Grammatical form is defined as regular modifications of a word that have different grammatical meanings. For example, the form of 1 person unit. h. present write, read, see or the past tense form pl. h. write, read, see.

In morphology, the term grammatical form can be used in two ways. First, the grammatical form can be understood as an abstract pattern in abstraction from concrete words: the form of the adjective sg. hours, feminine, I. p. This form can be represented in different words: red, wooden, boring.

Another use of the term is in the meaning of the form of a particular word: the form of I.p. unit noun back. For terminological distinction, the concept is introduced word forms. Word form - a specific word in any grammatical form: in the garden is a word form garden.

There are several points in the content of the word form. Firstly, the lexical meaning is distinguished, and secondly, the word-formation (or derivational) meaning, which, on the one hand, participates in the formation of the lexical meaning, and on the other hand, carries information about the part-of-speech belonging of the word. For example, in the word teacher the derivational meaning of a person is expressed by the suffix -tel, which also signals that the word is a noun. Thirdly, grammatical relational meanings are distinguished in the word, which are expressed either by inflection (ending) or in other ways (see below). For example, in the word teacher grammatical meanings of gender, number, case are expressed by zero ending.

Compare: lexical meaning relational meaning

Teacher + Tel + Sh

derivational

Meaning

grammatical meaning

Grammatical meanings are opposed to lexical ones in terms of the way they express meanings: grammatical meanings have a regular expression in the form of affixes, sometimes the roots themselves (a phenomenon of suppletivism), repetitions (reduplication), non-segmental units, auxiliary words or combinations of independent words. Lexical values ​​lack such a regular expression.

Grammatical meanings are abstract in nature and are inherent in a number of words, not just one word. The abstract nature of grammatical meanings is manifested, in particular, in such examples, where the meaning of objectivity - a part-of-speech characteristic of nouns - is found in words whose roots express action - move, run. The grammatical meaning is repeated in a number of words, the lexical meaning is repeated individually.

Let us consider in more detail the ways of expressing grammatical meanings. There are synthetic and analytical methods. With a synthetic (simple) method, grammatical meanings are expressed through morphemes - relational, formative, and even root. In the analytical (complex) method, grammatical meaning is expressed by a combination of words - significant and auxiliary or significant and significant, as well as reduplication, word order and intonation.

Examples of relational affixes are: DOLLS A - DOLLS

RED - RED - RED, WALKED - WALKED A - WALKED,

where inflections express the meaning of gender and number. Formative affixes are used, for example, to express past tense values - WALKED, SAW.

Grammatical meanings can be expressed by different roots, this method is called suppletivism: good - better, bad - worse, I - me. In addition to the named synthetic methods, internal inflection and stress are also used. Internal inflection is a grammatical tool represented by an alternation of phonemes (historical, or grammatical) that serves to express grammatical meanings: in English, tooth (teeth) - teeth (tooth), man (man) - men (men). Stress serves as the only means of distinguishing forms of units. h. R. p. and many others. h.i.p. for words pbrusa - parusb, lega - lugb.

Analytical methods, which are a combination of two words, significant and official, are observed in the examples: I will write, I would write. In the example I walked, you walked, he walked the category of a person is expressed by separate independent words - pronouns. Another means of expressing grammatical meanings is reduplication. This phenomenon consists in the repetition of either a syllable, or a root, or a whole word. For example, barely, just a little bit. In some languages, reduplication is quite common. For example, in some African languages, reduplication is a means of expressing the plural; in the Indo-European proto-language, reduplication was used to express the meaning of duration in verbal stems. Different intonation delimits sentences with the meaning of the question and motivation: Right? - Right! In the examples two hours and two hours word order affects the expression of the meaning of a particular and approximate time.

The word forms of one word constitute a paradigm. Paradigms can be complete and particular, complete and incomplete. The paradigms of many words turn out to be very complex. For example, the case paradigm of a noun is made up of the case word forms of the singular and plural. Case forms combined by a grammatical singular or plural value are particular paradigms within the full paradigm. A complete paradigm may consist of two, three, four or more partial paradigms. For example, a full paradigm of an adjective consists of at least five particulars. In the paradigm of a word, there may be no particular paradigm. For example, collective nouns do not have plural forms. Such paradigms are called incomplete.

Any word in any language other than an individual lexical one also has a grammatical meaning, indicating the relation of this word to other words in a phrase or sentence, the relation to the person performing the action, the relation of the reported fact to time, etc.

If the lexical meaning is always inherent in only one specific word, then the grammatical meaning always characterizes a whole class of words. So, for example, the lexical meaning "a vehicle on four wheels driven by an internal combustion engine" is inherent only in the word "car", but the grammatical meaning of the masculine gender is also inherent in the Russian language for the words "ceiling", "man", "cucumber ' and many other words. The grammatical meaning together with the lexical one forms the so-called general meaning of the word.

Most words have more than one grammatical meaning. So, the verb "wrote" is characterized by the grammatical meaning of the past tense, perfective, masculine, singular; the adjective "highest" is characterized by the grammatical meanings of the singular, nominative, feminine, superlative.

Grammatical meanings can be constant (classifying) and "variable" (formative). So, for example, the meaning of the masculine gender of the noun "stol" is constant, the word table in Russian under no circumstances can become neuter or feminine, but the meaning of the nominative singular can be changed: "stol", "stol ”, “tables”, “tables”, etc.

The means of expressing grammatical meaning can be either synthetic or analytic. Synthetic means such means of expressing grammatical meaning that are associated with a change in the form of a word. Analytical are such forms of expression of grammatical meaning that are external to the word and are not associated with a change in its form.

The main synthetic means of expressing grammatical meaning in most languages ​​of the world is affixation. All types of affixes can act as formatives, except for interfixes, which are strictly assigned to the sphere of word formation.

Another synthetic means of expressing grammatical meaning is suppletivism. Suppletivism is the replacement of the root of a word with another in connection with a change in the grammatical meaning of the word (I go - I went, good - better, man - people). Not all grammatical meanings are transmitted in a suppletive way.

So, for example, in many languages ​​of the world we encounter suppletive forms of number or verb tense, but nowhere is a suppletive way of conveying case meanings found. Suppletivism is not the main means of expressing grammatical meaning in any language of the world, but a certain number of suppletive forms are found in almost all languages ​​of the world. However, in some languages, such as Chinese or Dungan, suppletivism is completely absent.

In many languages, there is also such a means of expressing grammatical meaning as stress transfer. Russian: “pour - pour”, “cut - cut” (perfect - imperfect form); Bulgarian: “pѝsha” (writes) - “write” (wrote), “cheta” (reads) - “cheta” (read), etc.

Such a method as reduplication (doubling the root of a word) is not typical for the Russian language; of the Indo-European languages, it is most actively used in Sanskrit, ancient Greek, and Latin. So, for example, in Latin, the perfect forms of many verbs are formed by partial doubling of the root: mordeo (bite) - momordi (bite), do (give) - dedi (gave), curro (run) - cucurri (ran), etc. .

Reduplication is especially common in Malay and Indonesian, where it forms the plural of nouns. Malay: orang (person) - orangorang (people); Indonesian: glombang (wave) - glombangglombang (waves).

In some languages, grammatical meaning can be expressed by changing the musical tone of the root vowel. So, in the Nuer language, the word lei, pronounced with a falling intonation, will mean "animal", and lei with an ascending intonation - "animals" (singular - plural).

Analytical means of expressing grammatical meaning include various kinds of particles, prepositions, articles, auxiliary verbs. A very important analytical means of expressing grammatical meaning is the order of words in a sentence; changing this order in languages ​​such as English, French, German, Chinese, Vietnamese, etc. can lead to a complete change in the meaning of the phrase. Wed English: “A cat sees a dog.” and “A dog sees a cat.” (“The cat sees the dog.” and “The dog sees the cat.”).

A very important analytical means of expressing grammatical meaning is the context. So, for example, in the sentences “A coat hung on a hanger.” and “New coats are expensive” The plural meaning of the word “coat” is conveyed purely by context.

The establishment of the grammatical meaning of a word is sometimes facilitated by knowledge of its lexical meaning. Let's take the sentence "The lawn was run over by a tank" as an example. Both the noun "lawn" and the noun "tank" have the same nominative and accusative cases. To understand that the word "tank" is in the form of the nominative case, and, therefore, is the subject, and the word "lawn" is in the form of the accusative case, and, therefore, is a direct object, we can only proceed from the lexical meaning of these words.

A lawn is a piece of land planted with grass or flowers, it is an immovable object, and nothing can move. The tank, being an armored self-propelled vehicle, may well move something, from which it follows that it is the noun "tank" in this case that is in the form of the nominative case and is the subject.

Very often the grammatical meaning of a word is conveyed not with the help of any one means, but with the help of a complex of different means, of which one, as a rule, is the main one, and the rest are additional. So, for example, in the German die Bücher (books), the main indicator of the plural is the ending - er, and the additional ones are the infix -ü- (in the singular it will be Buch) and the plural article die.

A.Yu. Musorin. Fundamentals of the science of language - Novosibirsk, 2004

grammatical meaning

The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word; The differences between these two types of values ​​are as follows:

1. Grammatical meanings are very abstract, so they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb aspect is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical one, therefore it characterizes only a certain word. Even the most abstract lexical meanings (for example, the meanings of such words as infinity, speed) are less abstract than grammatical meanings.

2. The lexical meaning is expressed by the basis of the word, the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal ones).

So, grammatical meaning is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, the noun 'wolf' in the sentence I would have gnawed out bureaucracy (M.) expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, masculine, singular, instrumental (comparison value: `like a wolf, like a wolf`). The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called categorical (general categorical); such are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, quantity in a numeral, etc.

The categorical meaning of the word is supplemented and specified by private (private categorical) grammatical meanings; Thus, a noun is characterized by particular categorical grammatical meanings of animateness ~ inanimateness, gender, number and case.

Grammatical meaning always accompanies lexical meaning, and lexical meaning does not always accompanies grammatical meaning.

For example: ocean - person (different lexical meaning, but the same grammatical meaning - noun, singular, I.p) [Lekant 2007: 239-240].

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings

In Russian morphology, there are different ways of expressing grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed.

With the synthetic method, grammatical meanings are usually expressed by affixation, i.e. the presence or absence of affixes (for example, table, table; goes, go; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), much less often - alternating sounds and stress (die - die; oils - special oils), as well as suppletive, i.e. formations from different roots (man - people, good - better). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress (water - water), as well as with the alternation of sounds (sleep - sleep).

With the analytical method, grammatical meanings receive their expression outside the main word, i.e. in other words (listen - I will listen).

With a mixed or hybrid method, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i.e. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed by the preposition and ending (in the house), the grammatical meaning of the first person by the pronoun and ending (I will come).

Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: in a verb there is an ending - ut expresses both person, number, and mood [Internet resource 6].

A grammatical category is a set of morphological forms opposed to each other with a common grammatical content. For example, the forms I write - you write - write indicate a person and therefore are combined into a verbal grammatical category of a person; the forms I wrote - I write - I will write express time and form the category of time, the word forms table - tables, book - books express the idea of ​​the number of objects, they are combined into the category of number, etc. We can also say that grammatical categories are formed private morphological paradigms. Grammar categories in general have three features.

1) Grammatical categories form a kind of closed systems. The number of members opposed to each other in the grammatical category is predetermined by the structure of the language and does not vary in general (in the synchronous section). Moreover, each member of the category can be represented by one or several single-functional forms. Thus, the grammatical category of the number of nouns is formed by two members, one of which is represented by singular forms (table, book, pen), the other by plural forms (tables, books, pens). Nouns and adjectives have three genders, a verb has three faces, two kinds, etc. The quantitative composition of some grammatical categories in the literature is defined differently, which is actually related not to the volume of the category, but to the assessment of its components. So, in nouns, 6, 9, 10 and more cases are distinguished. However, this reflects only different methods of highlighting cases. As for the grammatical structure of the language itself, the case system in it is regulated by the existing types of declension.

2) The expression of grammatical meaning (content) between the forms that form the category is distributed: I write means the first person, you write - the second, writes - the third; table, book, pen indicate the singular, and tables, books, feathers indicate the plural, large is masculine, large is feminine, and large is neuter, the form large does not indicate gender.

3) Forms that form morphological categories must be united by a common content component (which is reflected in the definition of a grammatical category). This is a prerequisite for highlighting a grammatical category. Without this generality, grammatical categories are not formed. For example, the opposition of transitive and intransitive verbs does not form a morphological category precisely because it is not based on a common content. For the same reason, other lexico-grammatical categories distinguished in independent parts of speech are not morphological categories [Kamynina 1999: 10-14].

Significant and service parts of speech

Parts of speech are the main grammatical classes of words, which are established taking into account the morphological properties of words. These word classes are important not only for morphology, but also for lexicology and syntax.

Words belonging to the same part of speech have common grammatical features:

1) the same generalized grammatical meaning, called part-of-speech (for example, for all nouns, the meaning of objectivity);

2) the same set of morphological categories (nouns are characterized by the categories of animateness / inanimateness, gender, number and case). In addition, words of the same part of speech have word-formation proximity and perform the same syntactic functions as part of a sentence.

In modern Russian, independent and service parts of speech, as well as interjections, are distinguished.

Independent parts of speech serve to designate objects, signs, processes and other phenomena of reality. Such words are usually independent members of the sentence, carry verbal stress. The following independent parts of speech are distinguished: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.

Within the independent parts of speech, full-significant and non-full-significant words are contrasted. Fully significant words (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, most adverbs) serve to name certain objects, phenomena, signs, and non-full-significant words (these are pronouns and pronominal adverbs) only indicate objects, phenomena, signs, without naming them.

Another distinction is important within the framework of independent parts of speech: names (nouns, adjectives, numerals, as well as pronouns) as parts of speech that are declined (changed by cases) are opposed to the verb as a part of speech, which is characterized by conjugation (change by moods, tenses, persons) .

Service parts of speech (particles, conjunctions, prepositions) do not name the phenomena of reality, but denote the relationships that exist between these phenomena. They are not independent members of the sentence, usually do not have verbal stress.

Interjections (ah!, hurray!, etc.) are neither independent nor functional parts of speech, they constitute a special grammatical category of words. Interjections express (but do not name) the feelings of the speaker [Lekant 2007: 243-245].

Since parts of speech are a grammatical concept, it is obvious that the principles, the grounds for distinguishing parts of speech must be primarily grammatical. First, such grounds are the syntactic properties of the word. Some words are included in the grammatical composition of the sentence, others are not. Some of the sentences included in the grammatical composition are independent members of the sentence, others are not, since they can only perform the function of a service element that establishes relationships between the members of the sentence, parts of the sentence, etc. Secondly, the morphological features of words are essential: their mutability or immutability, the nature of the grammatical meanings that a particular word can express, the system of its forms.

Based on the foregoing, all the words of the Russian language are divided into sentences included in the grammatical composition and not included in this composition. The former represent the vast majority of words. Among them stand out the words significant and official.

Significant words are independent members of the sentence. These include: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, category of state.

Significant words are usually called parts of speech. Among the significant words, according to the morphological feature of mutability-invariability, on the one hand, names and a verb are distinguished, on the other hand, an adverb and a category of state.

The last two categories - adverbs and the category of state - differ in their syntactic function (adverbs serve mainly as a circumstance, the category of state - as a predicate of an impersonal sentence: "I am sad because you are happy" (L.), and also in that, unlike adverbs, the word categories of state are able to control ("I'm sad", "it's fun for you"; "How fun, having shod with sharp iron on your feet, To slide along the mirror of stagnant, even rivers!" - P.).

Service words (they are also called particles of speech) are united by the fact that they (included in the grammatical composition of a sentence) serve only to express various kinds of grammatical relations or participate in the formation of forms of other words, i.e. are not part of the offer. From a morphological point of view, they are also united by immutability.

These include prepositions, conjunctions, and particles. At the same time, prepositions serve to express the relationship of a noun to other words, unions establish a connection between the members of a sentence and parts of a complex sentence. Particles are involved in the formation of certain verb forms, in the construction of a certain type of sentence (for example, interrogative ones). Words that are not part of the grammatical composition of the sentence include modal words, interjections and onomatopoeia.

Modal words (possibly, of course, maybe, probably, apparently, perhaps, of course, etc.) express the attitude of the speaker to the content of the statement. Interjections serve to express feelings and volitional impulses (oh, oh-oh-oh, scat, well, etc.). Onomatopoeia - words that convey some sounds and noises. These last three categories of words, like auxiliary words, are unchangeable [Rakhmanova 1997: 20].

Grammatical meaning and grammatical form of the word

MORPHOLOGY AS A SECTION OF GRAMMAR

Subject of morphology

Morphology and syntax are two sections of grammar, the subject of which is the grammatical meaning and the forms of expression of this meaning. If at the level of syntax the forms of expression of grammatical meaning are a phrase and a sentence, then at the level of morphology - word forms, i.e., individual forms of a particular word (table, table, table etc.).

Morphology studies words in their grammatical forms and functions, the rules for changing words, determines the range of correlative grammatical meanings that make up one or another grammatical category.

Morphology also includes the doctrine of parts of speech - the largest grammatical classes of words.

Thus, the subject of morphology is the grammatical classes of words (parts of speech), their grammatical categories, systems of word forms and the rules for their inflection.

Grammatical meaning and grammatical form of the word

The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word. If the lexical meaning correlates the sound shell of the word with the reality (object, phenomenon, sign, action, etc.), then the grammatical meaning forms a specific form of the word (word form), which is necessary mainly to link this word with other words in the text.

The lexical meaning of a word is concrete and individual, while the grammatical meaning is abstract and generalized. Yes, the words mountain, wall, hole denote different objects and have different lexical meanings; but from the point of view of grammar, they are included in the same category of words that have the same set of grammatical meanings: objectivity, nominative case, singular, feminine, inanimate.

An indicator of lexical meaning in a word is the basis of the word, and for grammatical meaning - special indicators: ending (window- about, handsome- th, rast- ut), formative suffix, prefix (the game- l, bel- her, With-do), stress (neg e zat- cut a t), phoneme alternation (sl ag at- sl oh it), official word (will play, about coat) and etc.

Usually a particular word form has several grammatical meanings. Yes, word form strong has the meaning of the nominative case, singular, feminine, and I read- the meaning of the first person, singular, imperfective form, indicative mood, present tense, etc.

Grammatical meanings are divided into general and particular. The general grammatical (categorical) meaning characterizes the largest grammatical classes of words - parts of speech (objectivity - for a noun, an attribute of an object - for an adjective, action as a process - for a verb, etc.). Private grammatical meaning is characteristic of individual forms of words (meanings of number, case, person, mood, time, etc.).

The general grammatical meaning of a word is made up of a set of particular grammatical meanings. For example, the meaning of the objectivity of a noun is made up of particular grammatical meanings of gender, number, and case. In other words, if a word has gender, number, and case meanings independent of the words combined with it, then the meaning of objectivity is inherent in it, and, therefore, it belongs to the class of nouns.

The carrier of grammatical meaning at the word level is a single form of the word - word form. The set of all word forms of the same word is called paradigm. The paradigm of a word, depending on its grammatical characteristics, can consist of both one word form (adverb rashly), and from several word forms (the noun paradigm house consists of 12 word forms).

grammatical meaning

(formal) meaning. A meaning that acts as an additive to the lexical meaning of a word and expresses various relationships (relation to other words in a phrase or sentence, relation to a linden performing an action or other persons, relation of the reported fact to reality and time, the speaker’s attitude to the reported, etc. .). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. So, the word country has the meaning of the feminine, nominative case, singular; the word wrote contains the grammatical meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine, perfective. Grammatical meanings find their morphological or syntactic expression in the language. They are expressed mainly by the form of the word, which is formed:

a) affixation. Book, book, book, etc. (case values);

b) internal inflection. Collect - collect (values ​​​​of imperfect and perfect form);

c) accent. Houses. (genus. falling singular) - at home (named after falling. plural);

d) suppletivism. Take - take (values ​​of the form). Good - better (values ​​of the degree of comparison);

f) mixed (synthetic and analytical methods). To the house (the meaning of the dative case is expressed by a preposition and a case form).

Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. Ed. 2nd. - M.: Enlightenment. Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A.. 1976 .

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