Many great reforming rulers, generals, scientists and even philosophers can claim to be called the greatest men in the history of mankind. But it is difficult to consider the achievements of a person in isolation from the era. The eras of the Renaissance and Enlightenment, as well as the scientific revolution of the 20th century, changed the face of the world, but these breakthroughs in human history were associated with the activities of many outstanding people.

The achievements of some talented people have not outlived them. Many have reached heights in conjunction with others, and their merits are not shared. Let's try to identify several personalities in world history, whose actions and ideas influenced the further course of the historical process. The consequences of their actions are being felt even now.

At the origins of European science: Aristotle

Aristotle is a rare example of a student who surpassed his brilliant mentor. He did not hesitate to criticize the views of the teacher, and his saying dedicated to this went down in history. Plato was an ingenious philosopher, but his views concerned questions of philosophy, ethics and political science. Aristotle went further.

A native of the insignificant city of Stagira came to Athens, where he created his own philosophical school. Many philosophers and even well-known politicians were its pupils, but none of them made a contribution to history comparable to the founder.

Aristotle created the doctrine of the first principles of existence. He introduced the principle of development into world philosophy, created a system of philosophical categories and levels of existence. Stagirite was the founder of logic as a science. He studied ethics and developed the doctrine of the virtues. In the field of cosmology, he advocated the idea of ​​a spherical earth.

In the essay "The State" Aristotle studied the strengths and weaknesses of different forms of government and put forward his own, realistic, idea of ​​the state. His work on the history of the Athenian state system is an example of a historical essay.

In addition, the scientist from Athens wrote works on all the then available areas of knowledge - biology, zoology, poetics (where he studied theatrical art). The works of Aristotle were studied by the philosophers of the Middle Ages in Europe and the Muslim world. It can rightfully be placed at the origins of modern science.

Alexander the Great: Creation of a New World

In world history there have been many commanders whose victories numbered in the tens. Alexander defeated the army of the largest empire in several battles, took the most fortified cities of that time and reached the Punjab. The empire he created collapsed within a few decades after his death, but new states appeared on its fragments.

The king of Macedonia was obsessed with the idea of ​​uniting the West and the East under his rule. The idea was partially successful. After his campaigns, the Mediterranean became another world. The Greeks had previously served the eastern rulers. But now the heart of Greek civilization began to beat in Asia and Egypt. The Alexandria Museum became the greatest center of intellectual life - philosophers, scientists and poets of the entire Mediterranean lived here. The most important scientific works were collected in the library. Here the Old Testament was translated into Greek. Pergamum did not lag behind him, whose library also became a scientific center.

Hellenism caused a revival and changes in the literature, sculpture and architecture of the Hellenes. New traditions and ideas associated with oriental influences emerged. Later, the Roman Republic will join this world, whose culture will be formed under the influence of the Hellenistic one.

Alexander was not directly involved in most of the processes. But it was his conquests that created the world in which the emergence of the Alexandria Museum and the Pergamon Library was possible.

Prophet Muhammad: the creation of a new religion

Mohammed and the religion of Islam can be treated differently. For many centuries, Arab tribes roamed the expanses of Arabia. They were vassals or allies of powerful empires. The nomads staged bloody wars among themselves, composed original and complex poems, and worshiped many gods.

In the first half of the 7th century, Muhammad began to preach in Mecca. He managed to overcome the enmity of his fellow tribesmen and gather a group of supporters. With them, he went to Medina, but after a series of battles he defeated the enemies and achieved the unification of the two cities under his authority.

Mohammed's enemies adopted his religious teachings and became his companions. The doctrine of Islam assumed expansion - after the death of the Prophet, the Arab armies left Arabia. The Arabs, led by the teachings of Mohammed, destroyed the Sasanian Empire and conquered vast territories of the Byzantine Empire. They did not stop there and subjugated the territories of Spain, Central Asia and the islands of the Mediterranean.

Now Islam is practiced by about 1.5 billion inhabitants of the planet. It is the state religion of 28 countries, and communities of followers of the Prophet are located in 122 states. This is evidence of the influence of the Prophet Muhammad on history, whose actions changed the lives of not only his fellow tribesmen, but also many distant peoples.

Charlemagne: at the origins of modern Europe

After the slow decline of the Roman Empire in the west, Europe plunged into the darkness of the Early Middle Ages. The population has declined: some regions have become depopulated. Several epidemics and devastating wars swept across Europe.

Even under these conditions, the heritage of Roman civilization and science was not forgotten. But the epochs of the 5th - 8th centuries stand out as difficult and dark times. In 768, Charles, who went down in history under the name of the Great, became the king of the Frankish kingdom. He was a decisive sovereign who fought a lot with his neighbors and pushed the boundaries of the Frankish kingdom, and in 800 was crowned as emperor.

His empire included part of eastern Spain, Italy to Rome, the territory of modern Germany. Avars and numerous Slavic peoples were dependent on him: Moravians, Czechs, encouragers, Serbs.

The emperor became famous not only for victorious wars. He attracted educated people to his court and built schools. The Academy was organized, the members of which were the smartest people of his era - the monk Alcuin, the historian Paul the Deacon, the biographer Einhard. Alcuin's student was the author of one of the medieval encyclopedias, Raban Maurus.

In schools organized in the empire of Charlemagne, the children of nobles and clergy studied. They studied the seven liberal arts, the canon of which had already been established. "Carolingian minuscule", a way of writing letters that has become the basis of the modern alphabet of most Western countries. At the court of Charles, admiration for Roman literature reigned, and copies of works were made in Latin.

After the death of Charlemagne, the collapse of his empire followed. The division of the empire into three states, formalized in 843, laid the foundations of modern Italy, Germany and France.

The Ideology That Changed History: Karl Marx

One of the greatest (according to many) thinkers of the 19th century is Karl Marx. He was born in Prussia but spent most of his life in Great Britain and died in London. The ideas and works developed by him determined the course of the history of the next century.

The formation of Marx as a thinker was influenced by the philosophy of Hegel. Marx criticized his predecessor, but, relying on his dialectical method, formed his own concept of dialectical materialism. He introduced his own materialistic understanding of the course of the historical process, which continues to be used in modern science.

Finally, Marx created the work "Capital", in which he examined the contradictions of contemporary capitalist society. He showed the essence of conflicts between capitalists and workers, as well as within these classes. He substantiated the inevitability of the replacement of capitalism by socialism.

Marx's ideas influenced all left-wing thinkers of the 20th century. The practical application of these ideas was made by the builders of the USSR and other socialist states. In the 21st century, socialist states continue to exist, and supporters of this ideology believe in the final victory of socialism. At the basis of this historical process were the ideas of Karl Marx.

The greatest men in the history of mankind are individuals who, alone or with the help of fellow performers, changed the course of history or directed it in the right direction. This influence was manifested in different ways - the development of science, the creation of a new religion or ideology, the change in the political map of the world, which created new conditions for the development of civilization. The result of the activity of these personalities could be fully manifested years and decades after their death.

Yuri Andropov headed the KGB for 15 years and was the General Secretary of the USSR for 15 months. During his short reign, the country was replaced by 18 ministers, "re-elected" 37 first secretaries of the regional committees of the CPSU.

Strengthening the KGB

From 1967 to 1982, Yuri Andropov served as chairman of the KGB of the USSR. It was a time of tense confrontation between the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the KGB. When Brezhnev came to power, he needed a powerful counterbalance to the army and the KGB, it became the Ministry of the Interior, headed by Nikolai Shchelokov, who was close to Brezhnev.

The highest positions in the Political Directorate of the Internal Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs were taken by the son-in-law of Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Churbanov (there was a saying about him: “Do not have a hundred sheep, but marry like Churbanov”).

When Andropov became the head of the KGB, the Committee was not yet the all-powerful organization that it later became. The KGB gained strength against the backdrop of a confrontation with the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Andropov managed to create a well-functioning network of KGB regional departments, whose staff supervised all organizations and enterprises. Although the KGB did not formally interfere in personnel policy, not a single important appointment could take place without the intervention of the Committee.
Although Andropov stopped bribery and corruption in his department in the bud, the KGB officers, thanks to the comprehensiveness of their influence, enjoyed solid privileges. Under Andropov, the salaries and bonuses of the Committee's employees increased.

Scout Mikhail Svetlov wrote: “Andropov introduced the Chekists into all parts of the state machine. Deputy leaders from the "authorities" sat on radio and television, in the Ministry of Culture.
In order to prove the importance of his structure, Andropov waged an active fight against "dissidence", and then against "agents of influence" (a term introduced by Andropov in 1972).
Andropov succeeded in strengthening the KGB. Proof of this is the large number of former "committees" in government offices in big business.

Fight against corruption

Andropov led the fight against corruption even when he was chairman of the KGB. Special investigative teams of the KGB carried out inspections in the Azerbaijan SSR and Georgia, during which corruption schemes were exposed, hundreds of party functionaries, officials and even several district prosecutors were arrested.

The KGB carried out inspections in the capital's offices, but as long as "dear Leonid Ilyich" was in power, they did not give a move to high-profile cases.

When Andropov became Secretary General, the fight against corruption acquired allied proportions. Andropov launched a real attack on the "trade mafia". One of the first to be arrested was the director of the Eliseevsky store, Yuri Sokolov, who was caught red-handed while receiving another bribe. He was sentenced to capital punishment.
Further more. In a short time, more than 15,000 trade workers were brought to justice in Moscow alone. Among others, the director of the Novoarbatsky grocery store Filippov, the head of the Mosplodoovoshcheprom Uraltsev, and the director of the Kuibyshev district food industry Begalman were arrested.

Andropov also carried out purges among the party leaders. More than 30% of party leaders were replaced in Moscow, 34% in Ukraine, and 32% in Kazakhstan.

The fight against corruption paid off. According to official data, the growth rate of the USSR economy in 1983 was 4.2% (against 3.1% in 1982); national income rose by 3.1; industrial production - by 4; agricultural production - by 6%.

Started a change of elites

The personnel policy of Yuri Andropov was distinguished by decisiveness. Back in the seventies, he created an "inner party" of his adherents in the elite circles of the USSR. At the same time, he brought them into "five", and each five knew only each other - but did not know about others.

Andropov probably inherited this principle from his teacher Otto Kuusinen, who was a member of the Masonic Lodge.

We are “thankful” to Andropov for introducing and “promoting” Mikhail Gorbachev to the Politburo. Andropov also contributed to the promotion of Eduard Shevardnadze, Alexander Yakovlev, Nikolai Ryzhkov and Yegor Ligachev, who replaced the Brezhnev cadres.

Opened the Iron Curtain

Despite the reputation of a tough fighter against dissidents, Andropov showed a sincere interest in the life of the intelligentsia and even gained fame as a liberal general secretary in relation to creative people.

Those who knew Andropov personally testify that intellectually he stood out against the general gray background of the Politburo of stagnant years, read literary magazines, and followed the life of art with interest.

Andropov treated the abstract artists well and even bought their paintings.

On his desk lay the books of Hegel and Descartes. When members of the Politburo asked Andropov why he needed these books, Yuri Vladimirovich answered: "So that there is something to talk about with you."

In a circle of trusted people, Andropov could afford comparatively liberal arguments. Significantly, under Andropov, mass production of licensed records of popular Western performers of those genres (rock, disco, synth-pop) that were previously considered ideologically unacceptable began - this was supposed to undermine the economic basis for speculation in records and magnetic recordings. So the ideological "iron curtain" was slowly opening up.

Prevented the appearance of missiles in Europe

In matters of international politics, Andropov adhered to a principled, tough position. In July 1983, Andropov received German Chancellor Helmut Kohl and Foreign Minister Hans Genscher in the Kremlin. At the meeting there was a question about the deployment of American "Pershings" in Europe. Andropov was firm: “Let the West have no doubts. The appearance of Pershings in Europe means that we will take retaliatory measures. Andropov showed his decisiveness on September 1, 1983, when a South Korean Boeing 747 was shot down in the sky over Sakhalin while flying over the territory of the USSR.

Andropovka

Not every head of state was honored with the “honor” to remain in history thanks to the popular nickname of one of the most “folk” products. Andropov succeeded.

The vodka, which went on sale on September 1, 1983, was first called "schoolgirl" or "first-grader".

An economy-class half-litre in the last years of Brezhnev's rule cost 5.30 rubles and invariably rose in price, new vodka cost 4.70 rubles. Soviet citizens appreciated it and called it "Andropovka". The name of the drink itself at one time was even deciphered as "Here he is, Kind Andropov." Andropovka, which became legendary, did not last long and after two or three years during the Gorbachev era, it quietly faded away, although it remained the Soviet vodka hit of the 1983-1984 season.

The highest positions in the Political Directorate of the Internal Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs were taken by the son-in-law of Leonid Brezhnev, Yuri Churbanov (there was a saying about him: “Do not have a hundred sheep, but marry like Churbanov”).

When Andropov became the head of the KGB, the Committee was not yet the all-powerful organization that it later became. The KGB gained strength against the backdrop of a confrontation with the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Andropov managed to create a well-functioning network of KGB regional departments, whose staff supervised all organizations and enterprises. Although the KGB did not formally interfere in personnel policy, not a single important appointment could take place without the intervention of the Committee. Although Andropov stopped bribery and corruption in his department in the bud, the KGB officers, thanks to the comprehensiveness of their influence, enjoyed solid privileges. Under Andropov, the salaries and bonuses of the Committee's employees increased.

Scout Mikhail Svetlov wrote: “Andropov introduced the Chekists into all parts of the state machine. Deputy leaders from the "authorities" sat on radio and television, in the Ministry of Culture. In order to prove the importance of his structure, Andropov waged an active fight against "dissidence", and then against "agents of influence" (a term introduced by Andropov in 1972). Andropov succeeded in strengthening the KGB. Proof of this is the large number of former "committees" in government offices in big business.

Fight against corruption

Andropov led the fight against corruption even when he was chairman of the KGB. Special investigative teams of the KGB carried out inspections in the Azerbaijan SSR and Georgia, during which corruption schemes were exposed, hundreds of party functionaries, officials and even several district prosecutors were arrested.

The KGB carried out inspections in the capital's offices, but as long as "dear Leonid Ilyich" was in power, they did not give a move to high-profile cases.

When Andropov became Secretary General, the fight against corruption acquired allied proportions. Andropov launched a real attack on the "trade mafia". One of the first to be arrested was the director of the Eliseevsky store, Yuri Sokolov, who was caught red-handed while receiving another bribe. He was sentenced to capital punishment. Further more. In a short time, more than 15,000 trade workers were brought to justice in Moscow alone. Among others, the director of the Novoarbatsky grocery store Filippov, the head of the Mosplodoovoshcheprom Uraltsev, and the director of the Kuibyshev district food industry Begalman were arrested.

Andropov also carried out purges among the party leaders. More than 30% of party leaders were replaced in Moscow, 34% in Ukraine, and 32% in Kazakhstan.

The fight against corruption paid off. According to official data, the growth rate of the USSR economy in 1983 was 4.2% (against 3.1% in 1982); national income rose by 3.1; industrial production - by 4; agricultural production - by 6%.

Started a change of elites

The personnel policy of Yuri Andropov was distinguished by decisiveness. Back in the seventies, he created an "inner party" of his adherents in the elite circles of the USSR. At the same time, he brought them into "five", and each five knew only each other - but did not know about others.

Andropov probably inherited this principle from his teacher Otto Kuusinen, who was a member of the Masonic Lodge.

We are “thankful” to Andropov for introducing and “promoting” Mikhail Gorbachev to the Politburo. Andropov also contributed to the promotion of Eduard Shevardnadze, Alexander Yakovlev, Nikolai Ryzhkov and Yegor Ligachev, who replaced the Brezhnev cadres.

Opened the Iron Curtain

Despite the reputation of a tough fighter against dissidents, Andropov showed a sincere interest in the life of the intelligentsia and even gained fame as a liberal general secretary in relation to creative people.

Those who knew Andropov personally testify that intellectually he stood out against the general gray background of the Politburo of stagnant years, read literary magazines, and followed the life of art with interest.

Andropov treated the abstract artists well and even bought their paintings.

On his desk lay the books of Hegel and Descartes. When members of the Politburo asked Andropov why he needed these books, Yuri Vladimirovich answered: "So that there is something to talk about with you."

In a circle of trusted people, Andropov could afford comparatively liberal arguments. Significantly, under Andropov, mass production of licensed records of popular Western performers of those genres (rock, disco, synth-pop) that were previously considered ideologically unacceptable began - this was supposed to undermine the economic basis for speculation in records and magnetic recordings. So the ideological "iron curtain" was slowly opening up.

Prevented the appearance of missiles in Europe

In matters of international politics, Andropov adhered to a principled, tough position. In July 1983, Andropov received German Chancellor Helmut Kohl and Foreign Minister Hans Genscher in the Kremlin. At the meeting there was a question about the deployment of American "Pershings" in Europe. Andropov was firm: “Let the West have no doubts. The appearance of Pershings in Europe means that we will take retaliatory measures. Andropov showed his decisiveness on September 1, 1983, when a South Korean Boeing 747 was shot down in the sky over Sakhalin while flying over the territory of the USSR.

Andropovka

Not every head of state was honored with the “honor” to remain in history thanks to the popular nickname of one of the most “folk” products. Andropov succeeded.

The vodka, which went on sale on September 1, 1983, was first called "schoolgirl" or "first-grader".

An economy-class half-litre in the last years of Brezhnev's rule cost 5.30 rubles and invariably rose in price, new vodka cost 4.70 rubles. Soviet citizens appreciated it and called it "Andropovka". The name of the drink itself at one time was even deciphered as "Here he is, Kind Andropov." Andropovka, which became legendary, did not last long and after two or three years during the Gorbachev era, it quietly faded away, although it remained the Soviet vodka hit of the 1983-1984 season.

During the reign of Tsar Peter I, the reforms affected all areas of the life of the Russian state. They were predetermined by the preconditions of the 17th century. The activities of Peter, who introduced the country to European culture, economy, state structure, production technologies, led to a painful breakdown of existing relations, ideas and norms that existed in Muscovite Russia.

Thanks to the reform, the role of Peter I in the history of Russia becomes simply huge. The country became a power that played an important role in the political life of Europe. The need for reforms is ripe in literally all spheres of life.

Peter I was well aware that reforms in any one area would not give the desired result. This was shown by the experience of previous rulers. Difficult events within the country required new forms of state government. The long Northern War required reforms not only of the army and navy, but also of industry, especially metallurgy. What did Peter 1 do for the development of Russia?

Absolute monarchy

The absolute monarchy in Russia was called autocracy. Ivan III, Ivan IV (the Terrible), as well as Alexei Mikhailovich, tried to come to this form of state government. To some extent, they succeeded. But the main obstacle in their way was a representative body - the boyar duma. They could not remove it from the political arena and were forced to reckon with the owners of large estates, who enjoyed influence in their possessions. Only Tsar Peter I succeeded in this.

It often happened that large and well-born boyars were supported by their smaller relatives, forming warring groups in the Duma. From early childhood, Peter experienced this first hand as a result of the intrigues of the boyars Miloslavsky, relatives of the first wife of Alexei Mikhailovich and the Naryshkins, relatives of his mother, the second wife of Alexei Mikhailovich. It was the state reforms of Peter I that were able to bring many transformations to life.

In the struggle for centralized power, he was supported by the nobility, the class of service people who received the title not by inheritance, but for length of service or zeal in work. It was these people who were the support of Peter during the reforms. For the development of Russia, the boyar clans and their strife served as a brake.

The establishment of autocracy was possible with the centralization of the state, by uniting all the lands, reducing the influence of the old aristocracy on the king, which became possible through the elimination of the boyar duma and zemstvo councils. As a result of this reform, Russia received autocracy (absolutism, unlimited monarchy). And Peter I went down in history as the last tsar of Russia and the first emperor of the Russian state.

Nobility and bureaucracy

In the pre-Petrine era, the ruling group consisted of secular feudal lords - the boyars, endowed with estates; nobles who owned estates. The border between the two classes was steadily shrinking. Often the estates exceeded the estates in size, the number of nobles grew due to the granting of titles to service people. New under Peter I was the creation of a noble-bureaucratic apparatus.

Before Peter I, the main distinguishing feature that separated the representatives of these estates was the inheritance of lands, which was assigned to the boyars forever, and after the death of a nobleman, his relatives could only claim a small content. What did Peter I do? He simply secured the land for the nobles with a mandatory 25-year public service.

It was the nobles who became the support of the sovereigns, due to established traditions, they were forced to serve in the service - both civilian and military. This class was interested in centralized power, in strengthening the autocracy. The Time of Troubles (seven boyars) showed the unreliability of the boyar class.

Registration of the nobility

When carrying out state reforms, Peter I formed a new hierarchy of service people, who began to be called officials. It was issued by the Table of Ranks of 1722, where all ranks: military, civil and courtiers are divided into 14 classes. The former included Field Marshal General, Admiral General and Chancellor. The last, 14th, included the lower ranks - such as collegiate registrars, ensigns, junior pharmacists, accountants, skippers of the 2nd rank and others.

In the beginning, each rank corresponded to the position occupied by the official. Privy advisers served in the Privy Chancellery, collegiate advisers were listed in colleges. Subsequently, the rank did not always correspond to the position held. For example, after the abolition of colleges, the rank of collegiate adviser remained.

The advantage of military ranks over civilians

Peter I paid all attention to the army, as well as to the fleet. He was well aware that without her the country would not be able to defend its interests. Therefore, the interests of military servants prevailed over the interests of civil servants. So, for example, a title of nobility was given to civilians from the 8th grade, to the military - from the 14th. The ranks in the guards were 2 classes higher than in the army.

Each nobleman was obliged to carry out public service - civil or military. The sons of the nobles, who reached the age of 20, were required to serve 25 years in any service: military, naval, civil. The offspring of the nobles entered the military service at the age of 15 and served in the early stages as soldiers. The sons of high-ranking officials were in soldier positions in the guard.

Clergy

In the hierarchy of estates in Russia, after the nobility came the clergy. Orthodoxy was the main religion of the state. The ministers of the church had a large number of privileges, which, in principle, Tsar Peter I left for them. The clergy were exempted from various taxes and public service. The sovereign reduced the number of monks, considering them parasites, and determined that a man of mature age who could live without a wife could become a monk.

The dissatisfaction and sometimes opposition of the Russian Orthodox Church to all the reforms of Peter I, its undoubted authority among the people, led him to the conclusion to carry out preventive reforms, which, according to him, would not allow a new impostor to grow out of its ranks. To do this, he proclaims the subordination of the church to the monarch. In 1701, the Monastic Order was formed, which included all monasteries with lands.

Military reform

The main concern of Peter I was the army and navy. Having dispersed the archers, he practically left the country without an army, and there was no fleet in it either. His dream was access to the Baltic Sea. The Narva defeat, which showed the backwardness of the army, was a powerful incentive for military reforms. Peter I understood that the Russian economy could not provide high-quality weapons and equipment. There were not enough plants, factories. There was no technology. Everything had to start over.

Back in 1694, while carrying out the Kozhukhov maneuvers, the future emperor came to the conclusion that the regiments, arranged according to a foreign model, were much superior to the streltsy units. Therefore, after 4 years they were dissolved. Instead, the army consisted of four regiments, created according to the Western model: Semenovsky, Lefortovsky, Preobrazhensky, Butyrsky. They served as the basis of the new Russian army. In 1699, on his orders, a recruitment was announced. The recruits were trained. Along with this, a large number of foreign officers came to the army.

The result of the reforms of Peter I was the victory in the Northern War. She showed the combat readiness of the Russian army. Instead of the militia, regular and well-trained regiments were formed, which were completely supported by the state. Peter I left behind a combat-ready army that was able to repulse any enemy.

Creation of the navy by Peter I

The first Russian fleet, created by Peter I, took part in the Azov campaign. It consisted of 2 battleships, 4 fire ships, 23 galley ships and 1300 plows. All of them were built under the leadership of the king on the Voronezh River. It was the basis of the Russian fleet. After the fortress of Azov was captured, the boyar duma approved the decision of Peter I to build ships for the Baltic.

Shipyards were erected on the estuaries of the Olonka, Luga and Syas rivers, where galleys were built. Sailboats were purchased and built to protect the coast and attack enemy ships. They were based near St. Petersburg, a little later a base was built in Kronstadt. The next bases were in Vyborg, Abo, Reval and Helsingfors. The fleet was controlled by the Admiralty order.

Education reform

Education under Peter I made a grand leap. The army and navy needed educated commanders. On the issue of education, Peter I took a decisive position, realizing that foreign specialists would not be able to solve the problem of a shortage of qualified personnel. Therefore, a school of navigational and mathematical sciences and a number of other schools, such as artillery, medical, and engineering, are being opened in Moscow.

Education under Peter I after the army was a priority. The Maritime Academy was opened in the new capital. Mining schools were organized at the Ural and Olonets plants, which trained engineers. A project was created to create an Academy of Sciences, a university and a gymnasium.

Economic transformation

In the Russian economy, the reorientation from small industrial enterprises to manufactories has become new. Their total number was over two hundred. The autocrat encouraged their creation in every possible way. It should be immediately noted that the Russian manufactory differed from the European one in that the main productive force on it were the peasants.

Manufactories were state-owned, landlord and merchant. They produced gunpowder, saltpeter, cloth, glass, linen, metal and metal products, and much more. In terms of metal production, Russia began to take first place in the world.

To support Russian producers, high customs duties were introduced. To wage war, money and manpower were needed. Censuses are being carried out. The tax was now collected from the male population, regardless of age. Its size was 70 kopecks per year per soul. This made it possible to increase the collection of taxes four times.

Cheap labor made goods competitive in European markets. There was an accumulation of capital, which made it possible to modernize enterprises. In Russia there was a diversified industry. Its main centers were located in Moscow, St. Petersburg, in the Urals.

Consequences of the reforms

Scientists are still arguing about the role of Peter I in the history of Russia. His reforms were spontaneous in nature, marked during the long Northern War, which revealed Russia's backwardness in many areas of life. The economic and technical lag behind the developed countries of Europe was overcome, access to the Baltic was opened, which made trade with Europe more accessible and profitable.

The role of Peter I in the history of Russia is perceived by many historians ambiguously. The strengthening of Russia as a state, the strengthening of absolutism in the form of autocracy, the economic breakthrough put Russia on a par with the countries of Europe. But how was it done! According to the historian Klyuchevsky, the absolute monarchy, which wanted to drag its subjects into modernity from the Middle Ages, contained a fundamental contradiction. It was expressed in a series of palace coups later.

The autocracy cruelly exploited the peasants, turning them practically into slaves. Over 40 thousand peasants, cut off from their homes and families, worked on the construction of St. Petersburg. The families of those who escaped from this hard labor were taken into custody until they were found. Peasants built factories, bridges, manufactories, roads. Their conditions were appalling. Recruitment was carried out from the peasants, their duties periodically increased. The entire burden of reforms fell on the shoulders of the people.

Kirill Martynov

philosopher:

Castaneda introduced a cautionary tale into history: how a talented hoaxer can take advantage of circumstances—in his case, hippie-era California university culture—to make a fortune.

This phenomenon is somewhat unique: there were probably no other examples in the history of mankind when university professors were so gullible, so enthusiastic and so “open to everything new” that they counted Castaneda’s first book, The Teachings of Don Juan, as a master’s work on anthropology. A few years later, Castaneda managed to defend his dissertation in the same style and become a doctor of philosophy (here he is a bit like A. G. Dugin).

To appreciate how stupid this story is, it is enough to carefully reread the first pages of Don Juan, in which the author describes how he accidentally met an elderly Indian magician at a bus stop (and the magician had already “smoked him”, that is, he knew that he would meet Castaneda ). This is a level of intellectual work in the style of the fairy tale about the old man Hottabych (only for older children), and for its genre it is well done. But if a student with such “anthropology” or “philosophy” came to me, I would politely send him back. Very peculiar, but nothing to do with knowledge. Thus, a brilliant career would have ended, because Castaneda became a millionaire on his books (a unique case, by the way, when a person earns good money on a book published in the academic publication of the University of California Press).

The plot with the "witches" of Castaneda is also very funny - his first and most faithful followers were exalted Californian students. Already in the 70s, works appeared, for example, the famous text by Richard deMille “Castaneda’s Journey”, which exposed Castaneda not only as a hoaxer, but also as a plagiarist. Packaged with the Don Juan brand, Castaneda sold a cocktail of textbooks on mythology and quotations from Western philosophy and literature, from Wittgenstein to Lewis Carroll.

Castaneda had a certain influence on the culture of the late 20th century - in Russia, for example, he was actively quoted by Pelevin and Grebenshchikov. This speaks to his popularity as a writer of fiction and, in general, puts Coelho and Richard Bach on a par, rather than scientists or philosophers.

Castaneda also has followers who try to make money on his name, imitate him and compile new texts. The two most famous are Victor Sanchez and Ken Eyrie. Of course, there is no difference between them: mystical chatter is all the same.

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