Introduction.

I. Observation is a method of collecting scientific information.

II. Varieties of the method of observation.

III. Classification of types of observation.

Conclusion.

Bibliography

Introduction.

Observation is an old method of social psychology and is sometimes opposed to experiment as an imperfect method. At the same time, far from all the possibilities of the method of observation have been exhausted in social psychology today: in the case of obtaining data on open behavior, on the actions of individuals, the method of observation plays a very important role. The main problem that arises when applying the observation method is how to ensure the fixation of some specific classes of characteristics, so that the reading of the observation protocol would be understandable to another researcher and could be interpreted in terms of a hypothesis. In ordinary language, this question can be formulated as follows: what to observe? How to capture what is being observed?

In order to answer a number of these questions, it is necessary to become more familiar with what sociological observation is.

The essay on the topic “Observation as a method of socio-psychological research” tells about what is one of the methods of collecting scientific information - observation.

This work consists of introduction, main part, conclusion and bibliography.

The introduction justifies the choice of the topic of the essay.

The main part includes 3 questions. In the first - the concept of observation, its advantages and disadvantages is revealed in detail. The second question tells about the main areas of application of sociological observation. The third question shows the classification of types of observation.

In conclusion, a conclusion is made about the importance of the observation method.

1. Observation is a method of collecting scientific information.

Research methods are the methods and means by which scientists obtain reliable information used to build scientific theories and develop practical recommendations. The strength of science largely depends on the perfection of research methods, on how valid and reliable they are, how quickly and effectively a given field of knowledge is able to absorb and use all the newest, most advanced that appears in the methods of other sciences. Where this can be done, there is usually a noticeable breakthrough in the knowledge of the world.

All of the above applies to social psychology. Its phenomena are so complex and peculiar that throughout the history of this science its success has directly depended on the perfection of the research methods used. Over time, the methods of various sciences were integrated into it. These are the methods of mathematics, general psychology, and a number of other sciences.

Along with the mathematization and technicalization of research in social psychology, the traditional methods of collecting scientific information, such as observation and questioning, have not lost their significance.

In my essay on the topic “”, one of the traditional methods of collecting scientific information, observation, is considered and disclosed.

If the data on the process being examined, on the activities of individuals, groups, collectives as a whole should be maximally "cleaned" from the rational, emotional and other properties of the respondents, then they resort to such a method of collecting information as observation.

Observation is the oldest method of knowledge. Its primitive form - worldly observations is used by every person in everyday practice. By registering the facts of the surrounding social reality and his behavior, a person tries to find out the reasons for certain actions and actions. Everyday observations differ from scientific observations primarily in that they are random, unorganized and unplanned.

Since sociological observation is associated with direct, direct perception of events or participation in them, it has much in common with how a person perceives what is happening in everyday life, analyzes and explains people's behavior, associates it with the characteristics of the conditions of activity, remembers and generalizes events, the eyewitness of which he becomes. But there are also big differences. Sociological observation as a method of collecting scientific information is always directed, systematic, direct tracking and recording of significant social phenomena, processes, events. It serves certain cognitive purposes and can be subjected to control and verification.

The method of observation was used even at the stage of formation of Marxist sociology. F. Engels studied the English proletariat, its aspirations, sufferings and joys directly from personal observations and in personal communication for 21 months.

An interesting experience of using the method of observation and analysis of its results was accumulated in Russian literature of the 40s of the 19th century. In the social fiction of this period, civic feelings and mindsets of the intelligentsia close to the people, the search for an artistic reflection of the life of various social groups, features of a scientific, sociological vision of social development are closely intertwined. Writers close to V.G. Belinsky and N.A. Nekrasov, not only gave accurate sketches of life, actions, elements of consciousness of representatives of many social, professional communities, but also created typological images, generalized sociological and artistic types of people of their time. The general humanistic pathos of their works, as well as the method they used to collect and comprehend the facts of social life, to a large extent predetermined both the nature of later progressive Russian literature and the specifics of the formation of Russian sociology.

Observation is the simplest and most common of all objective methods in psychology. Scientific observation is in direct contact with ordinary everyday observation. It is therefore necessary first of all to establish the general basic conditions which observation must generally satisfy in order to be a scientific method.

The first reason for the requirement is the presence of a clear goal setting: a clearly conscious goal should guide the observer. In accordance with the purpose, an observation plan must be defined, fixed in the scheme. The planned and systematic nature of observation is its most essential feature as a scientific method. They must eliminate the element of chance inherent in everyday observation. Thus, the objectivity of observation depends primarily on its planned and systematic nature. And, if the observation proceeds from a clearly conscious goal, then it must acquire a selective character. It is absolutely impossible to observe everything in general due to the limitless diversity of the existing. Any observation therefore has a selective, or selective, partial character.

Observation becomes a method of scientific knowledge only insofar as it is not limited to simple registration of facts, but proceeds to the formulation of hypotheses in order to test them on new observations. Objective observation is truly scientifically fruitful when it is associated with the establishment and testing of hypotheses. The separation of the subjective interpretation from the objective and the exclusion of the subjective is carried out in the very process of observation, combined with the formulation and testing of hypotheses.

Event qualification: units and categories of observation.

Unlike everyday scientific observation, it is mediated by research goals that determine the subject of observation and the field of facts that are included in the reality being studied. It is also mediated by theoretical ideas about the reality being studied and put forward by cognitive hypotheses. Observation as a way of collecting data is characterized by an essential feature: the theoretical ideas of the researcher are included not only in the explanation of the observed, but also in the very process of observation, in the very description of the observed. In everyday life, we reflect the world around us in the system of meanings enshrined in the language. In socio-psychological observation, the subject of observation uses specially selected categories and units that act as means of a qualitative description of the reality he observes.

Observation of the integral flow of activity of the subject and its description are possible only by artificially isolating certain "units" of activity in it, which are assigned certain names. The selection of these "units" allows: a) to limit the process of observation to certain limits: in what properties, manifestations and relations is the studied reality perceived by the observer; b) choose a specific language for describing the observed, as well as a method for fixing the observation data, i.e. the way the observer reports about the perceived phenomenon; c) to systematize and control the inclusion in the process of obtaining empirical data of a theoretical "view" on the phenomenon under study.

A qualitative description constitutes the first stage of reflecting the results of an observation, which proceeds as a process of qualifying the observed events. An observed phenomenon becomes an empirical fact only after it has been described by the observer. All diverse approaches to the description of phenomena can be reduced to two main types. The first is the description of the object in the dictionary of the "natural" language. In everyday life, we use ordinary ("everyday") concepts to describe what we perceive. So, we say: "the person smiled", and not "the person stretched and lifted the corners of his lips, slightly narrowing his eyes." And scientific observation can also be based on the use of such units, if, in accordance with the objectives of the study, their repertoire is clearly defined as a set of possible concepts in which the properties of the observed phenomenon are recorded.

The second approach to the description is the development of systems of conditional names, designations, artificially created signs, codes. The allocation of units of observation can be based on theoretical ideas about the observed phenomenon. In this case, the means of observation are categories - such units of description that receive their conceptual meaning only in a certain system of theoretical views of the researcher. So, one and the same phenomenon can be said in different ways, depending on the knowledge of the context: "a person is running" or "a person is running away." In the latter case, an interpretation is included in the description of external motor activity, but it is connected only with the inclusion of the context of the situation (you can run away from someone, etc.). Another example: "the child froze in place with a frightened face" or "the child shows a defensive reaction in the form of freezing." The second expression includes concepts (passive-defensive reaction), which already in the description give an interpretation of the state of the child from the point of view of a certain typology of his reactions. If in the first case the result of observation is described in units, then in the second case - in the system of categories.

Symbols, such as graphic symbols, can refer both to the repertoire of units and to the system of categories. That is, not the type of designation, but the content of the concepts used in their relation to the theory makes it possible to distinguish between units and categories.

Categorized observation is reduced not only to isolating certain units through the perception, but also necessarily includes the stage of meaningful subsuming under the category of these units, i.e. generalizations in the process of observation. Sometimes the category covers the same behavioral act as the unit, i.e. they can be compared according to the degree of dismemberment of the phenomenon under study and differ only in the degree of its interpretation. More often, categories subordinate a number of units to themselves.

Quantitative estimates of observational data.

There are two main ways to obtain quantitative data during observation: 1) psychological scaling, used mainly in the form of scores; 2) measurement of time, or timing. Timing underlies the application of the so-called technique of time intervals.

The second type of it is the technique of time sampling, when separate specific time intervals are selected from the holistic observed process for fixing data, which are considered representative - representative - for a longer period of observation. In real research, qualitative and quantitative descriptions of events by the observer are usually used in combination.

Quantitative estimates can be recorded directly during the observation, or they can be set after the completion of the observations, being included in the so-called retrospective report. The basis of retrospective assessments is the general impression of the observer, which in long-term observation may, for example, include the frequency of certain observed episodes. Quantitative characteristics can be directly included in the value judgments of observers. For example: "he often doesn't go to school", "he always loses his stuff", etc.

Along with this evaluative description of events, observation based on direct impressions may include scoring of these impressions. A. Anastasi gives an example of scales designed to identify students' opinions about teachers who teach psychology courses (4. Vol. 2. P. 232). In them, a certain score is assigned to different forms of events in the system of interpersonal relations - relations with students, for example:

"this professor is never at his workplace" - 2, "the professor will stay and talk with students until the next lecture or seminar begins" - 6, etc.

This type of retrospective assessment reflects long-term uncontrolled observations in everyday life, and, as some studies show, they can act as the only or one of the main criteria for the adequacy of some psychological tests or assessments of an individual.

Methods of psychological scaling in the process of observation are still rarely used.

An example of using the technique of time intervals is provided by studies of human behavior during the working day. For this purpose, observation is carried out not throughout the day, but for several minutes with long intervals between the selected observation periods.

Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method.

The most important advantage of the observation method is that it is carried out simultaneously with the development of the studied phenomena and processes. It opens up the possibility of directly perceiving the behavior of people in specific conditions and in real time. A carefully prepared observation procedure ensures that all significant elements of the situation are recorded. This creates the prerequisites for its objective study.

Observation allows you to cover events in a broad, multidimensional way, to describe the interaction of all its participants. It does not depend on the desire of the observed to speak out, to comment on the situation.

Objective observation, while retaining its importance, for the most part should be supplemented by other research methods. The following requirements apply to the monitoring procedure:

a) definition of the task and goal (for what? for what purpose?);

b) choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe?);

c) the choice of the method of observation that has the least effect on the object under study and most ensures the collection of the necessary information (how to observe?);

d) the choice of methods for recording the observed (how to keep records?);

e) processing and interpretation of the received information (what is the result?).

The shortcomings of the observation method are divided into two groups: objective - these are those shortcomings that do not depend on the observer and subjective - these are those that directly depend on the observer, since they are associated with the personal, professional characteristics of the observer.

First of all, the objective disadvantages include:

Limited, fundamentally private nature of each observed situation. Therefore, no matter how comprehensive and deep the analysis carried out, the conclusions obtained can be generalized and extended to wider situations only with the greatest care and subject to many requirements.

The complexity, and often the simple impossibility of repeating observations. Social processes are irreversible, they cannot be “played out” again so that the researcher can fix the features he needs, the elements of an event that has already taken place.

High labor intensity of the method. The implementation of observation often involves the participation in the collection of primary information of a large number of people of sufficiently high qualification.

The difficulties of the subjective plan are also diverse. The quality of primary information can be influenced by:

The difference in the social position of the observer and the observed,

The dissimilarity of their interests, value orientations, stereotypes of behavior, etc. For example, addressing each other as "you" in a team of workers often becomes the norm for all its members. But the sociologist-observer, whose inner circle is characterized by a different form of communication, can appreciate this as an example of the disrespectful, familiar attitude of young workers towards older ones. The closeness of the social position of the observer and those observed sometimes makes it possible to exclude such errors. It contributes to a more complete and rapid coverage of the observed situation, its correct assessment.

The quality of information is also affected by the attitudes of the observed and the observer. If the observed know that they are the object of study, they can artificially change the nature of their actions, adjusting to what they think the observer would like to see. In turn, the presence of a certain expectation in the observer regarding the behavior of the observed can form a specific point of view on what is happening. This expectation may be the result of previous contacts between the observer and the observed. The observer's previously favorable impressions are transferred to the picture he observes and may cause an unjustified positive assessment of the events being analyzed. Conversely, negative expectations (skepticism, prejudice) can lead to an exaggeratedly negative vision of the activities of the observed community of people, increased rigidity in assessing what is happening.

The results of observation directly depend on the mood of the observer, his concentration, the ability to holistically perceive the observed situation, not only to notice relatively clear external signs of activity, but also to fix subtle features of the behavior of the observed. In fixing the results of observation, the observer's own thoughts and experiences may not allow describing the observed events adequately enough. This description can occur by analogy with one's own thoughts and feelings.

So, observation is the oldest method of cognition. It allows you to cover events in a wide, multidimensional way, to describe the interaction of all its participants. The main advantage is the study of social processes in natural conditions. The main shortcomings are the limited nature of each observed situation, the impossibility of repeating observations, attitudes, interests, personal characteristics of the observer. All these shortcomings can greatly affect the results of observation.

II. Areas of application of sociological observation.

The method of observation is used in the study of the behavior of individuals and groups in work and socio-political life, in the sphere of leisure, in the study of the most diverse forms of communication between people. When analyzing production activities, the object of observation can be how members of the labor collective react to changes in the conditions, nature, content of labor, to innovations related to technology, pay, production standards, etc. Situations that are significant for participants in the labor process should be observed in which the attitude to work, to each other is manifested most sharply, and sometimes in a conflicting form.

It is also no less relevant to use the method in question in studying the practice of holding various meetings, rallies, and demonstrations. Observing the behavior of the organizers of rallies, speakers, participants, seeing their actions, feeling the whole atmosphere of such actions, it is easier for a social psychologist to capture the essence of what is happening, to see how a collective decision is made, how relationships develop in the team.

Observation as a method of collecting sociological information is addressed in various circumstances:

Firstly, in order to obtain preliminary material to clarify the directions of the planned research. The observation carried out for such purposes expands the vision of the phenomenon under study, contributes to the identification of significant situations, the definition of "actors". Moreover, an unprejudiced, professionally performed observation is fruitful in that it opens before the researcher previously unknown layers, "sections" of social reality, gives him the opportunity to move away from the traditional understanding of the social problem facing him.

Secondly, the observation method is used when it is necessary to obtain illustrative data. They, as a rule, significantly "enliven", make visible a somewhat dry analysis of statistics or the results of a mass survey.

Thirdly, observation acts as the main method of obtaining primary information. If the researcher has this goal, then he needs to correlate the positive and negative aspects of the method.

Thus, observation is used when minimal interference is required in the natural behavior, relationships of people, when they strive to get a complete picture of what is happening.

If the researcher sets the task not only to give a scientific description of specific events of certain forms of people's behavior in situations that are significant for them, but also to reach broader generalizations and assumptions, the results of observation should be supported by data obtained using other methods of collecting sociological information. The results obtained using various methods complement and mutually revise each other, and it is very difficult to unambiguously declare any of them "reference".

III. CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES OF OBSERVATION.

The choice of possible criteria for classifying the types of observation reflects, in essence, the entire range of problems and positions associated with the definition of observation as an independent scientific method. the type of attitude to the object under study, the organization of the observation situation, its chronological aspects, the form of the report on the observed event.

1. Observation and research objectives.

Depending on the content of the objectives of the study, observation is divided into free (sometimes called unregulated and even non-targeted), if there are minimal restrictions on what and when to observe, and purposeful observation, if the goals, organization of observation and methods of reporting the observer are clearly defined in the scheme or plan. Purposeful observation according to the features of its organization can be continuous and selective, depending on whether all manifestations of the process of interest to the researcher, whether all objects or only some are subject to observation.

2. Observation and types of report of the observer.

Unstructured observation is weakly formalized. During its implementation, there is no detailed action plan for the observer, only the most general features of the situation, the approximate composition of the observed group, are determined. Directly in the process of observation, the boundaries of the object of observation and its most important elements are specified, and the research program is specified. Unstructured observation is found mainly in intelligence, exploratory sociological research.

If the researcher has sufficient information about the object of study and is able to determine in advance the significant elements of the situation under study, as well as draw up a detailed plan and instructions for fixing the results of observations, the possibility of conducting a structured observation opens up. This type of observation corresponds to a high degree of standardization; special documents and forms are used to record the results; a certain similarity of data obtained by different observers is achieved.

Referring to structured observation is fruitful in the study of issues of conducting meetings. It can solve problems related to determining the composition of speakers and the content of speeches, studying the reactions of the audience to the information being reported and analyzing the decision-making process, identifying the organizational characteristics of the meeting.

3. Observation in relation to hypothesis testing.

Observation as a data collection method is applicable at the preliminary stages of the study, when there are no developed hypotheses about causal relationships. If an observation is not connected with the testing of specific hypotheses, it, while remaining "target", is not heuristic, although it is on the basis of such an observation that hypotheses can be formed. The established tradition refers to heuristic observation those types of observation that are aimed at testing hypotheses. Therefore, observation at the preliminary stages of studying an object and observation in cases of a consciously accepted goal of minimum selectivity and maximum coverage of different sides and aspects of the observed object (process, phenomenon) are not heuristic.

4. Observation from the point of view of taking into account the position of the observer.

From this point of view, it is possible to single out a non-included (external) observation as an observation "from outside", when the observer is completely separated from the "object" being studied. Surveillance from the side can be open or covert.

Included (participating) observation is its type, in which the sociologist is directly included in the social process being studied, contacts, acts together with the observed. The nature of involvement is different: in some cases, the researcher completely observes incognito, and the observers in no way distinguish him from other members of the group, collective; in others, the observer participates in the activities of the observed group, but at the same time does not hide his research goals. Depending on the specifics of the observed situation and research tasks, a specific system of relations between the observer and the observed is built.

As an example of the first type of participant observation, we can cite a study conducted by V.B. Olshansky, who worked for several months at the same factory in a team of fitters. He studied the life aspirations of young workers, the norms of collective behavior, the system of informal sanctions against violators, the unwritten "do's and don'ts". In a joint analysis of observations and survey data conducted by sociologists during the period of participant observation, valuable information was obtained on the processes taking place in the production collective, about the mechanism of formation of group consciousness.

Participant observation has its advantages and disadvantages: on the one hand, it allows you to penetrate deeper into the reality under study, on the other hand, direct involvement in events can affect the objectivity of the observer's report. Some types of observation may be an intermediate option between included observation and outside observation. For example, the teacher's observations of the class during classes, the observations of a psychotherapist or a counseling psychologist; here the observer is included in the situation differently than the observed individuals, their positions are "not equal" in terms of managing the situation.

5. Types of observation depending on its organization.

Depending on the observation situation, observation can be distinguished: field, laboratory and provoked in natural conditions.

Field observation is carried out in conditions natural for the life of the observed "subject", and its requirement is the absence of initiation with sides observer of the phenomena under study. Field observation makes it possible to investigate the natural forms of life and communication of people (or other "objects" of observation) with minimal distortion, but its disadvantage is that it is very laborious, and also that the situation of interest to the researcher is little controllable; observation here is often expectant, unsystematic. Situations arise when individual members of the observed group fall out of the observer's field of vision, or external circumstances make it difficult to fix what is happening.

In those situations where high thoroughness is required, detail in the description of the observed processes, technical means of fixation are used (tape recorder, photo, film, television equipment). When the task is to develop and experimentally test a new technique, a laboratory form of observation is used. So, in a specially equipped class, classes on the formation of management skills can be held. Each of the participants in the "school" (essentially a situational game) alternately performs the role of, for example, a leader, performer, customer (client). In the course of 15-20 minute game situations, methods of conducting classes are practiced, the ability to concentrate the attention of the participants in a situational game on the analysis of the issues under discussion. To record what is happening, all participants in the situational game or some of them keep a record. Then an experienced methodologist analyzes the case study and, based on the observational data, develops the best methods for conducting management classes.

6. Chronological organization of observation.

Systematic observations are carried out regularly over a certain period. This can be a long-term, continuous observation or an observation carried out in a cyclic mode (one day a week, weeks fixed in a year, etc.). Usually, systematic observation is carried out according to a fairly structured methodology, with a high degree of specification of all the observer's activities.

There are also non-systematic observations. Among them, those stand out when the observer has to deal with an unplanned phenomenon, an unexpected situation. This type of observation is especially common in intelligence research.

The considered classification of observations, like any typology, is conditional and reflects only the most significant features of the observation. Therefore, every time, taking into account the purpose and nature of the planned study, when deciding on the application of the observation method, the positive and negative properties of its various types are correlated.

The classifications listed above do not oppose one another, but reflect independent criteria that complement each other.

Conclusion.

In modern social psychology, observation as a method of data collection is widely used in various research schemes. Observation is included in the organization of the conversation with the subject, these observations are taken into account when interpreting the results of psychodiagnostic or experimental procedures.

As can be seen, the method of observation is not as primitive as it seems at first glance, and, undoubtedly, can be successfully applied in a number of socio-psychological studies.

Bibliography.

1. Andreeeva G.M. Social Psychology. Moscow: Aspect Press, 1999.
2. Kornilova T.V. Introduction to the psychological experiment: M.: publishing house Mosk. University, 1997
3. Rogov E.I. General psychology. M.:. VLADOS, 1998.
4. Sheregi F.E. Fundamentals of applied sociology. M.: INTERPRAKS, 1996.

How do we know the world? The answer is very simple - contemplating. Observation is the basis of cognition of reality and the beginning of any purposeful process. It arouses interest, and that, in turn, motivates to actions that form the result.

Observation - a method of getting to know the world

We use the method of observation in everyday life without even thinking about it. When we look out the window to see what the weather is like, we are waiting for our minibus at the bus stop, we visit the zoo or the cinema, and even just take a walk - we are watching. This ability is a huge gift, without which it is difficult to imagine the everyday life of a person.

Every profession requires this skill. The seller needs to learn how to determine the preferences of buyers, the doctor - the symptoms of the disease, the teacher - the level of knowledge of students. The work of a cook requires constant monitoring of the cooking process. As you can see, all of us, without even thinking, use the method of observation every day.

When do we learn to observe?

The way a child perceives the world is different from the perception of an adult. To see something new is a surprise for the child, causing a desire for further research. Observation in childhood develops the curiosity of the baby and thus forms his perception of the surrounding reality.

Teaching a child to observe is the task of an adult. In kindergartens, classes are held specifically for this purpose, where children learn to actively perceive nature. “Looking” and “seeing” are somewhat different concepts. The child should not just mindlessly contemplate, but learn to understand what he actually sees, compare, contrast. Such skills come gradually. Children's observations are the basis for the formation of correct ideas about the world around them. They form the basis of human logical thinking.

General concept of the term "observation"

The concept under consideration is very multifaceted and versatile. We are accustomed to understand by observation a purposeful, specially organized method of actively perceiving a process that is used to collect data. What kind of information this will be depends on the object of observation, the conditions for conducting it and on the goals that must be achieved.

Everyday, non-targeted observations of everyday processes give us knowledge, experience and help us decide on the implementation of certain actions. Intentionally organized observation is a source of accurate data that determines the characteristics of the subject of research. For this, certain conditions must be created - a laboratory environment or a natural social environment necessary for analysis.

scientific observation

Within the framework of a particular science, the method of observation may acquire a specific content, but the basic principles remain unchanged:

• The first is the principle of non-interference in the subject or process being studied. To obtain objective results, do not disturb the natural course of the studied action.
• The second is the principle of direct perception. Observe what is happening at the current moment in time.

Psychology is a science that could not exist without this method. Along with the experiment, observation provides the necessary data for any conclusion of psychologists. Sociology is another branch that makes extensive use of this method. Every sociological study is wholly or partly based on the results of observations. It is worth noting that almost all economic research begins with statistical observations. In the exact sciences (chemistry, physics), along with empirical measurement methods that provide accurate information (weight, speed, temperature), the method of observation is necessarily used. Philosophical research is also difficult to imagine without this method. But in this science the concept is given a looser definition. Philosophical observation is, first of all, conscious contemplation, as a result of which certain problems of being can be solved.

Observation as a method of collecting statistical information

Statistical observation is an organized, systematic collection of the necessary data characterizing socio-economic processes and phenomena. Any such research begins with the accumulation of information and is a purposeful monitoring of objects and fixing the facts of interest.

Statistical observation differs from simple observation in that the data obtained in the course of its implementation must be recorded. In the future, they will affect the results of research. That is why so much attention is paid to the organization and conduct of statistical observations.

Purpose and objects of statistical observation

From the definition of this concept, it becomes clear that its purpose is to collect information. What kind of information this will be depends on the form of observation and its objects. So who or what are extras most likely to follow?

The object of observation is a certain set (set) of socio-economic phenomena or processes. The key here is that there should be a lot of them. Each unit is studied separately in order to average the obtained data and draw certain conclusions.

How is statistical observation organized?

Each observation begins with the definition of goals and objectives. Further, the time period for its implementation is clearly limited. Sometimes, instead of a time frame, a critical moment is determined - when the amount of information sufficient to conduct the study is collected. Its occurrence provides an opportunity to stop collecting data. Reconciliation points are fixed - the moments when the planned performance indicators are reconciled with the actual ones.

An important stage of preparation is the definition of the object of observation (a set of interrelated units). Each unit has a list of features that are subject to observation. It is necessary to determine only the most significant of them, which essentially characterize the phenomenon under study.

At the end of the preparation for observation, an instruction is drawn up. All subsequent actions of the performers must clearly comply with it.

Classification of types of statistical observation

Depending on the conditions of conducting, it is customary to distinguish between different types of statistical observation. The degree of coverage of units of the studied population makes it possible to distinguish two types:

• Continuous (complete) observation - each unit of the studied set is subject to analysis.
• Sampling - only a certain part of the population is studied.

Naturally, the full implementation of such a study requires a lot of time, labor and material resources, but its results will be more reliable.

Depending on the time of registration of facts, statistical observation can be:

• Continuous - fixing events in the current time. Pauses in observation are not allowed. Example: registration of marriages, births, deaths by registry offices.
• Discontinuous - events are fixed periodically at certain moments. This may be a population census, an inventory at an enterprise.

Saving observation results

An important point in the observation is the correct fixation of the results. In order for the information that is received to be efficiently processed and used in further research, it must be properly stored.

For this, registers, forms, and an observation diary are created. Often the procedure of statistical research, if it involves a large number of units under study, requires several observers. Each of them records the received data in forms (cards), which are later summarized, and the information is transferred to the general register.

In self-organized studies, the results are often saved in an observation diary - a specially designed journal or notebook. We all remember from school how we made graphs of weather changes and recorded data in such a diary.

Is the method of observation necessary in sociology?

Sociology is a science for which observation as a research method is as important as for statistics or psychology. The overwhelming majority of sociological experiments are based on this method. Here, as in the case of statistics, observation is the source of data for further work.

The object of sociological observations is a group of individuals, each of which for some time becomes a unit under study. It is more difficult to study the actions of people than, for example, the course of natural processes. Their behavior can be influenced by the presence of other objects (if the observation is carried out in a group), as well as the presence of the researcher himself. This is one of the disadvantages of this method. The second drawback of observation in sociology is subjectivism. The researcher may, unwittingly, intervene in the process being studied.

In sociology (as in psychology), this method provides descriptive information to characterize the characteristics of the unit or group being studied.

In order for sociological observation to be successful and productive, it is necessary to adhere to the plan:

• Determine the goals and objectives of the upcoming study.
• Identify the object and subject of observation.
• Choose the most efficient way to do it.
• Select a method for recording received information.
• Provide control at all stages of observation.
• Organize high-quality processing and interpretation of the information received.

What are the types of observation in sociology?

Depending on the place and role of the observer in the group under study, there are:

Depending on the authority, monitoring can be:

• Controlled - it is possible to organize the process under study.
• Uncontrolled - any interference with observation is excluded, all facts are recorded in their natural manifestations.

Depending on the conditions of the organization:

• Laboratory - observation, for which certain conditions are artificially created.
• Field - is carried out directly at the place of manifestation of the social process and at the time of its occurrence.

What is self-observation? This is a very interesting and specific type of research, when the object under study itself must, as objectively as possible, trace the features of its own behavior necessary for the study and provide a report. This method has both advantages and disadvantages. The advantage is that only the person himself has the opportunity to assess his own psychological processes and actions as deeply and reliably as possible. The minus is the present subjectivism of the method, which cannot be got rid of or at least minimized.

Using the Method of Observing Children in Educational Research

When it comes to studying child psychology, observation is practically the only possible way. The child is a very specific object of study. Young children are not capable of being participants in psychological experiments; they cannot verbally describe their emotions, actions, deeds.

Many pedagogical methods are based on data accumulated in the process of observation of infants and children of early preschool age:

• Tables of early development by Arnold Gesell, compiled by direct observation of the reaction of children to external factors.
• E. L. Frucht compiled a methodology for the psychophysical development of infants. It is based on the observation of a child up to ten months of age.
• J. Lashley used this method for many studies. His most famous works are Development Cards and Methods for Observing Difficult Behavior.

Observation and observation. What is the use of such a personality trait?

Observation is a psychological property based on the possibilities of sensory perception, individual for each person. In simple words, it is the ability to observe. The important thing here is whether a person is able to notice details in the process of contemplation. As it turned out, not everyone has this skill developed at a sufficient level.

Observation is a quality that is useful both in everyday life and in professional activities. There are many psychological studies that focus on the development of mindfulness. Practice shows that learning to observe is easy, you only need your desire and a little effort, but the result is worth it. For observant people, the world is always more interesting and colorful.

In scientific research, various methods are used, which are means and techniques with which you can obtain reliable data on the subject of study and use them in the future to derive scientific theories and create practical recommendations.

Observation as a research method is the most common and popular method of sociological and psychological research.

Observation is a scientific research method that is not limited to a simple statement of facts, but scientifically explains the causes of a particular phenomenon. It consists in the purposeful collection of facts about the behavior and activities of people for their subsequent analysis.

Observation as characterized by a number of requirements for its implementation requirements. These include the requirement to preserve the natural conditions for the passage of the phenomena under study, the requirement for targeted study and stage-by-stage fixation of the results.

In the process of observation, it is necessary to follow the program developed for this, in which the goals and objectives of the study are determined, the object, situation and subject are determined, the method for studying phenomena is selected, the time limits of the observation are established and its schedule is drawn up, the method of recording observations is selected, methods for processing the data obtained are determined.

In theory, there are types of observation. According to the duration of the conduct - short-term (cut) and longitudinal (long-term). In terms of coverage - selective (certain parameters of phenomena and processes are observed) and continuous (all changes in the object are recorded within the situation). According to the degree of participation of researchers - direct (direct involvement) and indirect (by attracting auxiliary means, equipment).

Observation as a method of research is divided into two categories: structured and unstructured observation. Structured is understood as an included study. It gives very high quality results. Observation is especially effective if the subjects are not aware of the experiment.

It stands apart as a research method, when the researcher participates in the life of the group under study, becoming its member, and observes the processes taking place in it from the inside.

Depending on the object: external (behavior, physiological changes, actions) or internal (thoughts, experiences, or states), there are variations of this method: self-observation and objective observation.

Objective observation as a method is a research strategy in which external characteristics or changes in observed objects are recorded. Such observation often acts as a preliminary stage before conducting experiments.

The self-observation method is used to obtain empirical data through self-observation. Especially often used is such an observation as Elements of such a method underlie most psychological studies of states and processes. Comparing the results of self-observation with similar self-observation of other people, one can establish a relationship or compare the data of internal experience with manifestations of the psyche at the external level.

The method of observation also includes introspection, which was developed by W. Wundt in the framework of introspective psychology, and phenomenological self-observation. Introspection is a method of psychological introspection, which consists in observing the course of one's own psychological processes, without the use of additional means, standards and tools.

3. Method of observation in psychology. One of the main and most common methods of psychology is the method of observation.

Observation is a method in which phenomena are studied directly under the conditions in which they occur in real life.

The results of observations carried out for research purposes, as a rule, are recorded in special protocols. It is good when the observation is carried out not by one person, but by several, and then the obtained data are compared and generalized (by the method of generalizing independent observations).

Observation- the oldest method of cognition (since the end of the 19th century - in clinical, pedagogical and social psychology, and at the beginning of the 20th century - in labor psychology) - purposeful, organized perception and registration of the behavior of an object. Its primitive form - worldly observations - is used by every person in his daily practice. There are the following types of observation: slice (short-term observation), longitudinal (long, sometimes for a number of years) - the beginning of the development of this research strategy was laid by various diaries of observations of the development of the child in the family (V. Stern, V. Prayer, A.N. Gvozdikov ), selective and continuous, and a special type - included observation (when the observer becomes a member of the group under study). The general observation procedure consists of the following processes: defining the task and purpose (for what, for what purpose?); choosing an object, object and situation (what to observe?); choosing an observation method that has the least effect on the object under study and most ensures the collection of the necessary information ( how to observe?); the choice of methods for recording the observed (how to keep records?); processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result?). The results are recorded either during the observation process or delayed (completeness and reliability suffer due to the observer’s memory)

Research objects can be:

Verbal behavior

Nonverbal behavior

Movement of people

Distance between people

Physical influences

That is, only that which can be objectively registered can act as an object of observation. And only on the basis of the assumption that the psyche finds its manifestation in behavior, the psychologist can build hypotheses about mental properties, based on the data obtained during observation.

Surveillance. Observation can be carried out directly by the researcher, or by means of observation devices and fixing its results. These include audio, photo, video equipment, special surveillance cards.

Classification of observations

By systematic:

Non-systematic observation, in which it is necessary to create a generalized picture of behavior under certain conditions and the goal is not to fix causal dependencies and give strict descriptions of phenomena.

Systematic observation, carried out according to a certain plan and in which the researcher registers the features of behavior and classifies the conditions of the external environment.

For fixed objects:

Continuous observation. The researcher tries to fix all the features of behavior.

Selective observation. The researcher captures only certain types of behavioral acts or behavioral parameters.

Conscious observation. In conscious observation, the observed person is aware that he is being observed. Such observation is carried out in the contact of the researcher with the subject, and the observed is usually aware of the research task and the social status of the observer. However, there are cases when, due to the specifics of the study, the observed person is informed of other than the original goals of observation.

outside surveillance is a way of collecting data about the psychology and behavior of a person by direct observation of him from the side . Internal or introspection It is used when the psychologist sets himself the task of studying the phenomenon of interest to him in the form in which it is directly represented in his mind. Free observation does not have a predetermined framework, program, procedure of behavior. It can change the subject or object of observation, its nature in the course of the observation itself, depending on the wishes of the observer. Standardized Observation– is predetermined and clearly limited in terms of what is observed. It is carried out according to a certain, pre-thought-out program and strictly follows it, regardless of what happens in the process of observation with the object or the observer himself. At enabled surveillance the researcher acts as a direct participant in the process, the course of which he is monitoring.

Advantages of the Observation Method

Observation allows you to directly capture and record acts of behavior.

Observation allows you to simultaneously capture the behavior of a number of people in relation to each other or to certain tasks, objects, etc.

Observation allows research to be carried out regardless of the readiness of the observed subjects.

Observation allows you to achieve multidimensional coverage, that is, fixation in several parameters at once, for example, verbal and non-verbal behavior.

Disadvantages of the observation method

Numerous irrelevant, interfering factors.

Single occurrence of observed circumstances, leading to the impossibility of making a generalizing conclusion based on single observed facts.

The need to classify the results of observation.

The need for large resource costs (time, human, material).

Small representativeness for large populations.

Difficulty in maintaining operational validity.

Questions for self-examination and discussion

1. What types of tests do you know?

2. What are the features of educational achievement tests?

3. Name the stages of test development and justify their sequence.

4. What could be the purpose of a learning achievement test?

5. How does the researcher select test targets?

6. What are the typical mistakes in the formulation of test tasks. Give examples.

7. What are the more lenient requirements?

to psychometric testing test?

8. What must be included in the psychometric verification of any test?

Practical tasks

1. Review the design of the test, an example of which is provided in the practice materials.

2. Prepare for independent work

3. Develop a test on one of the topics of this tutorial, which should contain 2 tasks of each form

and 2 tasks for each difficulty level.

4. Analyze a test designed by a classmate.

3.5. Observation as a research method

Observation is usually understood as a purposeful collection of information about the facts of human behavior and activities in various natural conditions. It is in these features that observation as a method of objective scientifically based research differs from the usual casual or intentional everyday ways of obtaining information about people or events.

Basic requirements for observation as a research method

One of the main requirements for observation as a method is focus, assuming the presence of a clear target setting, in accordance with which the observer differentiates certain facts of the behavior of the observed.

The presence of a goal implies that, while studying a personality or any pedagogical phenomenon, we cannot observe their manifestations at all, which is more typical for ordinary observation. Observation must be selective, or selective, in nature. Moreover, the selection of facts is not carried out spontaneously, but in accordance with a specific goal in specific situations and in the process of specific activities. The choice of the purpose of observation is also not accidental. It is determined both by the ultimate goal of the study itself and by the observer's theoretical ideas about the phenomenon under study. It is in accordance with theoretical views that the selection of facts takes place, in which the phenomenon under study can manifest itself. This gives the observation an objective character. Theoretical ideas about the essence, features of the manifestation, patterns of functioning and development of the observed properties or phenomena make it possible to determine the observation plan: outline the tasks of observation (what to observe), indicators, signs, specific acts of behavior or the course of the process (what to record), situations and activities (when observe), means and methods of observation (how to observe). The plan is usually fixed in the form of a scheme, which may have a different character depending on the goals and subject of observation.

An equally important requirement is systematic observation, which assumes that observation should not be one-time, not from case to case, but be carried out repeatedly in accordance with the plan, regularly or at regular intervals. Observation in repetitive and changing conditions will make it possible to determine how the observed changes in the phenomenon under study are explained: by unaccountable changes in the conditions of the activity or behavior being studied, or by differences in the organization of observation, or by the actual patterns of the course and development of the studied personality traits themselves.

The effective use of the observation method requires special preparation and the need to go through all the stages of the procedure, including: defining the task and purpose of observation, based on the general goals of the study and the capabilities of the method (which allows you to answer the question “why observe?”); you-

selection of the object, subject and situations of observation based on the goal, theoretical ideas about the phenomenon under study and the conditions of activity (“what to observe?”); choosing the method of observation that has the least effect on the object under study and the most effective under given conditions (“how to observe?”); choice of registration method (“how to record?”); processing and interpretation of the received information.

The conditions under which observation takes place should be

natural for the subjects (observed) character . This implies not only and not so much the naturalness of the situation, since the purpose of the study may be to study the nature of the individual's response to unusual conditions, but to minimize the "disturbing" role of the observer. This can be achieved in two ways: either by replacing the observer with special recording equipment (the product a photo-, filming with a hidden camera), or bring the behavior of the observer in line with the requirements of naturalness. Both methods are not universal and have their pros and cons. The first method allows not only to ensure naturalness, but also to increase the objectivity of observation, however, it is technically complex and gives rise to many ethical problems associated with penetration into the secret of personality; the second does not require special costs, but requires a high level of researcher qualification. As special techniques that reduce the influence of the observer, they usually use: explaining one's presence by an acceptable goal for the observed; natural inclusion in the activities in which the observed are engaged; creation of special conditions in order to "become familiar", frequent appearance in the appropriate environment; going about your business without paying attention to the subjects, etc.

The purpose of observation is the maximum possible objectivity in obtaining information. Therefore, a competent observer should very well distinguish the fact of behavior from an impression, assessment, opinion, in other words, from his own interpretation of this behavior. It is quite difficult to fulfill this requirement, it is precisely here that the mistakes of specialists who have not mastered the method of observation are most often hidden. This is due to a number of circumstances. On the one hand, extremely

but it is difficult, and in some cases impossible, to separate in the mind of the observer the process of describing facts from their interpretation. This feature is also fixed in linguistic forms: “attentive look”, “kind smile”, “soft movements”, “tense posture”, etc. It would seem that such a description of the facts just gives the researcher the opportunity to obtain the necessary information about the studied personality, however, the problem lies in the fact that in the process of life a person develops his own standards for the perception of expressive behavior, which, unfortunately, depend not only on the depth of his knowledge and the diversity of life experience, but also on some individual characteristics - gender, age, individual personality traits, and also largely on what signs of non-verbal and verbal behavior were in the field of view of the observer. Therefore, each observer must not only take into account his own personality when using this method, but also be able to “unfold” the process, confirm the impression with concrete, objective facts.

On the other hand, the exclusion of any interpretation, the restriction of evaluation by external reactions of a person in the process of observing him, can lead to impoverishment of the content of the information received. Finding this "golden mean" is not easy, and the ability to separate facts from their interpretation requires special training, as well as the ability to record the results of observation, which is another prerequisite for the effectiveness of the method.

Due to the fact that the main instrument of the researcher in the process of observation is his personality, the effectiveness of the result is ensured not only by the ability to comply with all of the above, but also by some personal qualities, such as a good distribution of attention, a high level of sensitivity of visual, auditory, kinesthetic analyzers, developed operational and long-term memory, reflexive style of cognition, sensitivity, emotional mobility, high control of one's own emotions, sociability, sufficiently developed non-verbal intelligence. At the same time, aggressiveness, a high level of claims, egocentrism, pronounced conformism, low intelligence impede

effective observation, especially when relying on non-verbal characteristics of behavior. 84

Types of observation and their brief description

Speaking about observation as a research method, several types of it are distinguished: included and not included, open and hidden, continuous and selective, external and internal, etc.

Participant observation assumes that the observer himself for a certain time becomes a member of the community or group that has become the object of research. Moreover, for the rest, he acts not as an observer, but as an equal member of the group, taking part on an equal basis with everyone, for example, in educational, labor, professional or social activities. Thus, the observer is included in a certain social situation and has the opportunity to receive information as if from within.

For example, among the books devoted to the problems of criminal, antisocial behavior in the United States, a special place is occupied by the work of the American psychologist W. White "Society on the Street Corner". Investigating the formation of value orientations and norms in groups of adolescents and young people who gather in the evenings on street corners and crossroads, W. White lived in this environment for a long time. Systematic participant observation allowed him to see such regularities in the formation of the social orientation of spontaneous groups that were not noticed by any of the other researchers of that time.

Non-participant observation is observation from the outside, “from outside”, when the researcher does not belong to the number of participants in the observed group. Carefully planned and well-organized non-participant observation is an important part of any research. It allows you to notice such moments that are difficult for members of the community to track due to emotional involvement in the situation. Non-included observation is often used in the preparation of a research program, to clarify and concretize hypotheses, to determine the principles of organization and methods of the main study.

84 Methods of social psychology. – L.: LSU, 1977. – 247 p.

Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. - M.: Uchpedgiz, 1946. - 704 p.

AT Depending on the position of the observer in relation to the observed, an observation is distinguished open sparked (incognito). Most often in the practice of the school, an open type of observation is used, that is, students know that in certain situations they are the object of special study. In covert surveillance, people are unaware that their behavior and activities are being monitored. In this case, special recording devices, hidden television cameras are often used, there are special rooms with walls of one-way visibility (Gesell walls). Of course, covert observation is only an instrument of scientific knowledge when it has nothing in common with peeping and eavesdropping. Carrying out covert surveillance requires strict compliance

adherence to ethical norms and principles.

Continuous, or systematic, observation involves the collection of information regularly over a certain period of time.

about all possible personality traits based on the description and analysis of her behavior. As a rule, with this approach to the study, a special form of recording information is also used, most often in the form of diary entries. This type of observation provides, first of all, information about the factors and patterns of formation and development of the personality, the pedagogical process, as it allows you to make the most complete description of them. However, it is time-consuming and limited by the possibility of constant contact with the observables. With non-systematic, or selective, observation, only a certain group of objects of observation is singled out from the whole variety of behavioral reactions or pedagogical phenomena, relating to the manifestation of specific studied properties and qualities of a person or fragments, stages of the pedagogical process. It is technically much easier to carry out this type of observation than the previous one, but the preparatory stage is more difficult: the selection of those features that will be necessary and sufficient for studying exactly the characteristic that is chosen as the subject of observation.

AT Depending on the direction of consciousness of the observer, observation is also distinguishedexternal and internal, i.e. observation of others and self-observation. Virtually all of the previous

The presentation dealt with external observation, so let us dwell in more detail on a special type of observation - on oneself.

Modern science considers self-observation85 as an additional, although in a number of cases, especially in practical activities, a necessary way of organizing the cognition of a person. The complexity of its use lies in the fact that it is practically impossible to simultaneously act and observe the action, experience and observe the experience, think and study the process of thinking. Such an observation distorts the natural picture of behavior. Switching attention to one's own mental activity has, on the one hand, an overwhelming effect on the process itself, on the other hand, it has an inspiring character, that is, it can change behavior, experience, and the course of thought. Therefore, a person who uses the method of self-observation needs to form an attitude: the intention to observe oneself should not be born during the experience to be observed.

The second most important problem that limits the possibilities of using this type of observation is the poverty of the psychological vocabulary of the vast majority of the population. We often find it difficult to select and search for words to describe our own states and actions, to isolate individual facts, to organize an analysis. Therefore, a necessary condition for increasing the effectiveness of observation is the preliminary compilation of a certain list of questions, by answering which a person will be able to collect the necessary information about himself.

Finally, there is another limitation that prevents this type of observation from being applied without additional verification of the results: sincerity with oneself is often no less difficult than with others. This is determined primarily by the features of the I-concept of the observer and the formation of the attitude towards self-confidence and self-respect.

One of the options for observation can be called the "method of describing significant situations", developed by E. S. Kuzmin. Its essence lies in the fact that for understanding personal or group characteristics, it is extremely important to

85 Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. - M.: Uchpedgiz, 1947. - 704 p.

can have how a person or group behaves in unusual situations, how it reacts to them, finds ways to solve problems and conflicts that led to the creation of such significant situations.

Organization of observation, interpretation of results and conditions for their use

Preparing for observation and choosing those specific features that the researcher should pay attention to in the process of studying a person or group, he can go at least two ways: from a hypothesis and from facts.

The first approach assumes that we have a fairly clear idea of ​​what behavioral indicators characterize this or that mental or pedagogical phenomenon and how they can be registered. The task facing the observer is simplified in this case. Knowing the phenomenology of the phenomenon or property under study, he fixes only the presence, frequency, intensity of manifestation of the selected features or their absence in some limited period of time. The interpretation of the results is based on the analysis of the nature and comparison of the obtained data with the initial hypothesis.

This approach is effective, as a rule, in the case of choosing specific objectives of observation: the study of individual properties and qualities, individual, private aspects of human behavior or the pedagogical process. In this case, the observer relies on the results already generalized in scientific research concerning the description of the phenomenology of certain phenomena. As examples, some more or less detailed descriptions of individual aspects of the personality can be given, which can be used as observation schemes.

So, in the works of G. I. Shchukina, signs are considered that can be considered indicators of the manifestation cognitive interests in the lesson: questions to the teacher on the topic of the lesson; exchange of opinions on the topic of the lesson with classmates; surprise, sounding in speech utterances; the joy of recognition, expressed in speech and facial expressions; expressive movements (feeling, listening, looking); posture of the observer; widely from-

covered eyes; smile; concentrated shifted eyebrows; minimal distraction in the classroom; silence in the classroom. 86

In studies conducted at a summer camp for schoolchildren led by V. Newstetter, a 9-point scale was developed that characterizes the change in personal relationships in children from cordiality to hostility (Table 19).

								Table 19
		Changing personal relationships in children
		The nature of the relationship						Manifestations in behavior
		Physical			expression			Touch, caress, etc.
		sympathy
		Signs of a special location						give, lend, invite, offer
		zheniya in benevolent
		no sense
			friendly					Game fuss, whisper, laughter, smiles,
		location						collaboration, statements,
								communication of others
		random conversations						Conversations that are not required for
								classes, greetings
			neutral,					Questions, consent, approval, praise,
		still positive						courtesy, favor, obedience
								small requests, ignoring insults
			indifference					Ignoring a question or request
			requirements					refusal to comply with the request, an attempt to be
		another						ahead or dominate without quarrel,
								mild irony or criticism
		Signs undisguised						Criticism, irony, accusations
		explicit		conflict
				requirements
		and desires of others
		signs						Dispute, objection to the rules, norms,
		contempt		personal				superiority of others, criticism, irony
		type without direct						accusation
		rights, requirements
		or desires of others
		signs						Neglect, resistance, swearing,
		intentional			offended-			threat, challenge to fight, beating

86 Shchukina G. I. Pedagogical problems of formation of cognitive interests of students. - M.: Pedagogy, 1988. - 208 p.

No less interesting and useful observation schemes are proposed by: A. S. Zagluhina - to study the student's attitude

to to the collective, manifested in certain actions and speech utterances; R. S. Nemov - to determine the level of development of communicative abilities, skills and abilities; A. A. Tolstykh - for diagnosing the difficulties of adaptation of the child

for school.

As we have already noted, such an approach to the organization of observation greatly facilitates the practical work of the researcher, but it requires fundamental preparation and an extensive preliminary analysis of the specialized literature on the relevant problem. However, the lack of systematized materials on this topic, as well as the extremely limited area of ​​phenomena, the phenomenology of which is presented in publications, limit the application of the described approach in practice. At the same time, there are very often situations when observation as a research method is included in the procedure of direct communication with a person, and the goal of the observer is to obtain the most complete information about the person. In such situations, a different approach to the organization of observation is more appropriate: from a set of specific facts of behavior to their systematization, analysis and interpretation. This approach does not at all exclude the setting of specific goals for observation, but in this case the formulation of goals is more generalized,

and they are specified already in the course of work as information becomes available.

The most important guidelines in the organization of such observation are various aspects of human non-verbal behavior,

and their interpretation is based on the use of generalized

of the empirical experience of the analysis of what is commonly called "body language". 87

Let us note some general requirements for the use of the non-verbal side of behavior in organizing research using the observation method.

87 Labunskaya V. A. Non-verbal communication. - Rostov-on-Don: Publishing House of Rostov University, 1986. - 135 p.

Piz A. Body language. - Novgorod: IQ, 1992. - 262 p.

When focusing on only one attribute, the indicator will immediately lead to errors in its use, since the elements that are part of the structure of a certain type of non-verbal behavior can simultaneously be included in other structures corresponding to other mental phenomena. Therefore, it is necessary to focus on those signals that, in combination with others, give a complete picture, confirming each other. It must be admitted that the slightest changes in the physical characteristics of behavioral acts (the degree of tension, intensity, direction, etc.) lead to a change and their meanings, therefore, require a different interpretation. An obligatory condition for an adequate interpretation is also taking into account the holistic situation in which the manifestation of the observed facts takes place. It should be remembered that behavior is not always spontaneous, and it may be based on a hidden reason due to the habit of a certain behavior. Although in such a situation, behavior, as a rule, is characterized by great demonstrativeness, emphasizing individual actions.

In addition, since the main instrument of the observer is himself, it must be taken into account that his own personality can introduce distortions both into the nature of the perception of certain signals and into the process of their interpretation.

It is known, for example, that women are better at recognizing emotional states than men, and at the same time, their non-verbal behavior itself is more open. Male observers are better oriented in male non-verbal behavior, and female observers are better in female ones. Female observers are more sensitive to low mood states and are better able to recognize emotional states from the intonation of the other person's voice. The speed and accuracy of recognition of the mental states of the observed largely depend on the degree of formation of the standards of expressive movements in the observer, as well as on the method by which identification occurs. An important role is played by the ability to empathize and some other personality traits.

The most important components of non-verbal behavior that should be paid attention to when organizing observation are facial expressions, posture, gestures, and speech features of the observed.

Facial expressions play a special role in understanding human behavior and personality. This is the most important characteristic of the physical appearance, according to which others get the impression of the individual characteristics of the person, her attitude to people, situations, business, various mental states, and, first of all, about the emotions experienced by the person.

Artists and photographers know that the human face is asymmetrical, with the result that the left and right sides of our face can reflect emotions in different ways. This is because the left and right sides of the face are under the control of different hemispheres of the brain. The left hemisphere controls speech and intellectual activity, while the right hemisphere controls emotions, imagination and sensory activity. The work of the dominant left hemisphere is reflected on the right side of the face and gives it an expression that can be more controlled. Since the work of the right hemisphere of the brain is reflected on the left side of the face, it is more difficult to hide feelings on this side of the face.

Positive emotions are reflected more or less evenly on both sides of the face, while negative emotions are more pronounced on the left side. However, both hemispheres of the brain function together, so the differences relate only to the nuances of expression, the identification of which requires a high concentration of attention and discrimination skills.

Looking at the speaker not only expresses interest, but also helps to focus attention on what we are being told. During a conversation, the speaker and listener alternately look, then turn away from each other, feeling that a constant look can interfere with the interlocutor's concentration. It is much easier to maintain eye contact with the speaker when discussing a pleasant topic, but avoid it when discussing unpleasant or confusing issues. In the latter case, refraining from direct visual contact is an expression of politeness and understanding of the interlocutor's emotional state. A persistent or inappropriate look in such cases causes outrage and is perceived as an interference with personal experiences. Moreover, a persistent or fixed gaze is usually taken as a sign of hostility.

Usually people avoid eye contact in competitive situations so that this contact is not understood as an expression of hostility. In addition, people are more likely to look at the speaker when he is at a distance: the closer we are to the speaker, the more we avoid eye contact. Visual contact helps the speaker to feel that he is communicating with you, to make a favorable impression. But a fixed or inappropriate gaze usually creates an unfavorable impression of us.

On the basis of gestures, one can learn about a person's attitude to some event, person, or object. A gesture can also tell about a person’s desire, about his states. Features of human gestures can serve as the basis for a conclusion about some quality of the observed person. Therefore, a gesture can be considered as an expressive movement, and not only as a manifestation of a person's spontaneous activity.

The meaning of many hand gestures or foot movements is somewhat obvious. For example, crossed arms indicate a skeptical, defensive, distancing, or expectant attitude, while uncrossed limbs indicate a more open, trusting attitude. They sit with their chin resting on their palms, usually in thought. Standing, akimbo, people demonstrating disobedience or, conversely, readiness to get to work.

Recall that the key to the correct interpretation of gestures is to take into account the totality of gestures and the congruence of verbal and non-verbal signals. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the context in which these gestures “live”. If, for example, on a cold winter day you see a man sitting at a bus stop with his legs crossed, his arms firmly crossed on his chest and his head down, then this will most likely mean that he is cold, and not at all his critical attitude towards anything. However, if a person in exactly the same position sits opposite you at the negotiating table for a deal, then his gestures should most definitely be interpreted as having a negative or defensive attitude towards the current situation.

We should not forget that the interpretation of gestures is influenced by factors such as clothing (sometimes people wearing ill-fitting or tight clothes are constrained in their movements, and this affects the expressiveness of their body language), physical health (if a person weak handshake, then we can conclude that his character is weak, but if a person has arthritis in the joints of the hand, he will use a weak handshake to protect his hand from pain), social status (a person at the top of the social ladder or professional career can enjoy the richness of their vocabulary in the process of communication, while a less educated or non-professional person will more often rely on gestures rather than words in the process of communication), age (the speed of some gestures and their obviousness to the eye depends on the age of the person) .

Posture is the position of the human body, typical for a given culture, an elementary unit of a person's spatial behavior. Of these, due to the cultural tradition of each nation, some poses are prohibited, while others are fixed, and only some of them can be unambiguously interpreted. In general, postures can perform two functions: to divide the flow of speech into units and to regulate interpersonal relationships in a dyad (pair). It is with the help of postures that one can create a mental barrier relative to the surrounding ones, determine the orientation of partners in relation to each other. Changes in postures, their synchronization indicate changes in the relationship between those who communicate.

At the same time, it is important to notice not only a static posture, but the direction of body movements: forward, towards the interlocutor (this can be a manifestation of interest, participation, desire for contact, or an unsatisfied desire to speak out); back (manifestation of a decrease in interest in the conversation, or the desire to gain distance, evade, or fear, painful isolation); aside (a sign of declining interest or boredom).

The intonation of the voice practically allows us to express our thoughts, feelings, volitional aspirations, not only along with the word, but also in addition to it, and sometimes even contrary to it. Speech intonation is a complex phenomenon. It combines pause, stress, melody, timbre, power of voice, etc. These vocal expressions, along with word selection and facial expressions, are helpful in understanding the message.

Methods for fixing the results of observation

One of the serious requirements for observation as a research method is the obligatory recording of results. During the recording, the researcher should record only the facts of behavior, and not his assessments and impressions about them, and the description should answer at least two questions - “what?” And How?" makes a person. In the event that already in the course of observation the researcher has a need to somehow comment on certain points, to express his attitude towards them, he should definitely mark what in the records refers to the observed facts, and what to the elements of their primary interpretation. Moreover, in some cases (when the purpose of observation is sufficiently wide, the number of objects exceeds the average volume of involuntary attention and memory, observation is of a long nature, etc.), such an organization of the recording is not only possible, but necessary, since it is precisely this organization that further facilitates an adequate interpretation . The description of behavior can be carried out both in qualitative and quantitative forms: the diary entry form, a continuous protocol and a systematic description belong to the qualitative one, scaling and timing to the quantitative one.

Diaries are usually used for many days, many months and even many years of observation. Important conditions for the effective use of this form are the mandatory numbering of sheets, large margins for notes and unambiguous terminology throughout the duration of the observation.

A continuous protocol, i.e. a detailed description of everything that happens, is usually used for the purpose of preliminary acquaintance with a situation or person and implies a mandatory

new introduction of a system of symbols - codes that facilitate recording.

The most common form of qualitative description of the results of observation is systematized, that is, based on some system of categories, concepts, and attributes. It is this form of recording that is most often drawn up in the form of a diagram (see Table 20).

					Table 20
	Observable Lesson Outline Diagram
Time from-	Actions and	Actions and	Elements
sensible					Event evaluation
	behavior	behavior	analysis of uro-
stage or
		students

Scaling, as a quantitative way of recording results, is commonly used to assess the intensity or severity of a property or action. In the event that the assessment is based on taking into account the number of manifestations of a particular sign, each manifestation is assigned one point and the nature of the severity is determined by the sum of the points scored. If a preliminary assessment system (three-, five-, seven-, nine- or ten-point) has been developed according to a combination of various signs or according to the characteristics of external manifestations of behavior, then in the process of recording this or that fact is immediately evaluated by the corresponding number of points. So, for example, when studying the attitude to activity, the following scheme can be used (see Table 21).

Table 21

Activity Attitude Observation Scheme

		Evaluation of the frequency of manifestation
Characteristics of behavior
Actively complete tasks
Does not refuse to perform
requests and instructions
Brings things to a close

Very often, for the convenience of recording, the entire observation time is divided into separate intervals (usually lasting from 1 to 5 minutes), which facilitate further analysis of the dynamics of the phenomenon. This method of recording is called a chronocard.

(See Table 22).

Table 22

	Monitoring the state of attention
Interval		Behavioral features	Score in points

In the same case, if the duration of an action or event is not known in advance and, conversely, its determination is among the goals of the observer, another form of quantitative description of the results is used - timing, which implies the obligatory measurement of the time of the action or event. Most often, to ensure greater completeness of information in the process of observation, mixed - qualitative and quantitative methods of fixing the record are used. So, for example, to study the stability of the attention of schoolchildren, the following observation procedure can be used. The whole lesson can be divided into five-minute intervals and the changes observed in the characteristics of the manifestation of the student's attention in each time interval can be recorded. The following are used as indicators of the degree of concentration of attention:

the presence and nature of the student's reaction to the impact of extraneous stimuli;

extraneous conversations or extraneous activities;

facial reactions (where the gaze is directed, what is the facial expression);

pantomimic reactions (working or relaxed posture, spinning or calm);

the presence or absence of specially directed efforts on the part of the teacher to attract the attention of the student;

lack of answers inappropriately or errors due to inattention

values ​​(omissions of letters, numbers, words, errors in the simplest calculations, etc.). 88

Advantages and disadvantages of observation as a method

The observation method is one of the most informative methods. It is characterized by a fairly high level of versatility - it can be used to study almost everything. It is the method of observation, like no other, that allows you to directly perceive and record acts of behavior, reflect specific processes in specific situations, which reduces the risk of forgetting or subsequent errors in judgments. Observation does not distort the natural course of mental processes and behavior in general. In addition, an experienced observer perceives what is happening holistically and can simultaneously record the behavior of a whole group of people. Through observation, one can more accurately measure the degree of intensity of behavioral acts than any other methods. This method provides minimal intervention in the process and practically does not require any additional funds.

However, like other methods, the method of observation is not without drawbacks. Observation is a rather laborious method. With it, it is almost impossible to exclude the influence of random factors. In addition, this is a passive method: after all, the teacher "reaps" the results of those phenomena and situations that appear regardless of his plans, he cannot, if necessary, influence the course of events, repeat them. Since it is impossible to fix everything, when observing, one can miss the essential and note the insignificant. This method does not always allow you to establish the exact cause of the act, action. When observing, as a rule, only external specific factors are analyzed, which mainly provide information of a qualitative nature, it is difficult to subject them to quantitative analysis.

88 Ansimova N. P. Method of observation. - Yaroslavl: Publishing House of YaGPU, 1997. - 63 p.

The level of experience and qualification of the observer has a significant effect on the results of observation. In the psychological interpretation of people's behavior, the observer's past experience is not limited to his scientific ideas, but also includes his habitual stereotypes of judgments, emotional attitudes, value orientations, etc., so it is quite subjective.

In addition to the subjective factor, the results of observation are also affected by the very fact that the subjects know that they are being observed. This often leads to a change in the behavior of the observed and affects the results of their activities. Long-term participant observation leads to the researcher's adaptation to ongoing events, it is possible that the researcher will be influenced by the general situation, which also leads to a decrease in the objectivity of the observation results.

All these difficulties once again confirm the need for special training in this important research method.

Questions for self-control and discussion

1. What are the requirements for conducting the observation method?

2. What types of observation should be used in school?

3. What non-verbal characteristics of behavior should be paid attention to in the process of observation?

4. What is the difference between a female observer and a male observer?

5. How does the personality of the observer affect the effectiveness of observation?

6. How is the approach to observation based on hypothesis different from observation based on facts?

Practical tasks

1. Make a plan of observation on your own chosen research topic.

2. Select the main indicators of the manifestation of cognitive activity of students (pupils).

3. Make a self-characterization based on self-observation.