…God first gave matter the form of solid, massive,
impenetrable, mobile particles of such sizes and shapes
and with such properties and proportions in relation to
space that best suits the purpose
for which he created them.
I. Newton
In the history of philosophy and science, there are 3 approaches to understanding the structure of nature at the micro level:
there are indivisible corpuscles or atoms, the world is reduced to fundamental “bricks” (Democritus, Newton);
matter is continuously and infinitely divided into smaller and smaller pieces, never reaching the indivisible atom (Aristotle);
in the twentieth century a concept arose that explains the world on the basis of the interconnection of everything that exists: a particle is not a “brick” of matter, but a process, link or pattern in the integral Universe (W. Heisenberg, J. Chu, F. Capra).
The first “elementary” particle was discovered in 1897 by J.J. Thomson, in the study of cathode rays, he proved the existence electrons . Under influences, negative electricity is easily released from the substance, which is fixed as flashes of light on the screen. The particles of negative electricity were called electrons. The minimum amount of electricity equal to the charge of one electron was observed during an electric discharge in a rarefied gas. Until the 70s. 20th century the problem of the internal structure of the electron has not been solved, there is still no hint of its internal structure (Anderson 1968; Weisskopf 1977).
A year earlier, A. Becquerel discovered the radioactive decay of uranium salt - the emission of alpha particles (He nuclei), these particles were used by Rutherford, who experimentally proved the existence of the atomic nucleus. In 1919, E. Rutherford also carried out the first artificial nuclear reaction: by irradiating N with alpha particles, he obtained the O isotope, and proved that the nucleus of the N atom contains proton 27 (considered to be the limiting particle).
In 1932, J. Chadwick discovered another nuclear particle - an uncharged neutron 28. The discovery of the neutron, which marked the beginning of a new science - neutron physics , the main properties of the neutron, the application of neutrons is the subject of the book by S.F. Shebalina Neutrons . Neutron traces were observed in a cloud chamber. The mass of a proton is 1836.1 masses of an electron, the mass of a neutron is 1838.6. W. Heisenberg, and independently of him D.D. Ivanenko, I.E. Tamm, put forward a hypothesis about the structure of the atomic nucleus from protons and neutrons: the nucleus C, for example, consists of 6 protons and 6 neutrons. In the beginning. 30s believed that matter consists of atoms, and atoms of 3 “elementary” particles, “building blocks”: protons, neutrons and electrons (Shebalin 1969; Folta, Novy 1987; Capra 1994: 66-67).
In the same year, E.O. Lawrence in California built the first cyclotron (an accelerator of "elementary" particles). Particle accelerators are facilities where high-energy particles collide. In the collision of subatomic particles moving at high speeds, a high level of energy is achieved and the world of interactions, fields and particles is born, since the level of elementarity depends on the level of energy. If a coin is accelerated to such speeds, then its energy will be equal to the production of energy for a thousand million dollars. An annular accelerator with a tunnel circumference of up to 27 km was built near Geneva. Today, to test some theories, such as the theory of the grand unification of all particles, an accelerator the size of the solar system is needed (Folta, Nowy 1987: 270-271; Davis 1989: 90-91).
Particles are also discovered in natural accelerators, cosmic rays collide with atoms of an experimental device, and the results of the impact are studied (this is how the predicted positron, muon and meson were discovered). With the help of accelerators and cosmic radiation research, the many and varied world of subatomic particles has opened up. In 1932, 3 particles were discovered, in 1947 - 14, in 1955 - 30, in 1969 - more than 200. Simultaneously with the experiments, theoretical studies were also carried out. Particles often move at the speed of light, , it is necessary to take into account the theory of relativity. The creation of a general theory of particles remains as yet an unsolved problem in physics (Capra 1994: 67).
In 1967, a hypothesis appeared about the existence tachyons - particles whose speed of movement is higher than the speed of light. New “building blocks” of matter were discovered, many unstable, short-lived (“resonances” live 10 -27 s.) particles that decay into ordinary particles. Later it became clear that the new particles: resonances and hyperons, mesons – excited states of other particles: proton and leptons. Like an excited H atom in various states, which appears as 3 spectral lines, is not another atom (Born 1967: 127-129).
It turned out that the particles do not decay, but turn into each other or into the energy of field quanta, pass into “their other”, any particle can be an integral part of any other. Particles can "disappear" into radiation and exhibit wave properties. After the implementation of the first artificial transformation, when the Li nuclei were turned into He nuclei, atomic, nuclear physics (Born 1967; Weiskopf 1977: 50).
In 1963, M. Gell-Mann, J. Zweig proposed the hypothesis quarks . All hadrons built from smaller particles - quarks of 3 types and their antiquarks. A proton and a neutron are made up of 3 quarks (they are also called baryons - heavy or nucleons - nuclear particles). The proton is stable, positively charged, the neutron is unstable, turns into a proton. Quark-antiquark pairs (each particle has an antiparticle) form mesons (intermediate in mass between an electron and a proton). In order to explain the diversity of hadronic patterns, physicists had to postulate the existence of additional quarks. There are 12 quarks: 4 varieties or flavors (upper, lower, strange and charming), each of which can exist in 3 colors. Most physicists consider quarks to be truly elementary, having no structure. Although all hadrons have quark symmetries, hadrons often behave as if they really are made up of point components, but the mystery of quarks still exists (Davis 1989: 100; Hawking 1990: 69; Capra 1994: 228, 229).
In accordance with bootstrap hypothesis nature cannot be reduced to the "bricks" of matter such as quarks, but must be understood on the basis of connectivity. The bootstrap picture of particles as dynamic patterns in an interconnected network of events was agreed by Heisenberg, who did not believe in the quark model (Capra 1996: 43-49).
All known particles of the Universe can be divided into two groups: particles of “solid” matter and virtual particles, carriers of interactions , having no “rest” mass. Particles of matter are also divided into two groups: hadrons 29 , nucleons 30 , baryons or heavy particles and leptons 31 .
The leptons are the electron, muon , tau lepton and 3 types neutrino . Today it is customary to consider the electron as an elementary, point object. An electron is negatively charged, 1836 times lighter than a proton (Weiskopf 1997: 79; Davis 1989: 93-102; Hawking 1990: 63; Feynman, Weinberg 2000).
In 1931 W. Pauli predicted the existence of a neutral particle neutrino , in 1955, in a nuclear reactor, a neutrino was born from a proton with the formation of an electron and a neutron.
This is the most amazing particle: with BV, the neutrino hardly interacts with matter, being the lightest of the leptons. Its mass is less than one ten-thousandth that of an electron, but it is arguably the most abundant particle in the universe and could cause it to collapse. Neutrino almost does not interact with matter, penetrating through it, as if it does not exist at all (an example of the existence of non-one-dimensional forms). A gamma-quantum travels 3 m in lead and interacts with the nucleus of a lead atom, while a neutrino must travel 4·10 13 km to interact. The neutrino participates only in weak interactions. It is still not exactly established whether neutrinos really have a “rest” mass. There are 3 types of neutrinos: electron, muon and tau.
In 1936, in the products of the interaction of cosmic rays, muon , an unstable particle that decays into an electron and 2 neutrinos. In the late 70s, the “heaviest” particle, the lepton, was discovered, tau lepton (Davis 1989: 93-95).
In 1928, P. Dirac predicted, and in 1932 discovered a positively charged electron ( positron - electron antiparticle.): an electron and a positron are born from one γ-quantum - a positively charged electron. When an electron collides with a positron, two gamma quanta are born, since in order to preserve zero at annihilation 32 requires two photons flying in different directions.
Later it turned out that all particles have antiparticles , interacting, particles and antiparticles annihilate with the formation of energy quanta. Every particle of matter has an antiparticle. When a particle and an antiparticle collide, they annihilate, as a result of which energy is released and other particles are born. In the early universe, there were more particles than antiparticles, otherwise annihilation would have filled the universe with radiation, and there would have been no matter (Silk 1982: 123-125; Hawking 1990: 64, 71-72).
The state of the electrons in an atom is determined by a series of numbers called quantum numbers , and indicate the location and shape of the orbits:
number(n) - this is the number of the orbit, which determines the amount of energy that an electron must have in order to be in orbit, the radius;
number (ℓ) determines the exact shape of the electron wave in orbit;
number (m) is called magnetic and determines the charge of the field that surrounds the electron;
number(s) , so-called spin (rotation) determines the speed and direction of rotation of the electron, which is determined by the shape of the electron wave in terms of the probability that the particle exists at certain points in the orbit.
Since these characteristics are expressed in whole numbers, this means that the amount of rotation of the electron does not increase gradually, but abruptly - from one fixed value to another. Particles are characterized by the presence or absence of mass, electric charge, spin (rotational characteristic, particles of matter have spin +1/2, –1/2, particles-carriers of interactions 0, 1 and 2) and Vp life (Erdei-Gruz 1976; Davis 1989 : 38-41, 92; Hawking 1990: 62-63; Capra 1994: 63).
In 1925, W. Pauli asked himself the question: why do electrons in an atom occupy a strictly defined position (2 in the first orbit, 8 in the second, 32 in the fourth)? Analyzing the spectra, he came up with a simple principle: two identical particles cannot be in the same state , i.e. they cannot have the same coordinates, velocities, quantum numbers. All particles of matter are subject to W. Pauli prohibition principle .
This principle emphasizes the precise organization of structures, without which the particles would turn into a homogeneous and dense jelly. The exclusion principle made it possible to explain the chemical properties of the elements, determined by the electrons of the outer unfilled shells, which gave the rationale for the periodic table of elements. The Pauli principle led to new discoveries, understanding of the thermal and electrical conductivity of metals and semiconductors. With the help of the exclusion principle, the electron shells of atoms were built, and Mendeleev's system of elements became clear (Dubnishcheva 1997: 450-452).
But there are particles that do not obey the W. Pauli exclusion principle (there is no restriction on the number of exchanged particles, the interaction force can be any), carrier particles or virtual particles that do not have “rest” mass and create forces between particles of matter (Hawking 1990: 64 -65).
Paradoxes of the subatomic world
Let's sum up some results, clearly delineating all the paradoxes of the subatomic world known to us.
1. At the level of an atom, a nucleus and an elementary particle, matter has a dual aspect, which in one situation manifests itself as particles, and in another - as waves. Moreover, the particle has a more or less definite location, and the wave propagates in all directions in space.
2. The dual nature of matter determines the “quantum effect”, which consists in the fact that a particle located in a limited volume of space begins to move intensely, and the more significant the restriction, the higher the speed. The result of a typical "quantum effect" is the hardness of matter, the identity of the atoms of one chemical element and their high mechanical stability.
Since the limitations of the volume of an atom, and even more so of the nucleus, are very significant, the speeds of particle movement are extremely high. To study the subatomic world, one has to use relativistic physics.
3. An atom is not at all like a small planetary system. It is not particles – electrons – that revolve around the nucleus, but probabilistic waves, and an electron can move from orbit to orbit, absorbing or emitting energy in the form of a photon.
4. At the subatomic level, there are not solid material objects of classical physics, but wave probabilistic models, which reflect the likelihood of the existence of relationships.
5. Elementary particles are not at all elementary, but extremely complex.
6. All known elementary particles have their own antiparticles. Pairs of particles and antiparticles are formed when there is enough energy and are converted into pure energy by the reverse process of annihilation.
7. In collisions, particles are capable of passing one into another: for example, in a collision of a proton and a neutron, a pi-meson is born, etc.
8. No experiment can simultaneously lead to an accurate measurement of dynamic variables: for example, the uncertainty of the position of an event in time turns out to be related to the uncertainty of the amount of energy in the same way that the uncertainty of the spatial position of a particle is related to the uncertainty of its momentum.
9. Mass is a form of energy; since energy is a dynamic quantity associated with a process, the particle is perceived as a dynamic process using energy, which manifests itself as the mass of the particle.
10. Subatomic particles are both divisible and indivisible. During the collision, the energy of two particles is redistributed and the same particles are formed. And if the energy is high enough, then in addition to the same ones as the original ones, additionally new particles can be formed.
11. The forces of mutual attraction and repulsion between particles are capable of transforming into the same particles.
12. The world of particles cannot be decomposed into the smallest components independent of each other; particle cannot be isolated.
13. Inside the atom, matter does not exist in certain places, but rather "may exist"; atomic phenomena do not happen in certain places and in a certain way for sure, but rather "may happen".
14. The result of the experiment is influenced by the system of preparation and measurement, the final link of which is the observer. The properties of an object matter only in the context of the interaction of the object with the observer, because the observer decides how he will carry out measurements, and, depending on his decision, receives a characteristic of the property of the observed object.
15. In the subatomic world, there are non-local connections.
It would seem that there are enough complexities and confusion in the subatomic world that underlies the macrocosm. But no! That's not all.
The reality that was discovered as a result of the study of the subatomic world revealed the unity of concepts that until now seemed opposite and even irreconcilable. Not only are particles simultaneously divisible and indivisible, matter is both discontinuous and continuous, energy turns into particles and vice versa, etc., relativistic physics even unified the concepts of space and time. It is this fundamental unity that exists in a higher dimension (four-dimensional space-time) that is the basis for the unification of all opposite concepts.
The introduction of the concept of probability waves, which to a certain extent solved the “particle-wave” paradox, moving it into a completely new context, led to the emergence of a new pair of much more global oppositions: existence and non-existence(one). The atomic reality lies beyond this opposition as well.
Perhaps this opposition is the most difficult for perception from our consciousness. In physics, concrete models can be built that show the transition from the state of particles to the state of waves and vice versa. But no model can explain the transition from existence to nonexistence. No physical process can be used to explain the transition from a state called a virtual particle to a state of rest in a vacuum where these objects disappear.
We cannot say that an atomic particle exists at one point or another, and we cannot say that it is not there. Being a probabilistic scheme, a particle can exist (simultaneously!) at different points and represent a strange kind of physical reality, something between existence and non-existence. Therefore, we cannot describe the state of a particle in terms of fixed opposed concepts (black-white, plus-minus, cold-warm, etc.). The particle is not located at a certain point and is not absent there. She does not move or rest. Only the probable pattern changes, that is, the tendency of the particle to be at certain points.
Robert Oppenheimer expressed this paradox most precisely when he said: “If we ask, for example, whether the location of an electron is constant, we must say no; if we ask whether the location of an electron changes over time, we must say no, if we ask is the electron motionless, we must say no, if we ask if it is moving, we must say no. You better not say!
It is no coincidence that W. Heisenberg admitted: “I remember numerous disputes with God until late at night, culminating in the recognition of our helplessness; when, after an argument, I went for a walk in a nearby park, I asked myself again and again the same question: “Can there be so much absurdity in nature as we see in the results of atomic experiments?”
Such pairs of opposite concepts as force and matter, particle and wave, motion and rest, existence and non-existence, combined into a simultaneous unity, represent today the most difficult position of quantum theory to understand. It is difficult to predict what other paradoxes that turn all our ideas on their heads, science will face.
raging world . But that's not all. The ability of particles to respond to compression by increasing the speed of movement speaks of the fundamental mobility of matter, which becomes apparent when deepening into the subatomic world. In this world, most of the particles are chained to molecular, atomic and nuclear structures, and all of them are not at rest, but are in a state of chaotic motion; they are mobile in nature. Quantum theory shows that matter is constantly moving, never remaining at rest for a moment.
For example, taking a piece of iron in our hands, we do not hear or feel this movement; it, iron, seems to us motionless and passive. But if we look at this "dead" piece of iron under a very powerful microscope, which will allow us to see everything that is happening in the atom, we will see something completely different. Let's recall the model of an iron atom, in which twenty-six electrons revolve around a nucleus consisting of twenty-six protons and thirty neutrons. The swift whirlwind of twenty-six electrons around the nucleus is like a chaotic and ever-changing swarm of insects. It's amazing how these wildly spinning electrons don't collide with each other. It seems that each has a built-in mechanism inside, vigilantly ensuring that they do not collide.
And if we look into the nucleus, we will see protons and neutrons dancing in a frantic lambada rhythm, with dancers alternating and couples changing partners. In a word, in the "dead" metal, in the literal and figurative sense, such a diverse movement of protons, neutrons and electrons reigns, which is simply impossible to imagine.
This multi-layered, raging world is made up of atoms and subatomic particles moving in various orbits at wild speed, "dancing" the wonderful dance of life to music that someone has composed. But after all, all the material objects that we see around us consist of atoms interconnected by intramolecular bonds of various types and thus forming molecules. Only electrons in a molecule move not around each atomic nucleus, but around a group of atoms. And these molecules are also in constant chaotic oscillatory motion, the nature of which depends on the thermal conditions around the atoms.
In a word, in the subatomic and atomic world rhythm, movement and incessant change reign supreme. But all changes are not accidental and not arbitrary. They follow very clear and distinct patterns: all particles of one kind or another are absolutely identical in mass, electric charge and other characteristic indicators; all charged particles have an electric charge, which is either equal to the charge of the electron, or opposite in sign, or exceeding it twice; and other characteristics of particles can take not any arbitrary values, but only a limited number of them, which allows scientists to divide particles into several groups, which can also be called "families" (24).
Questions involuntarily arise: who composed the music for the amazing dance of subatomic particles, who set the information program and taught couples to dance, at what point did this dance begin? In other words: how is matter formed, who created it, when did it happen? These are the questions that science is looking for answers to.
Unfortunately, our worldview is limited and approximate. Our limited understanding of nature leads to the development of limited "laws of nature" that allow us to describe a large number of phenomena, but the most important laws of the universe that affect the human worldview are still largely unknown to us.
“The attitude of most physicists is reminiscent of the worldview of a schizophrenic,” says quantum physicist Fritz Rohrlich of Syracuse University. On the one hand, they accept the standard interpretation of quantum theory. On the other hand, they insist on the reality of quantum systems, even if they are fundamentally unobservable.”
A really strange position that can be expressed like this: "I'm not going to think about it, even if I know it's true." This position keeps many physicists from considering the logical consequences of the most amazing discoveries of quantum physics. As David Mermin of Cornell University points out, physicists fall into three categories: first, the small minority who are haunted by the obvious logical consequences; the second is a group that avoids the problem with the help of many considerations and arguments, for the most part untenable; and, finally, the third category - those who do not have any considerations, but they do not care. “This position is, of course, the most comfortable,” notes Mermin (1).
Nevertheless, scientists are aware that all their theories describing natural phenomena, including the description of "laws", are a product of human consciousness, consequences of the conceptual structure of our picture of the world, and not properties of reality itself. All scientific models and theories are only approximations to the true state of affairs. None of them can claim to be the ultimate truth. The inconclusiveness of theories is manifested primarily in the use of the so-called "fundamental constants", that is, quantities whose values are not derived from the corresponding theories, but are determined empirically. Quantum theory cannot explain why an electron has such a mass and such an electric charge, and the theory of relativity cannot explain just such a value of the speed of light.
Of course, science will never be able to create an ideal theory that will explain everything, but it must constantly strive for this, even if it is an unattainable frontier. For the higher the bar is set, over which the jumper must jump, the greater the height he will take, even if he does not set a record. And scientists, like a jumper in training, constantly raise the bar, consistently developing individual partial and approximate theories, each of which is more accurate than the previous one.
Today, science already has a number of private theories and models that quite successfully describe some aspects of the wave quantum reality that excites us. According to many scientists, the most promising theories - the fulcrum for the further development of theoretical physics based on consciousness, are the "bootstrap" hypothesis of Jeffrey Chu, the theory of David Bohm and the theory of torsion fields. And the unique experimental work of Russian scientists under the guidance of Academician V.P. Kaznacheev largely confirms the correctness of the approaches to the study of the Universe and Consciousness, which are embedded in these hypotheses and theories.
From the book Hyperborean Teaching the author Tatishchev B Yu2. 1. Paradoxes of modern Russia. Times have changed. The current "democrat" to continue the robbery of Russia and its people have to make some efforts to "stabilize the economy." And the "patriots - sovereigns" have long since passed all the terms allotted to them for
From the book Phenomena of Other Worlds author Kulsky AlexanderChapter 11. PARADOXES THAT NEVER EXISTED One of the most cornerstones, fundamental stones underlying traditional physics and philosophy, is the principle of causality. That is, "iron" one-pointedness in the relationship of cause and effect. First, therefore,
From the book Fundamentals of the Physics of the Spirit author Sklyarov Andrey YurievichChapter 6 “Everything is alive, but conditionally we consider only that which feels strong enough to be alive.” K. Tsiolkovsky In the material macrocosm, as is known, matter (as one
From the book The Last Testament of Don Juan: Toltec Magic and Esoteric Spirituality author Kapten (Omkarov) Yuri (Arthur) Leonardovich6. HEALTH PARADOXES FROM THE POSITION OF MAGIC AND SPIRITUALITY Although many aspects of the magic of self-healing have already been noted above, and I have had to repeat it more than once, it makes sense to systematize and bring together the points associated with gaining lasting health through
From the book UFO: Visitors from Eternity author Komissarov Vitaly SergeevichParadoxes of ancient knowledge "... In our rooted views on the past, the Neolithic ancestor has always been presented in the form of a furry kid chasing a mammoth. But unexpected discoveries fell one after another ... " Who were our ancestors? This question seemed to be a long time ago
From the book The Nature of Time: A Hypothesis on the Origin and Physical Essence of Time author Beach Anatoly Makarovich3.3. Riddles and paradoxes of time Doubts about whether or not to include this section in the present work did not leave me until the last minute. On the one hand, I would like to try to explain some of the mysteries of time and the phenomena of parapsychology, but on the other hand, this
From the book Life Without Borders. moral law author3.3.1. Physical paradoxes of time “In the summer of 1912 ... the newspapers of Great Britain described a mysterious story that happened on an express train from London to Glasgow. Witnesses of the incident in one of the cars were two passengers unfamiliar to each other -
From the book Teaching of Life author Roerich Elena Ivanovna From the book Book 3. Ways. Roads. Meetings author Sidorov Georgy Alekseevich From the book Teaching of Life author Roerich Elena Ivanovna From the book The Art of Managing the World author Vinogrodsky Bronislav Bronislavovich[Symbol of the Mother of the World hiding Her Face from the world] Let me remind you that the Mother of the World hid Her Face from humanity also due to cosmic reasons. For when Lucifer decided to humiliate a woman in order to seize power over humanity, cosmic conditions favored such
From the book Life Without Borders. Moral Law author Zhikarentsev Vladimir VasilievichManaging States Paradoxes of Consciousness As soon as there is a desire to improve one's condition, it means that deterioration has occurred. As soon as you are going to improve yourself, it means that you have discovered new imperfections. Intention is born where it is found
From the book How dreams and handwriting will help correct the mistakes of the past by Antis JackState management Paradoxes of the great The principles of the development of consciousness can be expressed in stable definitions: The internal state of clarity in the understanding of perfection can manifest itself externally as darkness of misunderstanding. The internal state of progress along the path of perfection
From the book The Code of Immortality. Truths and myths about eternal life author Prokopenko Igor StanislavovichParadoxes of Russian life Laws and logic do not work in Russia, because the main law in our country is the heart, the center where all opposites converge. The heart judges the world, people and phenomena, based on the unity of the world and things, therefore there are no laws for it,
From the author's bookChapter 14 Dreams that wake us up (Or dreams-paradoxes) PROPHETIC, or predictive, dreams, most often we distinguish by bright coloring and sharpness of sensations. But the same goes for the PARADOXALITY of a plot or an image ... Let's return to our Alice. I will take paradoxically related images out of context
From the author's bookChapter 3. The paradoxes of longevity In the summer of 2013, scientists made a sensational prediction: literally in 10 years, the average life span of a person could double, and in the longer term, it is possible to defeat aging, and then death. German scientists from Kiel
Although the series of elements do not contain combinations of motions with a resulting positive displacement less than that of hydrogen, 2–1–(-1), this does not mean that such combinations do not exist. This means that they do not have enough velocity shift to form two complete rotating systems and, accordingly, do not have the properties that characterize the combinations of rotation that we call atoms. These less complex rotation combinations can be defined as subatomic particles. As is evident from the above, these particles are not constituents of atoms as they are considered in modern scientific thought. They are structures of the same nature as the atoms of the elements, but their total resulting displacement is below the minimum required to form a complete atomic structure.
The term "subatomic" refers to these particles under the assumption that these particles are or can be the building blocks from which atoms are built. Our discoveries make this sense obsolete, but the name is acceptable in the sense of a system of movements of a lower degree of complexity than atoms. Therefore, in this work it will be retained, but will be used in a modified sense. The term "elementary particle" should be discarded. In the sense of basic units from which other structures can be formed, there are no “elementary” particles. A particle is smaller and less complex than an atom, but by no means elementary. An elementary unit is a unit of movement.
Since the publication of the first edition, the theoretical characteristics of subatomic particles derived from the postulates of STO have been further studied. As a result, there has been a significant increase in the amount of information available in connection with these objects, including the theoretical discovery of some particles more complex than those described in the first edition. Moreover, we can now explore the structure and behavior of cosmic subatomic particles much more deeply (in later chapters). To accommodate the increased amount of information presented, a new system for representing the distribution of rotation over measurements has been developed.
Of course, this means that we now use one system to represent the rotation of elements and another system to represent rotation of the same nature when dealing with particles. At first glance, this may seem like an unnecessary complication. But the point is, because we want to take advantage of the convenience of using a double displacement unit when dealing with elements, while we should use a single unit when dealing with particles, we are forced to use two different systems, whether they are similar or not. In fact, it was the lack of awareness of this difference that led to the confusion that we now wish to avoid. It seems that while two different systems of notation are necessary for convenient use of the data, we will have to establish a system for particles that will better serve our purposes and be different enough to avoid confusion.
As in the first edition, the new notation used in this edition will indicate offsets in different dimensions, and, as before, express them in individual units, but will only show current offsets and include alphabetic characters designed specifically to indicate the basis of the particle's rotation. Due to the characteristics of the mathematical processes that we will use when dealing with elements, it is necessary to take into account the original non-operating unit of rotation. This is not the case with subatomic particles. And since the atomic (double) notation cannot be used in any event, we will only show the effective displacements and preface them with letters M or To to indicate whether the basis of rotation of the combination is material or cosmic. This will benefit from a clear indication that the quantities of rotation in any particular case are expressed by the new notation.
The change in the symbolic representation of rotations and other modifications of the terminology that we make in this edition may present difficulties for those who are already accustomed to the way they were represented in earlier writings. However, we advise you to take advantage of any opportunities for improvement that can be recognized at the current early stage of theoretical consideration. As time goes on, improvements of this nature will become less suitable, and existing practices will become resistant to change.
On a new basis, the basis of material rotation - M 0–0–0. One unit of positive electrical displacement can be added to this base, creating positron, M 0–0–1, or one negative electrical displacement, in which case the result is electron, M 0–0–(1). The electron is a unique particle. It is the only material-based structure, and therefore stable in the local environment, that has an effective negative bias. This is possible because the total rotational displacement of an electron is the sum of the original, positive magnetic unit required to cancel out the photon's negative displacement (not shown in the structural image) and the negative electrical unit. As in the case of two-dimensional motion, the magnetic unit is the main component of the total rotation, although its numerical value is no greater than the value of one-dimensional electrical rotation. Therefore, the electron meets the requirement that the resulting total rotation material particle must be positive.
As already mentioned, the extra movement with a negative displacement adds more space to the existing physical situation, whatever it may be. Therefore, the electron is a rotating unit of space. Later we will see that this fact plays an important role in many physical processes. One of the immediate and very noticeable results is that electrons abound in the material environment, while positrons are extremely rare. On the basis of considerations relating to the electron, we can classify the positron as a rotating unit of time. As such, the positron is easily absorbed by the material system of combinations, the constituents of which are predominantly temporal structures; that is, rotating units with a net positive displacement (velocity = 1/t). In these structures, the possibilities of using a negative electron bias are extremely limited.
If a magnetic unit, rather than an electrical one, is added to the base of rotation, the result can be expressed as M 1-0-0. However, it appears that the designation M½-½-0 is preferred. Of course, there are no half units, but a two-dimensional rotation unit obviously occupies both dimensions. To realize this fact, we will assign half a unit to each dimension. The notation ½-½ better expresses the way in which this system of movements enters into further combinations. For reasons that will soon become clear, we will call the particle M½-½-0 massless neutron.
At the unit level in a one-unit rotation system, the magnetic and electrical units are numerically equal, that is, 1 2 =1. Adding to a combination of movements M½-½-0 units of negative electrical displacement - a massless neutron, creates a combination with a total resulting displacement of zero. Such a combination M½-½-(1) can be defined as neutrino.
In the previous chapter, the property of the atoms of matter, known as atomic weight or mass, was defined as the resultant, positive three-dimensional rotational displacement (velocity) of the atoms. This property will be discussed in detail in the next chapter, but for now note that the same definition applies to subatomic particles. That is, these particles have mass to the extent that they have a net positive rotational displacement in three dimensions. Until now, it was believed that none of the particles satisfies this requirement. An electron and a positron have a net rotation in one dimension, a massless neutron in two. The neutrino does not have any net displacement at all. Hence, subatomic rotation combinations are defined as massless particles.
However, by combining with other movements, displacement in one or two dimensions can reach the status of a three-dimensional displacement component. For example, a particle can acquire a charge, a kind of motion that will be explored later. And when that happens, the entire displacement of the charge and the primary particle will appear as a mass. Or the particle can be combined with other motions such that the displacement of the massless particle becomes a component of the three-dimensional displacement of the combination structure.
Adding a unit of positive, not negative, electrical displacement to a massless neutron will create M½-½-1, and the resulting total offset of this combination is 2nd. This is enough to form a complete double rotating system - an atom. I b about The greater possibility of a double structure prevents any combination from existing M½-½-1, except for instant.
The same probability considerations exclude the two-unit magnetic structure M 1-1-0 and positive derivative M 1-1-1, which have net displacements of 2 and 3, respectively. However, the negative derivative M 1-1-(1), practically created by adding neutrinos M½-½-(1) to massless neutron M½-½-0, can exist as a particle, since its resulting total displacement is only one unit, which is not enough to create a double structure without fail. Such a particle can be defined as proton.
Here we see an example of how massless particles themselves (because they do not have three-dimensional rotation) are combined to create a particle with an effective mass. The massless neutron only rotates in two dimensions, while the neutrino has no net rotation. But by adding them together, a combination is created with an effective rotation in all three dimensions. The result is a proton M 1-1-(1) having one unit of mass.
At the current (rather early) stage of development of the theory, it is impossible to accurately assess the probability factors and other influences that determine whether, under a given set of circumstances, a theoretically relevant combination of rotations will actually exist or not. However, the information currently available indicates that any combination of material form with a net displacement of less than 2 is capable of existing as a particle in the local environment. None of the combination systems defined in the previous paragraphs are observed in real practice, and there is great doubt as to how they can to observe otherwise than by means of indirect processes that make it possible to assume their existence. For example, the neutrino is "observed" only through the products of certain events in which this particle is supposed to participate. The electron, positron, and proton have only been observed in a charged state, not in an uncharged state, the base state of all rotation combinations discussed up to this point. Nevertheless, there is sufficient reason to assert that all these uncharged structures actually exist and play significant roles in physical processes. It will be given later as the theoretical consideration continues.
In previous posts, the combination M½-½-0 (1-1-0 in the notation used in them) was defined as a neutron. But it has been observed that in some physical processes, such as the instability (decay) of a cosmic ray, the magnetic displacement that was expected to be emitted in the form of neutrons was actually transmitted in a massless form. Because the observed neutron is a particle with a unit atomic weight, it was concluded at the time that in these particular examples, neutrons act as combinations of neutrinos and positrons—massless particles. Based on this, the neutron plays a dual role: in some circumstances it is massless, and in others it has a unit of mass.
Further research, focusing mainly on the secondary mass of subatomic particles, which will be discussed in Chapter 13, revealed that observable the neutron is not a one-unit effective magnetic rotation with resulting displacements M½-½-0, but a more complex particle with the same net displacement, and that the one-unit magnetic displacement is massless. It is no longer necessary to assume that the same particle acts in two different ways. There are two different particles.
The explanation is this: new discoveries have revealed the existence of a structure intermediate between individual rotating systems of massless particles and integral binary systems of atoms. In intermediate structures, there are two rotating systems, as in the atoms of the elements. But only one of them has a resulting effective displacement. In such a system, the rotation is the rotation of the proton M 1-1-(1). In the second system, there is a rotation of the neutrino type.
The massless rotations of the second system can be either the rotations of the material neutrino M½-½-(1), or cosmic neutrino To½-½-1. In the case of rotation of a material neutrino, the combined displacements are M½-½-(2). This combination has the mass of one isotope of hydrogen, a structure identical to that of the usual mass of diatomic deuterium. M 2-2-(2) or M 2-1-(1) in atomic terms, except that its magnetic displacement is one unit less, and therefore its mass is also one unit less. If the rotation of the cosmic neutrino is added to the proton, the combined displacements will be M 2-2-0, the same result as a one-unit magnetic rotation. This theoretical particle complex neutron, as we will call it, can be defined as the observable neutron.
The identification of individual rotations of structures of an intermediate type with rotations of neutrinos and protons should not be interpreted in such a way that neutrinos and protons as such really exist in combinational structures. For example, in fact, this means that one of the components of the rotations that make up the complex neutron has the same kind rotation, as does the neutron constituting the proton, if the latter exists separately.
Since the resulting total displacement of the composite neutron is identical to the resulting total displacement of the massless neutron, the aspects of particle behavior (properties, as they are called) that depend on the resulting total displacement are the same. Moreover, the properties depending on the total magnetic displacement or the total electrical displacement are also identical. But other properties associated with the structure of the particle are different for both neutrons. A complex neutron has an effective unit of three-dimensional displacement in a rotation system with rotation like a proton, therefore, it has one unit of mass. A massless neutron has no three-dimensional displacement and therefore no mass.
| | | | | | | | | | | | |And nuclear physics.
Subatomic particles are the atomic constituents: electron, neutron, and proton. The proton and neutron, in turn, are made up of quarks.
see also
Write a review on the article "Subatomic Particle"
Links
An excerpt characterizing the subatomic particle
- Bien faite et la beaute du diable, [The beauty of youth is well built,] - said this man, and when he saw Rostov, he stopped talking and frowned.– What do you want? Request?…
- Qu "est ce que c" est? [What is this?] someone asked from the other room.
- Encore un petitionnaire, [Another petitioner,] - answered the man in the harness.
Tell him what's next. It's out now, you have to go.
- After the day after tomorrow. Late…
Rostov turned and wanted to go out, but the man in the harness stopped him.
- From whom? Who are you?
“From Major Denisov,” answered Rostov.
- Who are you? the officer?
- Lieutenant, Count Rostov.
- What courage! Submit on command. And you yourself go, go ... - And he began to put on the uniform given by the valet.
Rostov went out again into the passage and noticed that on the porch there were already many officers and generals in full dress uniform, past whom he had to pass.
Cursing his courage, dying at the thought that at any moment he could meet the sovereign and be disgraced and sent under arrest in his presence, fully understanding the indecency of his act and repenting of it, Rostov, lowering his eyes, made his way out of the house, surrounded by a crowd of brilliant retinue when a familiar voice called out to him and a hand stopped him.
- You, father, what are you doing here in a tailcoat? asked his bass voice.
He was a cavalry general, who in this campaign earned the sovereign's special favor, the former head of the division in which Rostov served.
Rostov frightenedly began to make excuses, but seeing the good-natured joking face of the general, stepping aside, in an excited voice handed over the whole matter to him, asking him to intercede for Denisov, who was known to the general. The general, having listened to Rostov, shook his head seriously.
- It's a pity, a pity for the young man; give me a letter.
As soon as Rostov had time to hand over the letter and tell the whole story of Denisov, quick steps with spurs rattled from the stairs and the general, moving away from him, moved to the porch. The gentlemen of the sovereign's retinue ran down the stairs and went to the horses. The landlord Ene, the same one who was in Austerlitz, led the sovereign's horse, and a slight creak of steps was heard on the stairs, which Rostov now recognized. Forgetting the danger of being recognized, Rostov moved with several curious residents to the very porch and again, after two years, he saw the same features he adored, the same face, the same look, the same gait, the same combination of greatness and meekness ... And a feeling of delight and love for the sovereign with the same strength resurrected in the soul of Rostov. The sovereign in the Preobrazhensky uniform, in white leggings and high boots, with a star that Rostov did not know (it was legion d "honneur) [star of the Legion of Honor] went out onto the porch, holding his hat under his arm and putting on a glove. He stopped, looking around and that's all illuminating his surroundings with his gaze. He said a few words to some of the generals. He also recognized the former division chief Rostov, smiled at him and called him to him.
The whole retinue retreated, and Rostov saw how this general said something to the sovereign for quite some time.
The emperor said a few words to him and took a step to approach the horse. Again a crowd of retinues and a crowd of the street, in which Rostov was, moved closer to the sovereign. Stopping at the horse and taking the saddle with his hand, the sovereign turned to the cavalry general and spoke loudly, obviously with a desire that everyone could hear him.
“I can’t, General, and therefore I can’t, because the law is stronger than me,” said the emperor and put his foot in the stirrup. The general bowed his head respectfully, the sovereign sat down and galloped down the street. Rostov, beside himself with delight, ran after him with the crowd.
On the square where the sovereign went, the battalion of the Preobrazhenians stood face to face on the right, the battalion of the French guards in bear hats on the left.
While the sovereign was approaching one flank of the battalions, which had made guard duty, another crowd of horsemen jumped to the opposite flank, and ahead of them Rostov recognized Napoleon. It couldn't be anyone else. He rode at a gallop in a small hat, with St. Andrew's ribbon over his shoulder, in a blue uniform open over a white camisole, on an unusually thoroughbred Arabian gray horse, on a crimson, gold embroidered saddle. Riding up to Alexander, he raised his hat, and with this movement, the cavalry eye of Rostov could not fail to notice that Napoleon was badly and not firmly sitting on his horse. The battalions shouted: Hooray and Vive l "Empereur! [Long live the Emperor!] Napoleon said something to Alexander. Both emperors got off their horses and took each other's hands. Napoleon had an unpleasantly fake smile on his face. Alexander with an affectionate expression said something to him .
Rostov did not take his eyes off, despite the trampling by the horses of the French gendarmes, besieging the crowd, followed every movement of Emperor Alexander and Bonaparte. As a surprise, he was struck by the fact that Alexander behaved as an equal with Bonaparte, and that Bonaparte was completely free, as if this closeness with the sovereign was natural and familiar to him, as an equal, he treated the Russian Tsar.
Alexander and Napoleon, with a long tail of retinue, approached the right flank of the Preobrazhensky battalion, right on the crowd that was standing there. The crowd unexpectedly found itself so close to the emperors that Rostov, who was standing in the front ranks of it, became afraid that they would not recognize him.
- Sire, je vous demande la permission de donner la legion d "honneur au plus brave de vos soldats, [Sir, I ask you for permission to give the Order of the Legion of Honor to the bravest of your soldiers,] - said a sharp, precise voice, finishing each letter This was said by Bonaparte, small in stature, looking directly into Alexander's eyes from below.
- A celui qui s "est le plus vaillament conduit dans cette derieniere guerre, [To the one who showed himself the most bravely during the war,]" Napoleon added, rapping out each syllable, with outrageous calmness and confidence for Rostov, looking around the ranks of the Russians stretched out in front of him soldiers, keeping everything on guard and looking motionlessly into the face of their emperor.
