phonetic composition of the word ... Phonemes are a product of our mental activity. They are, although typical, but still specific phonetic representations. In other words, we strive to "pronounce phonemes" in the same way in all positions. It is not difficult to verify the validity of what has been said: in the word children we pronounce very closed e depending on the softness of the subsequent consonant; but this shade e is not an independent phoneme, and instead of it, a normal phoneme inevitably appears e(corresponding to the phoneme), as soon as we happen to stretch it e... Shades are not identical with phonemes only because there are always factors in pronunciation that automatically change the actual implementation of our intention "(op.cit., pp. 14,15,19).
The sign [∂] in Latin transcription approximately corresponds to the sign ıu [b].
L.V. Shcherba describes the pronunciation characteristic of the older orthoepic norm with the vowel [and e], which differs from [and] in the first pre-stressed syllable after soft consonants.
Reformatsky A.A. From the history of Russian phonology. M., 1970.
Other features include, for example, dorsal/laminal features (for anterior lingual), round-slit/flat-slit (for slit), etc.
Phonemes in the system of N.S. Trubetskoy are enclosed in slash brackets.
For the phoneme /ц/, another solution is also possible: hardness can be considered a differential feature, and the place of formation can be considered an integral feature.
Any gradual or equipole opposition can be represented as several privative ones. So, vowel opposition<и>//<е>//<а>in SRLP can be considered as a gradual opposition on the basis of "rise"; then the phoneme<и>has the sign of "upper rise",<а>- "lower rise", and<е>- "medium rise". On the other hand, for phonological analysis it is often useful to describe the phonological content of phonemes using binary (binary) features. Then the same opposition can be considered as two oppositions - on the basis of "upper rise" and "lower rise"; in this case the phoneme<и>has the signs "+ top rise" and "- bottom rise",<а>- “+ bottom rise” and “- top rise”, and<е>- "- lower lift" and "- upper lift".
In Russian transcription - [s] / [sh].
This restriction is significant, since, strictly speaking, the minimum element of semantic distinction is a differential feature (for example, the words there-dam differ in the values of DP deafness / sonority). However, differential features are not linear units: they, unlike phonemes, are not arranged in a linear order, they do not follow each other.
Recall that a differential feature (DP) is a feature that participates in the opposition of a given phoneme to other phonemes of the language (see § 134 above).
So, for example, in SLL the phonemes<ц>, <ч>,
Phonemes in IPF phonological transcription are enclosed in angle brackets (<>).
In the works of IDF representatives, there is another use of the terms "strong position", "weak position" and "absolutely weak position". Thus, a strong position is sometimes called the position of the least conditionality, in contrast to other positions, which are called weak. Obviously, this definition is not entirely successful, since it is difficult to determine in which position the conditioning is greater and in which it is less. So, the labialization of the consonant in the position before [y] is due to this vowel, however, the position of the consonant before [y] is certainly strong. R.I. Avanesov calls the positions of maximum distinction of phonemes strong, the other positions are weak. M.V. Panov calls an absolutely strong position, which is both significatively and perceptually strong.
In phonemic transcription, a hyperphoneme can be denoted in various ways: for example,<о/а>or<оа >.
The term "morphophoneme" or "morphoneme" was coined by G. Ulashin, in the above sense it was used for the first time by N.S. Trubetskoy.
In phonemic transcription, softness<ч">may not be indicated, since this feature can be considered non-differential for this phoneme.
An idiolect is a dialect (language system) of a particular native speaker.
For a discussion of this problem, see the works: Avanesov R.I. Long hissing in Russian // Avanesov R.I. Russian literary and dialectal phonetics; Zinder L.R. The phonemic essence of the long palatalized [w":] in Russian // Philological Sciences, 1963, N2; Bulygina T.V. About Russian long sibilants // Phonetics. Phonology. Grammar. M., 1971.
Type cases half an apple represent two phonetic words, since, firstly, they have two stresses, and secondly, in this case, the effect of assimilation by softness is blocked: in the word floor- the final consonant is solid even before the following [l"]: half a lemon, half a liter
In the word shake the first two phonemes are voiced (cf. in a strong position in the same morpheme [in] about[h] remember).
Recall that consonants of one place of articulation are called homoorganic.
See about it: Skalozub L.G. Palatograms and roentgenograms of consonant phonemes of the Russian literary language. Kyiv, 1963.
Recording<с>® [sh] means "phoneme<с>realized by the sound [w]."
Sometimes in phonetic transcription, for simplicity, instead of the sign of the implosive consonant, the sign of the corresponding affricate is used: about[jƒjj] at, on[h "h"] istit, on[h "w"] italy.
Which, in turn, can be a realization of dental fricatives<с>, <з>, <с">, <з">as a result of the assimilation of the subsequent anterior palatal affricate.
The mechanism of this phenomenon is that in the sequence "fricative noise + stop + fricative noise" of one place of formation, the stop part of the affricate is lost. Cases like be[w "h"] icy with assimilation and the presence of a bond.
For<у>there may be a weak position in an unstressed syllable before the unstressed [y] of the next syllable, where not only the phoneme can be realized by the sound [y]<у>(cf. to at kuruza), but also (due to the likeness to the subsequent [y]) phonemes<о>and<а>: [pu y] tram (in the morning), [well] deep (on the corner). In addition, in unstressed syllables, delabialization [y] can lead to neutralization<у>with other vowel phonemes: [съ] crazy like [s] movar, Politb[and] ro how P[and] rog.
In other words, this is the question of whether a word form or a morpheme is the main unit of the lexicon - a dictionary of sign units stored in memory.
See, for example, Reformatsky A.A.. From the history of Russian phonology. M., 1970.
Some supporters of the Moscow phonological school, for example, A.A. Reformatsky, mistakenly saw in this attempt an attempt to synthesize the ideas of the IPF and LFS.
This concept corresponds to the concept of "phoneme" by N.S. Trubetskoy.
This concept corresponds to the concept of "archiphoneme" by N.S. Trubetskoy.
In the IMF concept, this concept corresponds to the term "phoneme".
We accept the method of depicting hyperphonemes proposed by M.V. Panov. It consists in the fact that in one vertical row all those phonemes that are part of a given hyperphoneme are shown; that is, the phonemes that can be realized by a given sound in a given position. The advantage of this method is that it is open to reflect any orthoepic options.
Recall that a position - strong or weak - is determined only by its significative quality; the quality of positions from a perceptual point of view does not play any role in determining the phonemic composition of a word.
In addition to the position before<л>, <л’>,
More precisely - not in the weak, that is, in the strong or "none".
Compound words can have multiple root morphs.
In this word, stress is also possible on the second syllable: leaning on.
In the word form [p'ok] pitch another morph is presented.
Position of the dental fricative before<п>is strong regardless of its deafness or sonority. Because the<.з>and<з’>opposed to<б>(cf. thread-thin), then for phonemes<с>and<с’>position before<п>can be considered strong.
Avanesov R.I. Phonetics of the modern Russian literary language, p.213.
Chomsky, Noam and Morris Halle. The Sound Pattern of English. N.Y. 1968; a detailed presentation, critical analysis and review of the main modifications of this model is contained in the book: Kodzasov S.V., Krivnova O.F. Modern American Phonology. M., 1981.
The current state of American phonology is described in the book Fundamental trends in American linguistics. M., 1997.
This example is greatly simplified also because it does not take into account the elements of the supersegmental organization of the utterance (stress and intonation).
If the dictionary unit has more than one phonetic shell (for example, the preposition with/with), then the one that matches the context is substituted (for example, With friend, but co me).
