In Russia, industry was poorly developed, trade left much to be desired, and the system of government was outdated. There was no higher education, and only in 1687 the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was opened in Moscow. There was no printing, theaters, painting, many of the boyars and people of the upper class were not literate.

Peter 1 spent social reforms, which greatly changed the position of nobles, peasants and urban residents. After the transformation, people for military service were not recruited by the nobles as a militia, but now they were recruited to serve in regular regiments. The nobles began to serve with the same lower military ranks as ordinary people, their privileges were simplified. People who came from the common people had the opportunity to rise to the highest ranks. The passage of military service was no longer determined by the position of the clan, but by a document published in 1722 "Table of Ranks". He established 14 ranks of military and civilian service.

All nobles and those serving in the service had to be trained in literacy, numbers and geometry. Those nobles who refused or were unable to receive this primary education were deprived of the opportunity to marry and receive officer ranks.

Still, despite the strict reforms, the landowners had an important service advantage over ordinary people. The nobles, after entering the service, were ranked among the elite guards, and not as ordinary soldiers.

The former regime of taxation of peasants has changed, from the past “household” to the new “capitation” where taxes were withdrawn not from the peasant household, but from each person.

Peter 1 wanted to make cities like European ones. In 1699, Peter 1 gave cities the opportunity to self-govern. The townspeople elected burmisters in their city, who were part of the town hall. Now the inhabitants of the cities were divided into permanent and temporary. People who had various occupations began to enter guilds and workshops.

The main goal pursued by Peter 1 during the implementation of social reforms:

• Improvement of the economic situation in the country.
• Decreased status of the boyars in society.
• Transformation of the entire social structure of the country as a whole. And bringing society to the European image of culture.

Table of important social reforms carried out by Peter 1, which influenced the social structure of the state.​

Before Peter 1 in Russia already existed in large numbers, regular regiments. But they were recruited for the duration of the war, and after it ended, the regiment disbanded. Before the reforms of Peter 1, the servicemen of these regiments combined service with craft, trade and work. Soldiers lived with their families.

As a result of the reforms, the role of the regiments increased, and the noble militias completely disappeared. A standing army appeared, which did not dissolve after the end of the war. The lower ranks of the soldiers were not recruited as in the militia, they were recruited from the people. The soldiers stopped doing anything other than military service. Before the reforms, the Cossacks were a free ally of the state and served under a contract. But after the Bulavinsky rebellion, the Cossacks were obliged to organize a clearly defined number of troops.

An important achievement of Peter 1 was the creation of a strong fleet, which consisted of 48 ships, 800 galleys. The total crew of the fleet was 28 thousand people.

All military reforms, for the most part, were aimed at raising the military power of the state, for this it was necessary:

• Create a full-fledged army institute.
• Deprive the boyars of the right to form a militia.
• To introduce a transformation into the army system, where the highest officer ranks were given for faithful and long service, and not for pedigree.

Table of important military reforms carried out by Peter 1:

1683 1685	A recruitment of soldiers was carried out, of which the first guards regiment was later created.
1694	Conducted engineering campaigns of Russian troops, organized by Peter. It was an exercise whose purpose was to show the advantages of the new army system.
1697	A decree was issued on the construction of 50 ships for the Azov campaign. The birth of the navy.
1698	An order was given to destroy the archers of the third rebellion.
1699	Conducted the creation of recruitment divisions.
1703	On the Baltic Sea, by order, 6 frigates were created. It is rightfully considered the first squadron.
1708	After the suppression of the uprising, a new order of service for the Cossacks was introduced. During which they were obliged to obey the laws of Russia.
1712	In the provinces, a list was carried out on the content of the regiments.
1715	A quota was set for calling in new recruits.

Government reforms

Under the reforms of Peter 1, the boyar duma lost the status of an influential authority. Peter discussed all matters with a narrow circle of people. An important management reform was carried out in 1711, creation of the highest state body - the government Senate. Representatives of the Senate were appointed personally by the sovereign, but did not receive the right to power because of their noble family trees. At first, the Senate had the status of an administrative institution that did not work on the creation of laws. Supervision over the work of the Senate was conducted by the prosecutor, who was appointed by the king.

All the old orders were replaced during the 1718 reform following the Swedish model. It consisted of 12 colleges that conducted business in the maritime, military, foreign areas, accounting for expenses and income, financial control, trade and industry.

Another reform of Peter 1 was the division of Russia into provinces, which were divided into provinces, and then into counties. The governor was appointed at the head of the province, in the provinces the voivode became the head.

An important management reform, Peter 1 carried out on the succession to the throne in 1722. The old order to the throne of the state was abolished. Now the sovereign himself chose his heir to the throne.

Table of reforms of Peter 1 in the field of state administration:

1699	A reform was carried out, during which the cities received self-government headed by the mayor of the city.
1703	The city of Petersburg was founded.
1708	Russia, by decree of Peter the Great, was divided into provinces.
1711	Creation of the Senate, a new administrative body.
1713	The creation of noble councils, which were represented by the governors of cities.
1714	Approved the decision to move the capital to St. Petersburg
1718	Establishment of 12 colleges
1719	According to the reform, from this year, the provinces began to include provinces and counties in their composition.
1720	A number of reforms have been carried out to improve the apparatus of state self-government.
1722	The old order of succession to the throne has been abolished. Now the sovereign himself appointed his successor.

Economic reforms briefly

Peter 1 at one time carried out major economic reforms. By his decree, a large number of factories were built with state money. He tried to develop the industry, the state in every possible way encouraged private entrepreneurs who built factories and factories with large benefits. By the end of Peter's reign, there were more than 230 factories in Russia.

Peter's policy was aimed at introducing high duties on the import of foreign goods, which created competitiveness for the domestic manufacturer. The regulation of the economy was applied by establishing trade routes, canals and new roads were built. Every effort was made to explore new mineral deposits. The strongest surge in the economy was the development of minerals in the Urals.

The Northern War prompted Peter to introduce numerous taxes: a tax on baths, taxes on beards, a tax on oak coffins. At that time, lighter coins were minted. Thanks to these introductions, a large injection of funds into the country's treasury was achieved..

By the end of Peter's reign, a serious development of the tax system was achieved. The household tax system was replaced by a poll tax. Which subsequently led to strong social and economic changes in the country.

Table of economic reforms:

Reforms of Peter 1 in the field of science and culture briefly

Peter 1 wanted to create in Russia the European style of culture of that time. Returning from a trip abroad, Peter began to introduce Western-style clothes into the everyday life of the boyars, forcibly forced the boyars to shave their beards, there were cases when, in a fit of rage, Peter himself chopped off the beards of people of the upper class. Peter 1 tried to disseminate useful technical knowledge in Russia to a greater extent than humanitarian ones. Peter's cultural reforms were aimed at creating schools where a foreign language, mathematics, and engineering were taught. Western literature was translated into Russian and made available in schools.

The reform of replacing the alphabet from the church to the secular model influenced the education of the population.. The first newspaper was published, which was called Moskovskie Vedomosti.

Peter 1 tried to introduce European customs in Russia. Public holidays were held with a bias in the European manner.

Table of Peter's reforms in the field of science and culture:

Church reforms in brief

Under Peter 1, the church, being previously independent, became dependent on the state. In 1700, Patriarch Adrian died, the state prohibited the election of a new one, right up to 1917. Instead of the patriarch, the ministry of the guardian of the throne of the patriarch was appointed, which was Metropolitan Stefan.

Until 1721 there were no concrete decisions on the question of the church. But already in 1721, a reform of the church administration was carried out, during which it was determined that the position of the patriarch in the church was abolished, and was replaced by a new assembly called the Holy Synod. The members of the Synod were not elected by anyone, but were personally appointed by the tsar. Now, at the legislative level, the church has become completely dependent on the state.

The main direction in the church reforms carried out by Peter 1 was:

• Relaxation of the power of the clergy, on the population.
• Create state control over the church.

Table of church reforms:

1. Prerequisites for reforms:

The country was on the eve of great transformations. What were the prerequisites for Peter's reforms?

Russia was a backward country. This backwardness was a serious danger to the independence of the Russian people.

Industry in its structure was serf-owning, and in terms of output it was significantly inferior to the industry of Western European countries.

The Russian army for the most part consisted of a backward noble militia and archers, poorly armed and trained. The complex and clumsy ordering state apparatus, headed by the boyar aristocracy, did not meet the needs of the country.

Russia also lagged behind in the field of spiritual culture. Enlightenment hardly penetrated the masses of the people, and even in the ruling circles there were many uneducated and completely illiterate people.

Russia in the 17th century, by the very course of historical development, was faced with the need for fundamental reforms, since only in this way could it secure a worthy place among the states of the west and east.

It should be noted that by this time in the history of our country there had already been significant changes in its development.

The first industrial enterprises of the manufactory type arose, handicrafts and crafts grew, trade in agricultural products developed. The social and geographical division of labor - the basis of the established and developing all-Russian market - was constantly growing. The city was separated from the village. trade and agricultural areas were distinguished. developed domestic and foreign trade.

In the second half of the 17th century, the nature of the state system in Russia began to change, and absolutism began to take shape more and more clearly. Russian culture and sciences were further developed: mathematics and mechanics, physics and chemistry, geography and botany, astronomy and "mining". Cossack explorers discovered a number of new lands in Siberia.

Belinsky was right when he spoke about the affairs and people of pre-Petrine Russia: "My God, what epochs, what faces! There could have been several Shakespeares and Walter Scotts!" The 17th century was the time when Russia established constant communication with Western Europe, tied with her closer trade and diplomatic ties, used her technology and science, perceived her culture and education. learning and borrowing, Russia developed independently, taking only what it needed, and only when it was needed. It was a time of accumulation of the forces of the Russian people, which made it possible to carry out the grandiose reforms of Peter the Great prepared by the very course of Russia's historical development.

The reforms of Peter was prepared by the entire previous history of the people, "required by the people." Already before Peter the Great, a fairly cohesive program of transformation had been outlined, which in many respects coincided with Peter's reforms, and in other ways went even further than them. A transformation in general was being prepared, which, in the peaceful course of affairs, could be spread over a number of generations.

The reform, as it was carried out by Peter, was his personal affair, an unprecedentedly violent affair, and yet involuntary and necessary. The external dangers of the state outstripped the natural growth of the people, who had become stagnant in their development. The renewal of Russia could not be left to the gradual quiet work of time, not forced by force.

The reforms affected literally all aspects of the life of the Russian state and the Russian people, but the main ones include the following reforms: the military, government and administration, the estate structure of Russian society, taxes, church, as well as in the field of culture and life.

It should be noted that the main driving force behind Peter's reforms was the war.

2. Reforms of Peter 1

2.1 Military reform

During this period, a radical reorganization of the armed forces takes place. A powerful regular army is being created in Russia, and in connection with this, the local noble militia and the archery army are being liquidated. The basis of the army began to be regular infantry and cavalry regiments with a uniform staff, uniforms, weapons, which carried out combat training in accordance with general army regulations. The main ones were the military regulations of 1716 and the naval regulations of 1720, in the development of which Peter the 1st participated.

The development of metallurgy contributed to a significant increase in the production of artillery pieces, outdated artillery of various calibers was replaced by guns of new types.

In the army, for the first time, a combination of cold and firearms was made - a bayonet was attached to the gun, which significantly increased the fire and strike power of the troops.

At the beginning of the 18th century. for the first time in the history of Russia, a navy was created on the Don and in the Baltic, which was not inferior in importance to the creation of a regular army. The construction of the fleet was carried out at an unprecedented pace at the level of the best examples of military shipbuilding of that time.

The creation of a regular army and navy required new principles for their recruitment. It was based on the recruitment system, which had undoubted advantages over other forms of recruitment that had at that time. The nobility was exempted from recruitment duty, but military or civil service was obligatory for it.

2.2 Reforms of authorities and administration

In the first quarter of the eighteenth century a whole range of reforms was carried out related to the restructuring of central and local authorities and administration. Their essence was the formation of a noble-bureaucratic centralized apparatus of absolutism.

Since 1708, Peter the Great began to rebuild old institutions and replace them with new ones, as a result of which the following system of authorities and administration was formed.

All the fullness of legislative, executive and judicial power was concentrated in the hands of Peter, who after the end of the northern war received the title of emperor. In 1711, a new supreme body of executive and judicial power was created - the Senate, which also had significant legislative functions.

Instead of the outdated system of orders, 12 colleges were created, each of which was in charge of a certain industry or area of ​​​​government and was subordinate to the senate. The boards received the right to issue decrees on those issues that were within their jurisdiction. In addition to the collegiums, a certain number of offices, offices, departments, orders were created, the functions of which were also clearly delineated.

In 1708 - 1709. restructuring of local authorities and administrations began. The country was divided into 8 provinces, differing in territory and population.

At the head of the province was a governor appointed by the tsar, who concentrated executive and service power in his hands. Under the governor there was a provincial office. But the situation was complicated by the fact that the governor was subordinate not only to the emperor and the senate, but also to all colleges, whose orders and decrees often contradicted each other.

The provinces in 1719 were divided into 50 provinces. The provinces, in turn, were divided into districts (counties) with a voivode and a county office. After the introduction of the poll tax, regimental discrites were created. The military units stationed in them observed the collection of taxes and suppressed manifestations of discontent and anti-feudal actions.

This whole complex system of government and administration had a clearly expressed pro-noble character and secured the active participation of the nobility in the implementation of their dictatorship on the ground. But at the same time it further expanded the volume and forms of service of the nobles, which caused their dissatisfaction.

2.3 Reform of the estate structure of Russian society

Peter set as his goal the creation of a powerful noble state. To do this, it was necessary to disseminate knowledge among the nobles, improve their culture, make the nobility prepared and fit to achieve the goals that Peter set for himself. Meanwhile, the nobility for the most part was not prepared for their understanding and implementation.

Peter sought to ensure that all the nobility considered "the sovereign's service" their honorable right, their vocation, to skillfully rule the country and command the troops. To do this, it was necessary first of all to spread education among the nobles. Peter established a new obligation for the nobles - educational: from 10 to 15 years old, a nobleman had to study "literacy, numbers and geometry", and then had to go to serve. Without a certificate of "learning" a nobleman was not given a "crown memory" - permission to marry.

Decrees of 1712, 1714 and 1719. a procedure was established according to which "gentility" was not taken into account when appointing to a position and serving. And vice versa, natives of the people, the most gifted, active, devoted to the cause of Peter, had the opportunity to receive any military or civil rank. Not only "thin-born" nobles, but even people of "mean" origin were nominated by Peter to prominent government positions.

2.4 Church reform

Church reform played an important role in establishing absolutism. In 1700 Patriarch Adrian died and Peter the 1st forbade him to elect a successor. The management of the church was entrusted to one of the metropolitans, who served as the "locum tenens of the patriarchal throne." In 1721, the patriarchate was abolished, and a “holy governing synod,” or a spiritual board, also subordinate to the senate, was created to manage the church.

Church reform meant the elimination of the independent political role of the church. It turned into an integral part of the bureaucratic apparatus of the absolutist state. In parallel with this, the state increased control over the income of the church and systematically withdrew a significant part of them for the needs of the treasury. These actions of Peter the Great caused discontent among the church hierarchy and the black clergy and were one of the main reasons for their participation in all kinds of reactionary conspiracies.

Peter carried out a church reform, expressed in the creation of a collegial (synodal) administration of the Russian church. The destruction of the patriarchate reflected Peter's desire to eliminate the "princely" system of church authority, unthinkable under the autocracy of Peter's time.

By declaring himself the de facto head of the church, Peter destroyed its autonomy. Moreover, he made extensive use of the institutions of the church to carry out police policy. Citizens, under pain of large fines, were obliged to attend church and repent of their sins at confession to the priest. The priest, also according to the law, was obliged to report to the authorities about everything illegal that became known during confession.

The transformation of the church into a bureaucratic office protecting the interests of the autocracy, serving its needs, meant the destruction for the people of a spiritual alternative to the regime and ideas coming from the state. The Church became an obedient instrument of power and thereby lost the respect of the people in many respects, which subsequently looked with indifference both at its death under the rubble of the autocracy and at the destruction of its temples.

2.5 Reforms in the field of culture and life

Important changes in the life of the country strongly demanded the training of qualified personnel. The scholastic school, which was in the hands of the church, could not provide this. Secular schools began to open, education began to acquire a secular character. This required the creation of new textbooks to replace the church textbooks.

In 1708, Peter the Great introduced a new civil script, which replaced the old Cyrillic half-charter. For the printing of secular educational, scientific, political literature and legislative acts, new printing houses were created in Moscow and St. Petersburg.

The development of printing was accompanied by the beginning of an organized book trade, as well as the creation and development of a network of libraries. Since 1702 The first Russian newspaper Vedomosti was published systematically.

The development of industry and trade was associated with the study and development of the territory and subsoil of the country, which was reflected in the organization of a number of large expeditions.

During this time, major technical innovations and inventions appeared, especially in the development of mining and metallurgy, as well as in the military field.

Since that period, a number of important works on history have been written, and the Cabinet of Curiosities created by Peter the Great laid the foundation for collecting collections of historical and memorial objects and rarities, weapons, materials on the natural sciences, etc. At the same time, they began to collect ancient written sources, make copies of chronicles, letters, decrees and other acts. This was the beginning of the museum business in Russia.

The logical result of all the activities in the field of the development of science and education was the foundation in 1724 of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.

From the first quarter of the 18th century. the transition to urban planning and regular planning of cities was carried out. The appearance of the city began to be determined not by religious architecture, but by palaces and mansions, houses of government agencies and aristocracy.

In painting, icon painting is replaced by a portrait. By the first quarter of the 18th century. also include attempts to create a Russian theater, at the same time the first dramatic works were written.

Changes in everyday life affected the mass of the population. The old habitual long-sleeved clothes with long sleeves were forbidden and replaced with new ones. Camisoles, ties and frills, wide-brimmed hats, stockings, shoes, wigs quickly replaced old Russian clothes in the cities. Western European outerwear and dress among women spread the fastest. It was forbidden to wear a beard, which caused discontent, especially among the taxable classes. a special "beard tax" and a mandatory copper sign for its payment were introduced.

Peter the Great established assemblies with the obligatory presence of women, which reflected serious changes in their position in society. The establishment of the assemblies marked the beginning of the establishment among the Russian nobility of "rules of good manners" and "noble behavior in society", the use of a foreign, mainly French, language.

The changes in everyday life and culture that took place in the first quarter of the 18th century were of great progressive significance. But they even more emphasized the allocation of the nobility to a privileged estate, turned the use of the benefits and achievements of culture into one of the noble class privileges and was accompanied by the widespread gallomania, a contemptuous attitude towards the Russian language and Russian culture among the nobility.

2.6 Economic reform

Serious changes took place in the system of feudal property, in the property and state duties of the peasants, in the tax system, and the power of the landowners over the peasants was further strengthened. In the first quarter of the 18th century. the merger of the two forms of feudal landownership was completed: by a decree on single inheritance (1714), all noble estates were turned into estates, land and peasants were transferred to the full unlimited property of the landowner.

The expansion and strengthening of feudal landownership and the property rights of the landlord contributed to the satisfaction of the increased needs of the nobles for money. This entailed an increase in the size of feudal rent, accompanied by an increase in peasant duties, strengthened and expanded the connection between the noble estate and the market.

During this period, a real leap took place in the industry of Russia, a large-scale manufacturing industry grew, the main branches of which were metallurgy and metalworking, shipbuilding, textile and leather industries.

The peculiarity of the industry was that it was based on forced labor. This meant the spread of serfdom to new forms of production and new areas of the economy.

The rapid development of the manufacturing industry for that time (by the end of the first quarter of the century there were more than 100 manufactories in Russia) was largely ensured by the protectionist policy of the Russian government aimed at encouraging the development of the country's economy, primarily in industry and trade, both domestic and especially external.

The nature of trading has changed. The development of manufactory and handicraft production, its specialization in certain regions of the country, the involvement of the serf economy in commodity-money relations and Russia's access to the Baltic Sea gave a powerful impetus to the growth of domestic and foreign trade.

A feature of Russia's foreign trade of this period was that exports, which amounted to 4.2 million rubles, were twice as high as imports.

The interests of the development of industry and trade, without which the feudal state could not successfully solve the tasks assigned to it, determined its policy towards the city, the merchant class and the artisan population. The population of the city was divided into "regular", who owned property, and "irregular". In turn, the "regular" was divided into two guilds. The first included merchants and industrialists, and the second included small merchants and artisans. Only the "regular" population enjoyed the right to choose city institutions.

3. Consequences of the reforms of Peter the Great

In the country, serf relations were not only preserved, but strengthened and dominated, with all the generations that accompanied them, both in the economy and in the field of the superstructure. However, changes in all spheres of the socio-economic and political life of the country, gradually accumulating and maturing in the 17th century, grew into a qualitative leap in the first quarter of the 18th century. medieval Muscovite Rus turned into a Russian empire.

Huge changes have taken place in its economy, level and forms of development of productive forces, political system, structure and functions of government, administration and courts, in the organization of the army, in the class and class structure of the population, in the culture of the country and the way of life of the people. The place of Russia and its role in the international relations of that time changed radically.

Naturally, all these changes took place on a feudal-serf basis. But this system itself already existed in completely different conditions. He has not yet lost the opportunity for his development. Moreover, the pace and scope of its development of new territories, new sectors of the economy and productive forces have increased significantly. This allowed him to solve long overdue national tasks. But the forms in which they were solved, the goals they served, more and more clearly showed that the strengthening and development of the feudal-serf system, in the presence of prerequisites for the development of capitalist relations, turn into the main brake on the progress of the country.

Already during the reign of Peter the Great, the main contradiction characteristic of the period of late feudalism can be traced. The interests of the autocratic feudal state and the class of feudal lords as a whole, the national interests of the country, demanded the acceleration of the development of productive forces, the active promotion of the growth of industry, trade, and the elimination of the technical, economic and cultural backwardness of the country.

But to solve these problems, it was necessary to reduce the scope of serfdom, the formation of a market for civilian labor, the restriction and elimination of class rights and privileges of the nobility. The exact opposite happened: the spread of serfdom in breadth and depth, the consolidation of the class of feudal lords, the consolidation, expansion and legislative registration of its rights and privileges. The slow formation of the bourgeoisie and its transformation into a class opposed to the class of feudal serfs led to the fact that the merchants and factory owners were drawn into the sphere of serf relations.

The complexity and inconsistency of Russia's development during this period also determined the inconsistency of Peter's activities and the reforms he carried out. On the one hand, they had great historical significance, since they contributed to the progress of the country and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by the feudal lords, using feudal methods, and were aimed at strengthening their dominance.

Therefore, the progressive transformations of the time of Peter the Great from the very beginning carried conservative features, which, in the course of the further development of the country, became stronger and could not ensure the elimination of socio-economic backwardness. As a result of Peter's reforms, Russia quickly caught up with those European countries where the dominance of feudal-serf relations was preserved, but it could not catch up with those countries that embarked on the capitalist path of development. The transformative activity of Peter was distinguished by indomitable energy, unprecedented scope and purposefulness, courage in breaking obsolete institutions, laws, foundations and way of life and way of life.

Perfectly understanding the importance of the development of trade and industry, Peter carried out a number of measures that satisfied the interests of the merchants. But he also strengthened and consolidated the serfdom, substantiated the regime of autocratic despotism. Peter's actions were distinguished not only by decisiveness, but also by extreme cruelty. According to Pushkin's apt definition, his decrees were "often cruel, capricious and, it seems, written with a whip."

Conclusion

Transformations of the first quarter of the 18th century. allowed Russia to take a certain step forward. The country received access to the Baltic Sea. Political and economic isolation was put an end to, Russia's international prestige was strengthened, and it became a great European power. The ruling class as a whole became stronger. A centralized bureaucratic system of governing the country was created. The power of the monarch increased, and absolutism was finally established. A step forward was made by Russian industry, trade, and agriculture.

The peculiarity of the historical path of Russia consisted in the fact that each time the result of the reforms was an even greater archaization of the system of social relations. It was she who led to a slowdown in social processes, turning Russia into a country of catching up development.

The originality also lies in the fact that the violent reforms that are catching up in their basis, the implementation of which requires strengthening, at least temporarily, the despotic principles of state power, ultimately lead to the long-term strengthening of despotism. In turn, the slow development due to the despotic regime requires new reforms. And everything repeats again. these cycles become a typological feature of Russia's historical path. Thus, as a deviation from the usual historical order, Russia's special path is being formed.

Such were the undoubted successes of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century.

Background and features of the reforms of Peter 1

Prerequisites for the reforms of Peter 1	1. Russia's lagging behind European countries in socio-economic, military and cultural terms 2. Active-volitional activity of Peter 1, orientation towards transformations in the country 3. Awareness of the need for reforms using European experience 4. The previous development of the country in the 17th century. Attempts to reform the tsars Alexei Mikhailovich and Fedor Alekseevich 5. The trip of Peter 1 to Europe - "The Great Embassy" 1697-1698.
Essence of reforms	The transformations of Peter 1 were based on the following ideas: 1. Service to the fatherland as the highest value for the monarch 2. The common good, "the good of the people" as the goal of this service 3. Practicality and rationalism as the basis of activity
Features of reforms	1. The scale of reforms and the spread of innovations in various areas of life 2. Lack of system, lack of any reform plan 3. Imitation of Western European political traditions and institutions (the political model of the "regular state" by J. Locke) 4. Many undertakings were not brought to an end 5. The desire for complete state control over the life of society

Diagram of the characteristic features of Peter's reforms

Economic reforms of Peter 1

	Peculiarities
Creation of the manufacturing industry	17th century - about 30 manufactories First quarter. 18th century - more than 200 manufactories Forced provision of manufactories with labor force on the basis of forced serf labor in accordance with the decrees of Peter I: 1703 - about ascribed peasants who were assigned to manufactories to work at the expense of the state tax 1721 - about the possessive peasants. The owners of manufactories were allowed to buy for the work of serfs
Implementation of state policy in the economic sphere	The policy of mercantilism is the economic policy of the state aimed at the accumulation of funds within the country Protectionism policy is an integral part of the mercantilism policy aimed at protecting the country's economy from foreign competition.
Active intervention of the state in the trading activities of the Russian merchants	1. the introduction of a state monopoly on the sale of a number of goods (salt, tobacco, bread, flax, resin, wax, iron, etc.); 2. forced relocation of merchants to the new capital - St. Petersburg, large taxes and duties in favor of the state

State administrative reforms of Peter 1

Abolition of the Boyar Duma
Establishment of the Senate with legislative and financial control functions
Replacement of old administrative bodies - orders - with new ones - colleges	1718-1721
Local government reform - formation of governorates
The abolition of the patriarchate and the introduction of state administration of the Orthodox Church through a new body - the Holy Synod, headed by the chief prosecutor	1700 1720
Creation of punitive state bodies of total control over the functioning of society - fiscals and prosecutors	1714 1722
Changing the system of succession. Now the monarch himself appointed his successor
Proclamation of Russia as an empire

Scheme of authorities and administration

Military reforms of Peter 1

	The introduction of recruitment duty in relation to taxable estates as the main principle of recruiting a mass regular army. Existed in Russia from 1705 to 1874.
	The beginning of the training of domestic officer cadres. For them open: School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences (1701) School of Engineering (1712) Artillery School (1701) Medical School (1707)
	New military regulations are being created. A new uniform uniform, orders and medals, promotions for military distinctions are introduced
	The army is being re-equipped, new types of weapons are being created - grenades, guns with a bayonet, mortars
	Established navy

Social reforms of Peter 1

During the implementation of Peter's reforms, there were changes in the position of social groups and in the social estate structure of Russian society:

social group	Reforms, transformations
	Completion of the process of formation of the nobility The introduction of compulsory service for the nobility, in which the principle of origin ("breed") is replaced by the principle of length of service New hierarchical division within the nobility (14 classes) based on the "Table of Ranks" (1722) Establishment of a majorate, i.e., a ban on the fragmentation of estates during inheritance. Final legal merger of estates and estates
Citizens (town dwellers)	City reform of Peter I (1699-1720): 1. Bringing to the uniformity of the social structure of the city 2. The introduction of Western European social and urban institutions in Russian cities (posads) 3. The division of the inhabitants of the city on a professional basis into workshops and guilds 4. Governance of the city through the town hall and magistrates
Peasants	According to the reform, the peasants were divided into 3 main categories (estates): 1. State peasants (a new estate was formed) - in this category, according to the tax (tax) principle, the single-palaces of the South, the black-mossed peasants of the North, the yasak peasants of the Volga and Siberia were united 2. Landlord (privately owned) serfs 3. Kholops, who existed since the period of Ancient Russia, were transferred to the category of serfs

Reforms of Peter 1 in the spiritual sphere

The transformation of the state and society as a result of Peter's reforms

	What has become	Positive effect	negative effect
For centuries, the political system that has evolved with its archaic institutions of power (Boyar Duma, orders, county-voivodship administration). Political traditions prevail (govern and live "in the old days").	Reforms of the state apparatus: 1711-creation of the Senate (the highest legislative body); 1718-1720 - the introduction of colleges (central bodies); 1708 - 1715 - the introduction of the provincial system of administrative-territorial division and local government. 1720 - "General regulations". 1722 - the creation of the highest controlling authority (the prosecutor's office).	1. The Moscow aristocracy and bureaucracy lost their power and influence. 2. The primacy of tradition is being replaced by the primacy of expediency. 3. The bloated and internally inconsistent order system has been eliminated. 4. The ridiculous division of the country into 215 counties has been eliminated.	1. The new St. Petersburg bureaucracy is growing by leaps and bounds. 2. Peter's ideas about what was expedient sometimes had nothing to do with reality. 3. The principle of collegiality (joint decision-making) in practice often turned into collective irresponsibility. 4. 8 provinces - another extreme: for the vast territory of Russia, such a number of provinces was clearly not enough.
The parochial principle of filling positions according to the nobility of origin.	Since 1722, the principle of length of service for ranks and titles according to the "Table of Ranks" has been in effect.	In the time of Peter the Great, many energetic and talented people of low origin succeed and make a dizzying career.	Shortly after Peter's death, numerous loopholes would be devised to circumvent the need for seniority.
The church was the largest feudal lord, often entered into a dispute with the secular authorities and corrected the political line to suit its interests. Many princes of the church were inveterate obscurants, opponents of science and any form of secular culture.	In 1701, the control of the Monastic order over the economic activities of the church was restored. In 1721, Peter and F. Prokopovich published the "Spiritual Regulations", containing the main provisions of the future church reform. The patriarchate was abolished, since 1722 the church was controlled by the Synod, headed by a secular official (chief procurator).	The reactionary churchmen lost all power and influence. The Church is withdrawing from the political game.	The church acquires the features of a state institution, which fundamentally contradicts the canonical concept of the church. Church self-government was paralyzed. The priests were turned into officials with the duties of agitators (propaganda of the interests of the state in sermons) and informers (reporting information received at confession). Peter's struggle with the monasteries led to the break of the ancient Russian tradition of the monastic community.
The noble militia was extremely disorganized. The nobles did not appear at the exercises and reviews, they deserted from the wars.	From 1705, recruitment duty was introduced: recruits selected from peasants served for life.	A regular army and navy appeared in Russia, which ensured a brilliant victory in the Northern War.	The bloated staffs of the army and navy required huge funds for their maintenance in peacetime. In addition, the fate of recruits, forever cut off from their native hearth and traditional way of life, is hard.
Permanent shortage of money in the treasury.	Peter invents various taxes and other ways to make a profit, effectively replenishing the treasury.	Forced industrialization of the country, successes in the military field.	The unbearable tax burden led to the impoverishment of a significant part of the country's population.
The few manufactories that existed in the country overwhelmingly belonged to the sphere of light industry.	Creation in a short time of heavy industry (Ural enterprises).	Russia occupies a leading position in the world in iron smelting.	The created industry was supported by serf labor, which doomed it to low productivity growth, technological stagnation and rapid loss of leading positions.
The dominance of church culture.	Introducing Russia to secular Western culture, science, everyday life.	New values ​​were easily accepted, and soon enriched by independent achievements.	There was a cultural conflict between the nobility and the peasantry, who continued to live in the pre-Petrine cultural paradigm.

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The source of information: History in tables and diagrams. / Edition 2e, St. Petersburg: 2013.

PETER'S REFORMS.
financial reform. It was held throughout the reign of Peter. A new set of taxes, large sales of tar, salt, alcohol. The penny becomes the main one and is firmly strengthened.Results: increase in treasury.
Public Administration Reform. 1699 - 1721 Creation of the Near Chancellery (later Governing Senate) Results: the system of public administration has become more perfect.
Provincial reform. 1708 - 1715, 1719 - 1720 Russia is divided into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan, Ingermanland, Siberia, Azov, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk. Then the provinces will be divided into another 50 provinces. Result: power was centralized.
Judicial reform. 1697, 1719, 1722 New judicial bodies were formed: the Senate, Justits - College, Hofgerichts, lower courts. Jury trial was abolished. Results: permissiveness of the governors, the governor made changes to the testimony of the jury, which was not the best way out.
military reform. from 1699 - until the death of Peter. The introduction of recruitment, the creation of a fleet, tables of ranks, new military-industrial enterprises. Result: regular army, new regiments, divisions, squadrons were created.
Church reform. 1700 - 1701 1721 Restoration of the Monastic order. In 1721 the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which deprived the church of independence. Results: the church was completely subordinate to the state. Decline of the clergy.

North War.
War algorithm:
Cause: between the Swedish Empire and the coalition of northern European states for the possession of the Baltic lands. Initially, the Northern Alliance declared war on Sweden. The structure of the Northern Union included: Russia, Denmark (later dropped out), Saxony. Countries - allies on the side of Russia: Hanover, Holland, Prussia. Countries - allies on the side of Sweden: Great Britain, the Ottoman Empire, Holstein. Commanders-in-chief on the side of Russia: Peter I, Sherementiev, Menshikov. The commanders-in-chief on the side of Sweden: Charles XII. The beginning of the war: 1700. The total number of Russian soldiers: 32 thousand. The total number of soldiers in Sweden: 8 thousand. Lost weapons of countries: Russia - 8 thousand people, 145 guns and all food supplies. Sweden - 3 thousand people. At the very beginning of the war, Russia was at a loss. And the first trip to Sweden was a failure. Peter sought to recapture the Russian lands previously taken by Sweden. And open access to the sea (respectively, cutting a window to Europe). Another reason for the defeat of Russia - most of the soldiers were hired, and fled to the side of Sweden. Only two regiments remained - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky. But the Russian army still managed to win. The young king of Sweden, after winning over Russia, went to war with Poland. Next came the Battle of Poltava. For which RI was ready, Sweden was confused. Peter thoroughly prepared his troops for this battle. The Republic of Ingushetia finally defeated Sweden near the village of Lesnaya. They smashed a convoy from Riga with food for Sweden. Land and access to the sea were open. The victory remained with our troops.

The goals of the reforms of Peter I (1682-1725) are the maximum strengthening of the power of the tsar, the growth of the military power of the country, the territorial expansion of the state and access to the sea. The most prominent associates of Peter I are A. D. Menshikov, G. I. Golovkin, F. M. Apraksin, P. I. Yaguzhinsky.

military reform. A regular army was created with the help of conscription, new charters were introduced, a fleet was built, equipment in the Western style.

Public Administration Reform. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate (1711), orders by boards. The "Table of Ranks" was introduced. The decree of succession allows the king to appoint anyone heir to the throne. The capital in 1712 was transferred to St. Petersburg. In 1721, Peter took the imperial title.

Church reform. The patriarchate was liquidated, the church began to be controlled by the Holy Synod. The priests were transferred to state salaries.

Changes in the economy. Poll tax introduced. Created up to 180 manufactories. State monopolies for various goods have been introduced. Canals and roads are being built.

social reforms. The decree on single inheritance (1714) equated estates with estates and forbade them to be divided during inheritance. Passports are introduced for peasants. Serfs and serfs are actually equated.

Reforms in the field of culture. Navigation, Engineering, Medical and other schools, the first public theater, the first newspaper Vedomosti, a museum (Kunstkamera), the Academy of Sciences were created. The nobles are sent to study abroad. Western dress for nobles is introduced, beard shaving, smoking, assemblies.

Results. Absolutism is finally formed. The military power of Russia is growing. The antagonism between the tops and the bottoms is aggravated. Serfdom begins to acquire slave forms. The upper class merged into one nobility.

In 1698, the archers, dissatisfied with the worsening conditions of service, rebelled, in 1705-1706. there was an uprising in Astrakhan, on the Don and in the Volga region in 1707-1709. - the uprising of K. A. Bulavin, in 1705-1711. - in Bashkiria.

The time of Peter the Great is the most important milestone in Russian history. There is an opinion that the reform program matured long before his reign, but if this is so, then Peter went much further than his predecessors. True, he began reforms not when he formally became king (1682) and not when he deposed his sister, Tsarina Sophia, but much later. In 1698, having returned from Europe, he began to introduce new orders: from now on, everyone had to shave their beards or pay a tax. New clothes were introduced (according to the European model). Education was reformed - mathematical schools were opened (foreigners taught in them). In Russia, they began to print scientific books in a new printing house. The army was reformed, the Streltsy regiment was disbanded, and the archers were partly sent to different cities, partly they were transferred to soldiers. Local self-government bodies were created - the Town Hall in Moscow and Zemsky huts in other cities - then they were transformed into magistrates (they collected taxes and duties). The tsar decided important matters himself (received ambassadors, issued decrees). As before, orders continued to exist, as before, their unification went on (in 1711 they were replaced by colleges). Peter tried to simplify and centralize power as much as possible. The church was reformed, its property was received by the monastery order, the income went to the treasury. In 1700, the Northern War began for access to the Baltic. She went with varying success, managed to win back the lands along the Neva River, the fortress of St. Petersburg, the future capital, was founded here, another fortress, Krondstadt, was built to protect it in the north. The construction of the fleet in the Baltic was founded - at the mouth of the Neva, the Admiralty shipyard was laid. Production was reformed: artisans united in workshops, manufactories were created. Ore mining developed in the Urals. The nobility occupied a special position in society - it owned land and peasants, under Peter its composition changed, it included people from other estates. According to the new rank division - "Table of Ranks", a person who received the 8th rank became a nobleman (14 ranks in total), the service was divided into military and civil. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate (judicial, administrative and judicial power). Since 1711, the service of fiscals appeared (they exercised control over all administrations). The Synod was approved to manage church affairs. Peter divided the country into 8 provinces (power was exercised by the Governor) and 50 provinces. 10/22/1720 - at a meeting of the Senate, Peter I was officially named Emperor, and Russia - an empire. In the last years of his life, Peter changed the rule of inheritance of power, from now on the ruler himself could appoint an heir. Peter died on January 28, 1725 from a long illness.

Peter I and his transformations in the first quarter of the 18th century.

Peter I came to the throne in 1682, began to rule independently from 1694. Historians, arguing about the meaning of what Peter did, are unanimous in the opinion that his reign was an era in Russian history. His activities cannot be explained only by a passion for European orders and hostility to the old Russian way of life. Of course, the personal qualities of the tsar were reflected in the transformations of the beginning of the 18th century: impulsiveness, cruelty, firmness, purposefulness, energy, openness, characteristic of his nature, are also characteristic of his activities. But the reforms had their own objective prerequisites, which by the end of the 17th century. clearly defined.

The reforms were made possible by the processes that gained momentum during the reign of Father Peter I Alexei Mikhailovich. In the socio-economic sphere: the beginning of the formation of a single Russian market, the success of foreign trade, the emergence of the first manufactories, elements of protectionism (protection of domestic production from foreign competition). In the sphere of state structure: the triumph of absolutist tendencies, the termination of the activity of Zemsky Sobors, the improvement of the system of central authorities and administration. In the military sphere: regiments of the "new system", attempts to change the system of recruiting the army. In the field of foreign policy: military and diplomatic activity in the Black Sea and Baltic areas. In the spiritual sphere: the secularization of culture, the strengthening of European influences, including as a result of Nikon's church reforms. The noted changes, significant in themselves, nevertheless did not eliminate the main thing - Russia's lag behind the Western European powers did not decrease. The intolerance of the situation began to be realized, the understanding of the need for reforms became more and more broad. “They were going on the road, but they were waiting for someone, they were waiting for the leader, the leader appeared” (S. M. Solovyov).

The transformations covered all areas of public life - the economy, social relations, the system of power and administration, the military sphere, the church, culture and life. Until the mid 1710s. they were carried out without a clear plan, under the pressure of circumstances, mainly military ones. Then the reforms took on a more holistic character.

Radical changes have taken place in industry. The state in every way contributed to the growth of manufactories in metallurgy, shipbuilding, textile, leather, rope, glass production. The centers of the metallurgical industry were the Urals, Lipetsk, Karelia, shipbuilding - St. Petersburg and Voronezh, textile production - Moscow. For the first time in the history of the country, the state took on the role of an active and active participant in economic processes. Large manufacturing enterprises were founded and maintained at the expense of the treasury. Many of them were transferred to private owners on preferential terms. The problem of providing enterprises with a labor force, which was extremely acute under the dominance of serfdom and the absence of a free labor market, was solved by the Petrine state by applying the recipe traditional for the serf economy. It assigned peasants or convicts, vagabonds, and beggars to manufactories and assigned to them. The bizarre combination of the new (manufactory production) with the old (serf labor) is a characteristic feature of the Petrine reforms as a whole. Another instrument of state influence on economic development was measures that corresponded to the principles of mercantilism (the doctrine according to which money imported into the country should be more than money exported from it): the establishment of high customs duties on goods produced in Russia, the promotion of exports, the provision of benefits factory owners.

Peter I completely changed the system of state administration. The place of the Boyar Duma, which had not played a significant role since 1700, was taken in 1711 by the Governing Senate, which had legislative, administrative and judicial power. Initially, the Senate consisted of nine people, later the position of Prosecutor General was established. In 1717-1718. orders were liquidated and collegiums were created (at first 10, then their number increased) - Foreign Affairs, Admiralty, Military, Chamber Collegium, Justice Collegium, Manufactory Collegium, etc. Their activities were determined by the General Regulations (1720). Unlike orders, the boards were built on the principles of collegiality, delineation of powers, and strict regulation of activities. Bureaucratic mechanisms were introduced into the public administration system (hierarchy, strict subordination, following instructions, reducing the manager's personality to the level of the function performed by him), which took precedence over the ancient principles of parochialism and generosity. With the adoption of the Table of Ranks (1722), which divided all civil servants - military, civil and courtiers - into 14 classes and opened up brilliant prospects for advancement to the nobility for people from the social lower classes (an official who received the VIII class in civilian service became a hereditary nobleman), the bureaucratic the car was finally finished. The introduction of the nobles into public service was supposed to be facilitated by the “Decree on Uniform Succession” (1714), according to which all lands were inherited only by one of the sons. The reforms of the central government were combined with the introduction of a new territorial division of the country into eight provinces, headed by governors who were subordinate to the monarch and had full powers over the population entrusted to them. Later, the provincial division was supplemented by a division into 50 provinces headed by governors. The transformation of the church into an element of the state apparatus corresponded to the spirit and logic of the transformations. In 1721, Peter created the Holy Synod, headed by a secular chief prosecutor, to manage church affairs.

The most important element of the transformation was the introduction of a recruiting system for completing the army. The recruit was sent for lifelong military service from a certain number of peasants and other tax-paying estates. In 1699-1725. 53 recruits were carried out for the army and the navy, which was created by Peter - a total of more than 200 thousand people. The regular army was subject to uniform military regulations and instructions.

The maintenance of the army, the construction of manufactories, an active foreign policy required a lot of money. Until 1724, more and more taxes were introduced: on a beard, smoke, a bathhouse, honey, stamped paper, etc. In 1724, after the census of the population, the male population of the tax-paying estates was subject to a per capita tax. Its size was determined simply: the amount of expenses for the maintenance of the army and navy was divided by the number of adult men and the desired figure was displayed.

The above transformations are not exhausted (for culture and way of life, see ticket number 10, for foreign policy - ticket number 11). Their main goals are clear: Peter sought to Europeanize Russia, to overcome the backlog, to create a regular, effective state, to make the country a great power. These goals have been largely achieved. The proclamation of Russia as an empire (1721) can be considered a symbol of success. But behind the brilliant imperial façade, serious contradictions were hidden: the reforms were carried out by force, relying on the punitive power of the state apparatus, due to the most severe exploitation of the population. Absolutism was established, and its main support was the overgrown bureaucratic apparatus. The lack of freedom of all classes intensified - the nobility, subject to the strict guardianship of the state, including. The cultural split of Russian society into a Europeanized elite and a mass of the population alien to the new values ​​has become a reality. Violence was recognized as the main engine of the country's historical development.

The era of Ivan the Terrible: reforms of the elected glad, oprichnina.

The following articles:

• Palace coups, their socio-political essence and consequences.
• Culture and life of the peoples of Russia in the XVIII century (enlightenment and science, architecture, sculpture, painting, theater).