One can give a simple intuitive definition of a system and a subsystem (a more rigorous and complete definition is given below).

A system is a process (object) that includes relationships between its elements.

Subsystem - a part of the system with some relationships (connections).

Any system consists of subsystems, and any subsystem of any system can be considered itself as a system, i.e. its recursive description is admissible.

Example. Science is a cognitive system (from the Latin cognito - knowledge, recognition, familiarization), which ensures the receipt, verification, storage and updating of society's knowledge. Among the subsystems of science, we note mathematics, philology, chemistry, computer science, psychology, etc. Any scientific knowledge has the form of systems (systematized knowledge), and theory is the most developed system of organizing knowledge into a system that allows not only to describe, but also partly explain events and processes and predict them.

Signs of computer science as scientific knowledge:

the presence of a subject area - processes and systems;

identification, systematization, description of the properties and patterns of processes and systems;

· the use of these patterns to study processes and systems, their interaction with other systems.

A systematic approach to the consideration of problems is a necessary methodological basis for any science.

Consider basic concepts system analysis.

Target- the state of the system, the most preferable to achieve, i.e. a state that allows solving a problem with given resources.

Example. The main economic goals of the company:

the economic growth;

production efficiency;

freedom of producers and consumers;

socio-economic security and security;

effective tax policy.

The concept of goal is specified by various objects and processes.

Examples.

Function (find the value of a function).

· Expression (find the arguments that turn the expression into an identity).

· Theorem (to formulate and / or prove a theorem - that is, to find conditions that turn the formulated sentence into a true statement).

· Algorithm (choose or construct a sequence of actions that ensure the achievement of the desired state of the object or the process of transferring it from the initial state to the final state).

Purposeful system behavior- the sequence of states of the system leading to the goal of the system.

A task- description of the goal defined on the set of initial premises (input data or conditions for the task).

Example. The economic task that any society faces is to resolve the conflict between the virtually unlimited desire of a person to consume goods and services and the limited resources (material, energy, information, etc.) that can be attracted to meet these needs. At the same time, the following main economic tasks of the company are considered:

What to produce (what goods and services)?

How to produce (how and where)?

For whom to produce (for which buyer or market)?

To solve a problem means to determine the resources and ways to achieve the specified goal under the initial assumptions.

Problem solution - a description or representation of the state of the problem, in which the specified goal is achieved; the process of achieving this state is also called the solution of the problem.

Example. Solution of a quadratic equation. Such a formulation of the problem is inaccurate, because the goal is not set, it is not indicated how to solve the problem and what to take as a solution to the problem. For example, the task is not set completely - the type of input data is not specified: real or complex coefficients of the equation; the concept of a solution, the requirements for a solution are not defined - for example, the permissible error of the root (if the root is irrational, but it is necessary to determine it with some accuracy, then an autonomous and non-trivial problem of approximate calculation arises). Possible solution strategies are not indicated - classical (through the discriminant), according to the Vieta theorem, with the optimal ratio of operands and operations.

Description (specification) of the system- description of all its essential elements (subsystems), their interrelations, admissible states, goals and functions.

If the input premises, the goal, the condition of the problem, the solution, or, perhaps, even the very concept of the solution cannot be accurately formalized (described), then this problem is called poorly formalizable. It is possible to study a poorly formalized problem by considering a set of corresponding formalized subtasks. In such tasks, it is necessary to take into account various, and often contradictory, criteria for determining and evaluating the solution of the problem.

Example. Poorly formalizable, for example, are the tasks of restoring "blurred" texts, images, describing the functioning of the brain, society, automatic translation of texts, etc.

Structure- a set of connections and relationships between parts of the whole.

Example. Examples of structures can be the structure of the convolutions of the brain, the structure of the state system, the structure of the crystal lattice of a substance, the structure of a microcircuit, etc. The crystal lattice of a diamond is a structure of inanimate nature; honeycombs, zebra stripes - wildlife structures; lake - the structure of ecological nature; party (public, political) - the structure of social nature; The Universe is a structure of both animate and inanimate nature.

The topological structures of the systems are quite diverse. The most commonly used linear, tree, network and matrix structures; The structures of systems are of different types, different topology (or spatial structure). Let us consider the main topologies of structures (systems). The corresponding schemes are shown in fig. 1.1. - 1.4.

Rice. 1.1. Structure of linear type.

Rice. 1.2. Structure of hierarchical (tree-like) type.

Rice. 1.3. Network type structure.

Rice. 1.4. Matrix type structure.

Example. Linear structure - a sequence of peaks of a mountain range. An example of a hierarchical structure is the management of the armed forces: "General Headquarters - Directions - Brigades - Battalions - Units - Servicemen." The network structure is typical for the process of assembling a product from assembling parts. An example of a matrix structure is a map of a city with two-way traffic.

Other types of structures are formed using combinations (joins and nestings) of the above basic structures.

Example.“Embedding into each other” of planar matrix structures leads to a spatial matrix (for example, the structure of a halite crystal of the type shown in Fig. 1.5.).

Rice. 1.5. The structure is of the crystalline (spatial-matrix) type.

From the same elements, structures of various types can be obtained.

Examples. Similar components of the market (resources, goods, consumers, sellers) are combined into structures of various types: OJSC, LLC, CJSC, etc. At the same time, the structure of the association determines the properties and characteristics of the system.

From the same atoms (Si, O) macromolecules of various silicates are formed:

Rice. 1.6. Structures of macromolecules from silicon and oxygen

The structure is connected if there is a connection between any two subsystems of the system (the connection is assumed to be symmetrical, i.e. if there is a connection between the i-th subsystem and the j-th subsystem, then there is also a connection between the j-th subsystem and the i-th one).

In the general case, connected m-dimensional structures (m-structures) are created, in which subsystems are (m − 1)-dimensional structures. Such m-structures can implement connections and model properties that are impossible in (m − 1)-structures; they are used to describe multivariable and multicriteria problems and systems.

These topological recursive structures (complexes or simplicial complexes) are mathematically defined as an object K(X,Y,f), where X is an m-structure (mD-simplex), Y is a set of events (vertices), f are connections between X and Y.

Example. A planar (2D) graph, which consists of vertices identified with some events and connected by arcs (corresponding to the connections of these vertices). A network of cities on a geographical map connected by roads forms a planar graph.

Example. Consider a set of faces X=(Ivanov, Petrov, Sidorov) and cities Y=(Moscow, Paris, Nalchik). Then it is possible to construct a 3-structure (2D-simplex having two coordinates X and Y) in R3(in the space of three dimensions - length, width, height), connecting elements X and Y according to the principle "who was where" (Fig. 1.7.). This structure uses network 2-structures (2D-simplices) X, Y (which, in turn, consist of 1-structures). In this case, the elements X and Y can be considered as points (0D-simplices) - elements of the space of zero dimension - R0 (also Fig. 1.6.).

Rice. 1.7. Geometric illustration of complex connected structures.

At the junction of different sciences, poorly formalized and poorly structured problems also arise. This happens especially often in areas of knowledge that are going through a period of "primary accumulation" of information - such are many humanitarian disciplines. To analyze the subject area of ​​such systems, it is most effective to use probabilistic methods, fuzzy logic and fuzzy sets.

Finding solutions to poorly formalized problems is a sign of intelligence; for a person it is the ability to abstract, for automata it is the ability to imitate the forms of human intelligence.

We call intelligent human-machine systems capable of performing analogues of intelligent procedures (classification and recognition of objects or images, accumulation of knowledge, production of logical conclusions, natural interface, etc.). The analogue of this name is "artificial intelligence systems". Intelligent systems are based on incomplete and incompletely formalized knowledge about the subject area, the rules for deriving new knowledge, so they require constant refinement and expansion.

More strict system definition .

System- a set of interconnected elements of a certain set that form an integral object when these elements and relations between them are given some goal and some resources to achieve this goal.

The purpose, elements, relations and resources of subsystems, as a rule, differ from the general system ones.

Rice. 1.8. General structure of the system.

Each system has its own states, a mechanism for converting input signals, data to output (internal description, output functions), external manifestations (external description) and a mechanism for changing states under the influence of external signals (transition functions). The exit functions describe the behavior of the system, the degree of correspondence of the internal structure of the system with the goals, subsystems (elements) and resources in the system, the external description - about the relationship with other systems, with the goals and resources of other systems. The transition functions provide information about the possible decomposition of the system into subsystems.

The external description of the system is determined by its internal description.

Example. The bank forms a system. The external environment of the bank is a system of investments, financing, labor resources, standards, etc. Input actions - characteristics (parameters) of the external environment. Internal states of the system - characteristics of the financial condition of the bank. Output impacts - flows of loans, services, investments, etc. The output functions of this system are banking operations, such as lending. The functions of the system also depend on the nature of the interactions between the system and the external environment. Many functions performed by the bank (system) depend on external and internal functions that can be described (represented) by some numerical and / or non-numerical, for example, qualitative, characteristics or characteristics of a mixed, qualitative - quantitative nature.

Example. The physiological system "Human Organism" consists of the subsystems "Metabolism", "Vision", "Musculoskeletal System", etc. The functional system "Metabolism" consists of the subsystems "Circulation", "Respiration", "Digestion", etc. The "Blood circulation" system, in turn, includes the subsystems "Vessels", "Blood", "Artery", etc. The physico-chemical system "Blood" consists of the subsystems "Erythrocytes", "Platelets", "Leukocytes" and so on up to limiting in modern biology of the molecular level.

Consider the system "Natural water flow". Let's represent it in the form of numbered sections (subsystems), fig. 1.9.

Rice. 1.9. Flow model (flow from 1 to n).

The internal description of the system (and each subsystem i) can be:

x(t+1,i) = x(t,i) − (a(t,i) x(t,i)) + b(t,i) − (c(t,i) x(t,i )) (1.1)

where x(t,i)- volume of water at time t, a(t,i)- coefficient of ground water infiltration at time t, b(t,i)- precipitation at time t, c(t,i)- evaporation from the surface of the i-th section (a, b, c - input parameters). The external description of the system may look like:

X(t) = ∑(k(x,t,i) a(t,i) + l(x,t,i) b(t,i)) (1.2)

where k(x,t,i)- coefficient of soil seepage, l(x,t,i)- precipitation intensity, X(t)- the volume of water in the stream (near the edge of the last n-th section).

Morphological description of the system - a description of its structure: a description of the set A of the elements of the system and the set of relations R between them necessary to achieve the goal.

The minimum morphological description is given by the set ( tuple):

S = (1.3)

where BUT- set of elements and their properties, R- lots of connections BUT, AT- many relationships with the environment. Optional inclusion in a tuple is possible V- type of system structure and Q- descriptions of the system in any language. From morphological description of the system get a functional description of the system (i.e. a description of the evolution and laws of the functioning of the system), and from it - informational description of the system (description of information links of the system with the environment and subsystems among themselves), as well as information-logical (infological) description of the system.

Example. The morphological description of an ecosystem contains many species living in it (“predators - prey”), its trophic structure (“who eats whom?” Or the structure of the usual diet of an inhabitant), their properties, connections and relationships. The trophic structure of a simple ecosystem is single-level, where predators and prey form two non-overlapping sets X and Y with properties S(X) and S(Y). Having adopted the language Q of the morphological description of the Russian language with elements of algebra, we obtain a simplified model of the morphological description of the ecosystem:

S = (1.4)

A= (ram, gazelle, acorn, snake, wild boar, crucian carp, clover, kite, vole, wheat, tiger, man, pike),

X= (ram, snake, boar, kite, tiger, man, pike),

Y = (gazelle, acorn, crucian carp, clover, vole, wheat),

S(X)= (two-legged, flying, swimming, reptile, four-legged),

S(Y)= (grain, animal, nut, grass),

B\u003d (inhabitant of water, inhabitant of land, vegetation),

R= (prey, predator).

If we use the mathematical results of population dynamics directly from the morphological description of the system, we can give an adequate functional description of the ecosystem.

In particular, the dynamics of relationships in this system can be written in the form of the Lotka-Volterra equations:

X i "(t) = X i (t) (a i − ∑(b ij x j (t))), x i (0) = x i0 , i = 1, 2, ..., 6 (1.5)

where x i (t) is the density of the i-th prey population, b ij is the rate of consumption of the i-th type of prey by the j-th type of predators, and i is the birth rate of the i-th type.

The concretization carried out on the basis of the initial set of the model S = easily led to a system of differential equations, the solution of which makes it possible to determine the dynamics of the number of species in the ecosystem. Without conducting a system analysis, by direct enumeration of the elements of the set A, it is much more difficult to solve the problem. .

The morphological description of the system depends on:

· connections taken into account and their depth (connections between elements, main and secondary subsystems), type (direct or feedback) and nature (positive, negative);

structures (linear, hierarchical, network, matrix, mixed).

Example. The morphological description of an automaton for the production of a certain product includes a geometric description of the product, a program (the sequence of actions of the automaton), an operating environment (processing route, restrictions on actions, etc.). The description depends on the properties of the links, the structure of the product, the workpiece, etc.

The informational description of the system allows obtaining additional information about the system, solving information-logical problems,

Example. Consider the problem: enterprise C specializes in the production of product No. 1, enterprise B - products No. 3 and No. 5, enterprise E - products No. 1 and No. 5, enterprise D - products No. 2 and No. 3; diversified enterprise A can produce any product from #1 to #5. It is required to distribute the production of five products among enterprises so that each of them is produced in only one place. The solution is most simply obtained using the information description of the system in the form allowed situation tables (state tables):

Table 1.1.

The initial table of states of the information-logical task.

It can be seen from the table that facility C will produce item #1, and therefore item #5 is left for E. Then correspondences B - No. 3, D - No. 2 and A - No. 4 are established.

The analysis of information-logical tasks is a powerful tool for clarifying informational and cause-and-effect relationships in a system, drawing analogies, modeling, etc.

Two systems are informationally equivalent (mathematical - isomorphic) if they have same goal, constituent elements, structure .

One can also speak of equivalence in purpose, elements, or structure.

Let systems X and Y be equivalent, and system X has the structure or property I. If it follows from this that system Y also has property I, then I is called an invariant of systems X and Y. immersion of one system into another.

Example. A fixed point is an invariant of various contracting mappings under the conditions of the Banach theorem in metric spaces.

The main features of the system:

· the presence of subsystems and connections between them (i.e. the structure of the system). The destruction of subsystems or connections between them threatens the disappearance of the system itself;

· the ability to abstract from the environment , i.e. relative isolation from those environmental factors that have little effect on the achievement of the goal;

exchange of resources with the environment;

subordination of the entire organization of the system to some goal;

· irreducibility of the properties of the system to the properties of its elements.

The subsystem must have all the properties of the system, in particular, the property of integrity (by subgoal) and irreducibility to elements.

The main stages of system analysis of various objects and processes:

· Formulation of goals, their priorities and research problems.

· Definition of research resources.

Establishing the functions of the system and its subsystems.

· Definition and description of subsystems.

· Building the structure of the system.

· Defining and describing the links between subsystems and their elements.

· Analysis of interrelations of subsystems.

· Analysis (test) of the integrity of the system.

· Functional test of the system model.

When analyzing systems, a convenient tool is the method of structuring.

The purpose of structuring is the formation and refinement of a hypothesis about the processes in the system under study, i.e. block diagrams and quantitative assessment of cause-and-effect relationships.

The causal relationship between systems (subsystems, elements) A and B is positive if a change in parameter A leads to a similar change in the corresponding parameter B.

Example block diagram (map) to analyze the problem of energy consumption:

Rice. 1.10. An example of a structural map.

In addition to schemes, grids (scales, matrices) can be used that allow you to determine behavior strategies (for example, a manufacturer in the market).

The lattice is formed using a system of factorial coordinates, where each coordinate corresponds to one factor or some interval of change of this factor. Each region of the lattice corresponds to a particular behavior . Indicators can be relative (from 0 to 1), absolute (from minimum to maximum), bipolar ("high Low)", clear and fuzzy , deterministic and non-deterministic . On fig. 1.11. such a lattice is shown (in a bipolar system of indicators); zone D - the most favorable, zone A - the least favorable.

Rice. 1.11. The lattice describing the financial stability of the firm.

The system can operate in two modes: development (evolution) and functioning.

Functioning is the activity of the system without changing the goal, development - with its change.

During the functioning, evolution of the system, there is clearly no qualitative change in the infrastructure of the system; with the development, revolutionization of the system, its infrastructure changes qualitatively.

Example. Informatization of the field of activity - the use of various knowledge bases, expert systems, cognitive methods and tools, modeling, communications and communication networks, ensuring information security, etc.; This is the development of the subject area. Computerization without posing new problems , i.e. "hanging computers on old methods and technologies of information processing" is functioning, and not development .

25 797 3 Why is it so important to write down your goals for the next few years, year, month, week? What is the power of the written word? Much has already been written about this. But the main idea is this.

In order for the plan to be fulfilled, it is important to believe in it, to fill with thoughts about it every day, every minute. To live towards this goal, for the sake of this goal. It is also very important that the goal is clear, if it has no boundaries, it will just be a dream that is unlikely to come true.

But how can you fill your thoughts with what you have planned if you are distracted by daily activities (children, work), a huge amount of other information (social networks, TV, tablet, phone, etc.). In caring for the family, problems at work, we forget about our main goal, about what needs to be done to achieve it.

Take half an hour to sit down, think and formulate in a notebook ( for this, it is better to allocate a separate notebook, so that later you can adjust the goal and the stages to achieve it) "what do you want to get in this life." Try the “who I will be in 30 years” technique. Write an essay, in detail, who will surround you, where you will live, etc. after 30 years.

List the steps on the way to your goal. Break them down into smaller ones, down to what you need to do this month.

It is important that all your actions, every day, every hour, be aimed at achieving your goal.

Clarity and Reality of Purpose is another important rule.

If you love baking cakes, you don't have to dream of making a million in the stock market. Set realistic goals based on your abilities. The more real they are, the more likely you will get it soon.

By writing down the goal, you begin to better understand yourself, what you need.

If your goal is a two-story house on the Black Sea coast, describe in detail, for example, how you first buy an apartment in your city, rent it out, save up a certain amount ** years and buy a coveted house. Describe how you feel about it. Who will come to visit you and how you will spend time in your house.

A clearly formulated goal is half the success on the way to achieving it.

If your goal is to drive a car of a certain make and model, write about how you feel about it, where you will drive it, who will be around. Imagine how you hold the steering wheel with the logo of the automaker, etc. on it. The more detailed the description is, the faster you will get closer to the intended goal.

How does it work?

Very simple. Through fine motor skills of the fingers, brain activity is activated, new thoughts, ideas come, the visualization mechanism is launched.

Immerse yourself in what you have written, periodically take out your notes, reread and correct them.

Of course, for the full effect, it would be great to use other methods and visualization mechanisms. For example, meditate or make a photo collage. Many of my friends have photo collages that proudly hang above their workplace. Every day, unconsciously, they glance at the collage and the projection mechanism starts in their heads. In the process of work, they unconsciously concentrate on their main goal.

Some simply create a folder in the “cloud” and periodically upload pictures of the ideas they like (decorative toys for the future children's room, a good angle of their favorite car, a view from the window of a two-level apartment on the 23rd floor, etc.).

A clear goal stimulates our thinking, efficiency wakes up, energy appears to act and achieve.

It works, it works! The main thing is to wish for something sincerely, with all your heart and in every possible way to do at least something to make your goal come true. So that it doesn’t happen, as in that joke, when a man every day asked God to help him win the lottery, while he never even bought a lottery ticket.

If you did everything right, you will immediately feel like you are energized to do something, you will have ideas and plans. You will feel as if your eyes have been opened. This is a good sign that you are on the right track. Do not be discouraged if you realize that before that you did not do anything to implement what was planned. It's never too late to start. Break down your goal into several steps. Write down by what period and what needs to be done in order to get what you want as a result. Every day, set small goals on the way to a global goal.

You don't have to tell your friends or family about it. Many may not understand this and laugh. But it's your life and you don't have to account for your actions to anyone. If you wholeheartedly want to achieve or get something, all methods are good.

Goals are like fuel for the furnace in which future success is smelted. The larger and clearer they are, the more you think about them, the stronger your inner impulse and desire to achieve them.

If I haven't convinced you yet, here are the statistics.

• The 10% of people who write down their goals achieve their goals 90% of the time.
• The 20% who knew what they wanted but didn't write down their goals got it 40% of the time.
• All the rest worked all their lives for other people's goals.

If someone practices this, write us about your results in the comments to the article. Good luck to you!

How to set goals the right way. Goal setting techniques.

“What am I doing with my life? What would I like? Where will all this lead me?" Many people ask similar questions. Usually such visionary thoughts lead to the fact that a person accurately formulates and writes down his own goals. Some will be satisfied with general and vague answers, while others will find precise answers to such questions to help them see clear goals and ways to achieve them. Taking the time to formulate and write down your own goals will bring you one step closer to achieving them. Everyone knows that the achievement of goals is directly related to joy and well-being.

Steps

Define your goals

Decide what you want. If you have a general idea of ​​what you want or would like to achieve, then you may be tempted to start working in that direction. But if you do not have a clear goal, then it is likely that you are working or striving for a blurry or changing goal. Setting a clear goal helps save time and effort, and can also motivate you to work hard.

Stick to specifics. This is extremely important for understanding what you want to achieve. Identify any general or vague terms. For example, after declaring a desire to be successful, you need to define what success means to you. For some, this is an opportunity to earn a lot of money, while for others, the ability to raise healthy and smart children.

1. Consider if you really want this. It's okay to want something and not question why you want it. But sometimes you can come to the conclusion that the goals you set do not correspond to your desires and dreams. One good example can be given based on social perceptions and ideas. Many children say that in the future they want to become doctors or firefighters, but do not understand the meaning of these professions or eventually find that they no longer want to.

   • Ask yourself: how much did the people around you influence your goals? It can be the expectations of your parents, your significant other, or social pressure from peers and the media.
   • Your goals are what you want to do for myself and not for someone else.

2. What are your motives? Are you trying to achieve something to prove the other person wrong? Everyone has their own "true" reasons, which may vary, so ask yourself how accurate your goals are. Otherwise, you may end up feeling dissatisfied or disappointed.

   • For example, if you want to become a doctor, is it because you want to help people or make a lot of money? If guided by the wrong motives, then it may be more difficult for you to achieve your goal, or you may feel a sense of dissatisfaction.

3. Set realistic goals for yourself. When thinking about your goals, it is very easy to be led by a vivid imagination. But there are things that are beyond your control. They can become a real problem in achieving such goals. Your goals must be realistic and achievable.

   • For example, a person may want to become the best basketball player in the world, but age and height (factors beyond a person's control) may not allow him to achieve this. Setting goals that are initially unattainable can devastate and demotivate you.

   Write down your goals

   1. Imagine your possibilities. Spend 15 minutes randomly writing down your ideas, goals, and dreams. Don't worry about clarity of wording or order. The main thing is that these goals and dreams match your personality and views. If you find it difficult, then try free writing. You can describe the following:

      • Ideal future
      • Qualities of people you admire
      • Things you could do better
      • Things you would like to know more about
      • Habits you would like to improve

   2. Break down your goals into specific steps. Once you've come up with a specific idea or dream, choose a set of specific goals that will help you achieve it. These goals need to be specified. If you are setting big or long-term goals, then break them down into smaller goals and steps. They can become your strategy for realizing ideas and dreams.

      • For example: "I want to be a good runner by my 50th birthday." This is a big goal that can take a long time to achieve (depending on your current age). It’s better to formulate the goal like this: “I want to train for a half marathon. I plan to run a half marathon next year and a full marathon in the next five years.”

   3. Rank your goals by importance. Take a look at your goals and decide which ones are the most important or desirable. Think about the following: how achievable each of the goals is, how long it may take, how working on its implementation will affect your life. Also think about why some goals seem more important to you than others. Check that the goals on your list do not contradict each other.

      • Ranking goals by importance and difficulty can be a great motivator. You will also be able to better imagine the implementation of such goals and the potential benefits.

   4. Set breakpoints and deadline. Track your progress by setting milestones and deadlines for goals and steps. Following a schedule will give you a sense of accomplishment, increase motivation, and allow you to determine what you are doing and what is not.

      • For example, if you set a goal to run a half marathon in the next year, then set yourself aside the next 6 months to prepare. After completing this step, the next six months can be spent on training runs of a half marathon distance. If you quickly realize that you need more time, then you can always adjust your schedule.
      • Use the calendar as a visual reminder to stick to your schedule and goals. Also, nothing compares to the feeling that you experience, crossing out completed goals or tasks.

   5. Try using the S.M.A.R.T. for goal setting. Take a critical look at each of your goals and write down characteristics of the goal such as specificity ( S specific), measure ( M easurable), reachability ( A ttainable), realism ( R ealistic) and limited time ( T ime-bound). For example, you can take a broad goal like “I want to be in good health” and label it more specifically with the S.M.A.R.T model:

      • Specific: “I want to improve my health by losing some weight.”
      • Measure: "I want to improve my health by dropping 10 kg."
      • Attainable: Not everyone can lose 50kg, but 10kg is an achievable goal.
      • Realistic: You need to understand that losing 10 kg, you will become more energetic and feel happier. Remember that you are doing this for yourself.
      • Time constraint: “I want to improve my health by losing 10 kg in a year, on average I need to lose 800 g per month.”
   1. http://www.dominican.edu/academics/ahss/undergraduate-programs-1/psych/faculty/fulltime/gail-matthews
   2. McGregor, I., & Little, B.R., 1998
   3. Locke, E. A. (1968). Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives. Journal of Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 3, 157-189.
   4. Fischhoff, B., Slovic, P., & Lichtenstein, S. (1988). Knowing what you want: Measuring labile values. Decision Making: Descriptive, Normative and Prescriptive Interactions, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 398-421. (Chapter 18)
   5. Brunstein, J. C. (1993). Personal goals and subjective well-being: A longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1061–1070.
   6. Perrone, K. M., Civiletto, C. L., Webb, L. K., & Fitch, J. C. (2004). Perceived barriers to and supports of the attainment of career and family goals among academically talented individuals. International Journal of Stress Management, 11, 114–131.

Formulation of project goals
Chapter 3 focuses on techniques for creating business process models for an organization. Currently, many business leaders are initiating process modeling projects for various purposes. Qualitatively, these goals can be divided into two groups. The achievement of the first group of goals should, in the opinion of the leaders, provide a solution to the specific problems of the organization and increase the efficiency of its activities. In this case, some real, practically important results are expected from the project of describing business processes. The second group can be characterized as a group of goals-slogans. In reality, no one in the organization expects the practical effect of the project, but it plays a significant political role or serves as a justification for the allocation of financial resources. In Chapter 3, we will consider the methods of work that ensure the achievement of the first group of goals, that is, any practical results.
If we talk about the first group of goals, then we can distinguish several different directions in which a business process description project can develop. In practice, first of all, managers set the task of “figuring out how the work is going and where efficiency is being lost (financial losses occur)”. It is assumed that the resulting set of business process models will be used in the future for automation. In addition, they want to get information about the existing workflow system from the models.
and make the necessary changes to it, etc. There are several characteristic features of the formulation of the task statement by top-level managers at this stage: blurring of the wording and clear definitions (for example, processes); lack of clear criteria for achieving project goals; lack of understanding of what will happen next with the resulting set of business process models.
These features reflect the fact that most managers do not understand the possibilities of describing business processes as one of the means of developing a process management system for a company. But the fact is that business process models themselves are not a management tool. They can serve as a basis for creating regulatory documentation, analyzing activities, and making important decisions. To work effectively with descriptions of the organization's processes, the manager must have a certain system. A similar situation develops, for example, with budgeting. By themselves, the budgets of departments, which describe financial flows, costs, etc., are not a management tool in the hands of a manager. The management system in this case is an interconnected, integrated system of budgeting and management accounting. Within the framework of this system, the manager sees who, when and how plans budgets, collects information about their implementation, and makes decisions on deviations. Returning to business processes, it should be noted that the creation of models is only an integral part of the project to improve (change) the enterprise management system, which is a management tool in the hands of the manager.
If we consider process models as some initial data for solving formally limited tasks (development of a document management system, preparation of automation, etc.), then one cannot demand from these models some kind of “wonderful” information for the general improvement of the organization's activities. At the same time, if the organization has already begun to describe the processes, then

the resulting schemes should contain a maximum of useful information for further work. Before proceeding with the description of processes, managers need to carefully consider the information requirements that they should contain.
Chapter 3 will discuss techniques designed to describe the business processes that exist in an organization. The issue of using process models to create a process control system will also be discussed in Chapter 4. The problems of using models for automation purposes are not covered in this book.
So, before starting a business process description project, the company's management formulates the goals of the project. Unfortunately, these goals are often blurred. What should the working group of employees of the enterprise (external consultants) who will carry out this project do? Misunderstanding the goals of management at the initial stage can cause it to react negatively when receiving results and ultimately reflect badly on the members of the working group (disbandment, dismissals, etc.), as shown in Fig. 3.1.
Rice. 3.1. Misunderstanding the goals of the project

In order to avoid contradictions, it is advisable to detail the goals of managers in order to bring the structure of top-level goals to understandable, specific and quantifiable goals of the lower level. After that, this structure of goals is agreed with the management, which confirms that this is what they had in mind.
But in practice, it is not always possible to bring the goals of the organization's management to a formalized form. For example, the manager sets the task "Describe the business process of selling finished products and propose measures to improve its efficiency." What should the working group do in this case? You can use the methodology for determining the goals of the project based on the specification of the problems that exist in the organization (department, process). Some methods of goal structuring will be discussed below. Before moving on to them, let's look at the critical success factors of the project in terms of creating a set of business process models. These include: involvement of senior management; the presence of clear, well-developed project goals; availability of a professional project manager; availability of an approved project management methodology, including the methodology for creating process models; a working team corresponding to the tasks; effective use of business process modeling tools; coverage of work among employees of the enterprise.
It should be noted that when describing business processes, you can and should use existing project management tools.
The role of top and middle managers in the implementation of the process approach to management is crucial.
Having an experienced project manager is a must. Such a specialist must meet at least the following qualification requirements:
work experience in the organization (industry) for at least three years; knowledge of methods and practical experience in project management for at least two years; knowledge and understanding of process management principles and quality management methods; knowledge and understanding of business process modeling methodologies (including knowledge of notations); possession of the project management methodology for the description of processes; knowledge of tool environments for modeling business processes.
Later in Chapter 3, these key critical success factors for a business process modeling project will be discussed in more detail. Methodology for structuring project goals
The methodology for structuring the goals of a business process reorganization project consists of the steps shown in Fig. 3.2.
Rice. 3.2. Methodology for structuring project goals

At stage 1, the leader formulates in an arbitrary (better, of course, in a formalized) form the goals of the project, the timing of its implementation and the possible amount of resources allocated to this project. The working group represented by the project leader holds a meeting

(or a series of meetings) with the manager in order to preliminary formulate goals. The result of stage 1 is a list of goals formulated by the leader.
At stage 2, the project manager sets the task for the working group to detail the list of formulated goals, bringing it to the second or third level, while Table 1 can be used. 3.1.
Tab. 3.1. Table for structuring project goals

The main task of the working group at this stage is to achieve the ultimate specificity of goals. When decomposing, one should strive to set goals, the achievement of which can be expressed in quantitative indicators. An example of filling in the table of goals is presented in Table. 3.2.
Obviously, the detailed goals shown in Table. 3.2 are far from perfect, but they are significantly more informative for the working group than the wording "Optimize the business process of marketing finished products."
At stage 3 of developing project goals, the detailed structure of goals is agreed with the manager. His task at this stage is to prioritize the achievement of detailed goals. A situation may arise when the manager is not satisfied with the proposed structure. In this case, the working group corrects
indicated shortcomings and submits for consideration the second version of the structure of goals, etc. If the manager is satisfied with the proposed decomposition of goals, then the working group proceeds to develop terms of reference (TOR) for the implementation of the project.
Tab. 3.2. An example of filling in a goal table

Goals formulated by the leader	Second level goals	Third level goals	Priority set by the leader
1. Optimize the business process for marketing finished products	1.1. Increase sales in regions	1.1.1. Optimize the sales process through representative offices in the regions	BUT
		1.1.2. Optimize the process of information exchange between representative offices and the main office	FROM
	1.2. Reduce the maturity of accounts receivable	1.2.1. Clearly allocate responsibility for the repayment of receivables	BUT
	duties	1.2.2. Optimize the process of preparing and concluding contracts with the client	B
	1.3. Reduce customer order processing times	1.3.1. Identify and eliminate bottlenecks in the customer order processing process	BUT

The development of internal TOR is not a mandatory element of the project, but its presence greatly facilitates the task of implementing the project. In the process of preparing the TOR, both the working team and the managers have a common understanding of the goals and possible results of the project, as well as the parameters by which the degree of achievement of the goals is measured. The general structure of the TOR for the description of the business processes of the enterprise is given below: the objectives of the work; composition of work stages; requirements for business process models and criteria for their analysis; requirements for reporting information by stages; project reporting requirements.
The structure of the TOR for the description of business processes depends on the modeling tool used.

After the preparation of the TOR, it is reviewed and approved by the management. The approved TOR is mandatory for execution by the working group. In the course of the project, various situations may arise that lead to a change in the understanding of its goals and objectives, as well as the degree of their achievability. Therefore, adjustments to the TOR are possible in the course of work, but they should not be too strong, disorienting the working group.
3.1.3. Methodology for defining project goals based on existing problems
The methodology for determining project goals based on existing problems is presented in the following figure. 3.3.
Rice. 3.3. Methodology for determining project goals

At stage 1, the manager sets the task of improving the efficiency of the sales business process. At the same time, the boundaries of the process under consideration are clearly outlined. Work will be carried out with this process. At stage 2, the working group forms a sketch (rough description) of the business process at the top level. The main task is to display the main functions (processes) included in the top-level process. Further, both for the process as a whole and for its constituent functions, the existing problems are determined. Their selection is based on the analysis of the results of interviews with managers and employees of departments performing this process. Strictly speaking, the findings are in the nature of symptoms, not causes of problems. However, the resulting specification of problems is presented either in the form of a list or in the form of a tree, as shown in Fig. 3.4.

Rice. 3.4. Process problem tree

At the third stage, the working group tries to determine indicators that characterize each identified problem. There may be several such indicators. Sometimes the wording of the problem may already contain the name of the indicator and an indication of its inappropriate value.
So the problem, voiced as "low turnover of accounts receivable", contains the name of the indicator - "turnover" and its value - "low". The working group needs to determine the units of measurement for each indicator and, if possible, determine their values ​​for the current situation. An example of determining quantitative indicators is shown in fig. 3.5.
After the numerical assessment of the indicators has been obtained, the working group proceeds to the fourth stage - the development of their target values. A guideline for selecting target values ​​of indicators can be:
¦ - indicators of similar activities of competitors; dissatisfaction data and customer requirements of the process; financial and economic analysis data.

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In fact, the considered way of developing goals is to determine the parameters for assessing the existing process, measure them for the current state and determine the prospective values ​​that need to be obtained by describing and reorganizing the process. As can be seen from fig. 3.6, this approach has two significant drawbacks, namely: The subjectivity of the definition of problems and indicators of process evaluation. Lack of any system used to standardize process evaluation metrics.
The rest of this chapter provides a classification and examples of process indicators. Chapter 4 also looks at practical examples of indicator definitions.
One way or another, but the objectives of the business process modeling project must be defined. Depending on the goals set, various approaches (methodologies) can be used to describe the organization's business processes. The project implementation methodology should be developed (adapted) taking into account the goals set and the amount of resources allocated to this project. The following section presents two approaches to describing the processes of an organization. Naturally, they do not exhaust all possible methods for creating process models.

Corporate goals are formulated and established on the basis of the overall mission of the organization and certain values ​​and goals that top management is guided by. To truly contribute to the success of an organization, goals must have a number of characteristics.

SPECIFIC AND MEASURABLE GOALS. First, goals must be specific and measurable. For example, at Sun Banks, the primary goal is to satisfy the needs of its employees. Estimated requirements to achieve this goal are: 1) improve employee satisfaction by 10% per year, 2) increase promotion by 15% per year, and 3) reduce employee turnover by 10% per year. Such a specific statement tells people exactly what management believes are required levels of employee satisfaction.

By expressing its goals in specific, measurable terms, management creates a clear baseline for future decisions and progress. Middle managers will have a guideline to decide whether more effort should be put into training and education of workers. It will also be easier to determine how well the organization is working towards achieving its goals. As we will learn later, this becomes important in the performance of control functions.

ORIENTATION OF GOALS IN TIME. Specific forecast horizon is another characteristic of effective goals. It should specify not only exactly what the organization wants to accomplish, but also, in general, when the result is to be achieved. Goals are usually set for long or short time periods. Long term goal according to Steiner, has a planning horizon of approximately five years, sometimes more for technologically advanced firms. Short term goal in most cases represents one of the plans of the organization, which should be completed within a year. Medium term goals have a planning horizon of one to five years.

Long-term goals are usually very broad. The organization formulates them first. Medium and short term goals are then developed to ensure long term goals. Usually, the closer the planning horizon of a goal, the narrower its scope. For example, a long-term productivity goal might be "increase overall productivity by 25% in five years." Accordingly, management will set medium-term productivity improvement targets of 10% over two years. It will also set short-term goals in specific areas such as inventory costs, staff development, plant upgrades, more efficient use of existing production capacity, improved management, union negotiations, and so on. This group of targets must to support the long-term goals with which it is directly related, as well as other goals of the organization. Continuing with our example, the provision that one should "make an agreement with the union for a year that provides for an appropriate bonus if the productivity of any worker increases by 10% per year" would be a short-term goal that provides both a long-term goal of increasing productivity, and and targets for human resources. Example 9.4. shows the long-term goals of National Convinience Stores.

ACHIEVABLE GOALS. The goal must be achievable - to serve to improve the efficiency of the organization. Setting a goal that exceeds the capacity of the organization, either due to insufficient resources or due to external factors, can lead to disastrous consequences. For example, RCA failed when it tried to become a major computer manufacturer, mainly because it lacked the experience to compete with IBM. . In addition, according to Professors George Steiner and John Miner, goals "represent important motives for the behavior of people in organizations, because usually people want to achieve the goals that are set for the organization" . If the goals are not achievable, the desire of employees to succeed will be blocked and their motivation will weaken. Since it is common in everyday life to associate rewards and promotions with the achievement of goals, unattainable goals can make the means used in an organization to motivate employees less effective.

mutually supportive goals. Finally, to be effective, the organization's multiple goals must be mutually supportive those. actions and decisions necessary to achieve one goal should not interfere with the achievement of other goals. For example, a goal of maintaining inventory at 1% of sales would not be sufficient for most firms to ensure that all orders are filled within two weeks. The inability to make the goals mutually supportive leads to conflict between the departments of the organization that are responsible for achieving the established goals.

It is difficult to pinpoint areas where management should set goals. Almost every author has his own list. Professor Antoni Raja compiled the list shown in Table 9.3 based on an intensive study of the relevant literature. He also described how these common goals for the entire organization could be expressed. Although the list in the table is for entrepreneurial activities, non-profit organizations also need goals in their areas, with the exception of profitability. It is intended that this list is not comprehensive; a particular organization may need to formulate general goals in other areas as well. Recognized authorities in the field, Steiner and Miner, argue that "goals should be set for each activity that the company believes is important and the performance of which it wants to observe and measure."

Objectives will only be a meaningful part of the strategic management process if top management articulates them correctly, then institutionalizes them effectively, communicates them, and drives their implementation throughout the organization. The strategic management process will be successful to the extent that senior management is involved in the formulation of goals and to what extent these goals reflect the values ​​of management and the realities of the firm. See example 9.5.

Table 9.3. Description of the goals of the organization