The first mention of the use of tea dates back to the 4th century AD. However, according to scientists, the tea drink began to be consumed much earlier in East Asia.

one . Not everyone and not always knew that tea should be brewed. When tea first appeared in Europe, a salad was prepared from tea leaves at one of the royal receptions. The treat was eaten with pleasure, because no one wanted to seem ignorant.

2. Russians appreciated tea much earlier than Europeans for one simple reason: Tea was delivered to Europe by sea, and it came to us from Mongolia by land. At that time, sailors still had no idea how to properly store tea in wet ship holds. Tea needs fresh air during storage.

3. Tea was not always called tea. In the writings of ancient Chinese philosophers, it is mentioned under the names "tse", "tou", "chun", "ming", and also "cha", which translates as "young leaf".

4. The use of tea benefited the English aristocrats not only in terms of its great taste and medicinal properties. The fact is that the passion for the new drink so captured the satiated lords that they almost stopped drinking alcohol.

5. In Europe, it has long been believed that different varieties of tea are produced from different plants. China stubbornly kept the secret of its manufacture. In fact, all varieties of black and green tea are made from the same plant - Camellia sinensis.

6. Iced tea was invented in 1904. The author of the invention is Richard Blechinden. Since then, up to 80% of tea in the US has been sold as a chilled drink.

7. In Japanese, the terms "tea" and "eyelash" use the same word. There is a legend that the tea tree grew out of the eyelids of the young Buddha, who cut them off and buried them in the ground so as not to sleep during nighttime meditations.

8. The most extensive tea plantations are in China, India, Japan, Taiwan and Sri Lanka, which used to be called Ceylon.

9. The tea bag was not invented by the famous Lipton, but by a New York supplier, Thomas Sullivan, who discovered that it was unreasonably expensive to ship tea in metal cans.
Therefore, at the beginning of the 20th century, he began selling tea in paper bags. One of the customers accidentally dropped the bag into the water and found that it turns out ... the same tea.

10. The appearance of the word "tip" - tips in English - is really associated with tea. In the 18th century, it was customary to drink tea in special "tea gardens".
On the tables in such gardens were small wooden boxes with the inscription "T.I.P.S." (To Insure Prompt Service). Wanting to get hot tea as quickly as possible, the visitor threw a coin into the box.

The invention and use of all kinds of signs and symbols is characteristic of man. The custom of choosing for oneself or for one's kind and tribe a special distinguishing sign has very deep roots and is widespread throughout the world. It comes from the tribal system and a special worldview, characteristic of all peoples in the primitive period of their history.

Generic signs and symbols are called totems; they are the closest relatives of coats of arms. The term "totem" comes from North America, and in the language of the Ojibwe Indians, the word "ototem" means the concept of "his kind." The custom of totemism consists in the election by a clan or tribe of an animal or plant as the progenitor and patron, from which all members of the tribe are descended. This custom existed among ancient peoples, however, even today it is accepted among tribes leading a primitive way of life. The ancient Slavs also had totems - sacred animals, trees, plants - from the names of which some modern Russian surnames are supposed to come. Among the Asian peoples of Turkic and Mongolian origin, there is a similar custom "tamga". Tamga is a sign of tribal affiliation, an image of an animal, bird or weapon, accepted by each tribe as a symbol, which is depicted on banners, emblems, burned on the skin of animals, and even applied to the body. There is a legend among the Kirghiz that tamgas were assigned to individual clans by Genghis Khan himself, along with "uraniums" - battle cries (which were also used by European knights, which is why they then ended up on coats of arms in the form of mottos).

The prototypes of coats of arms - various symbolic images placed on military armor, banners, rings and personal items - were used in antiquity. In the works of Homer, Virgil, Pliny and other ancient authors, there is evidence of the use of such signs. Both legendary heroes and real historical figures, such as kings and generals, often had personal emblems. So, the helmet of Alexander the Great was decorated with a sea horse (hippocampus), the helmet of Achilles - an eagle, the helmet of the king of Numibia Masinissa - a dog, the helmet of the Roman emperor Caracalla - an eagle. The shields were also decorated with various emblems, for example, the image of the severed head of the Gorgon Medusa. But these signs were used as decoration, arbitrarily changed owners, were not inherited and were not subject to any rules. Only some emblems of the islands and cities of the ancient world were constantly used - on coins, medals and seals. The emblem of Athens was an owl, Corinth - Pegasus, Samosa - a peacock, the islands of Rhodes - a rose. In this one can already see the beginnings of state heraldry. Most ancient civilizations had some elements of heraldry in their culture, for example, a system of seals or stamps, which in the future will be inextricably linked with heraldry. In Assyria, the Babylonian Empire and in ancient Egypt, seals were used in the same way as in medieval Europe - to certify documents. These signs were extruded in clay, carved in stone and imprinted on papyrus. Already in the third millennium BC, there was a "coat of arms" of the Sumerian states - an eagle with a lion's head. The emblem of Egypt was a snake, Armenia - a crowned lion, Persia - an eagle. Subsequently, the eagle will become the coat of arms of Rome. The "coat of arms" of Byzantium was actually a double-headed eagle, later borrowed by some European states, including Russia.

The ancient Germans painted their shields in different colors. Roman legionnaires had emblems on their shields, by which it was possible to determine their belonging to a certain cohort. Roman banners - vexilla (hence the name of the science of flags - vexillology) were decorated with special images. To distinguish between legions and cohorts, the troops also used badges - signa - in the form of various animals - an eagle, a boar, a lion, a minotaur, a horse, a she-wolf and others, which rushed ahead of the troops on long poles. From these figures, often related to the history of the city of Rome, military units were sometimes named.

So, various systems of insignia and emblems existed always and everywhere, but heraldry proper as a special form of symbolism arose in the process of the development of the feudal system in Western Europe.

The bright and colorful art of heraldry developed in the gloomy times of the decline of culture and economy, which came in Europe with the death of the Roman Empire and the establishment of the Christian religion, when feudalism arose and a system of hereditary aristocracy developed. Several factors contributed to the appearance of coats of arms. First of all - feudalism and the crusades, but they gave birth to the destroying and life-giving fire of war. It is believed that the coats of arms appeared in the 10th century, but it is difficult to find out the exact date. The first coats of arms depicted on the seals attached to documents date back to the 11th century. The oldest official seals are placed on the marriage contract of 1000, concluded by Sancho, Infante of Castile, with Wilhelmina, daughter of Gaston II, Viscount of Bearn. It should be borne in mind that in the era of total illiteracy, the use of a coat of arms for signature and for denoting ownership was the only way for many to certify a document with their name. Such an identification mark was understandable even to an illiterate person (it is quite possible that coats of arms appeared first on seals, and only then on weapons and clothes).

Undoubted evidence of the existence of heraldry appears only after the Crusades. The earliest such evidence is a French enamel drawing from the grave of Geoffroy Plantagenet (died 1151), Count of Anjou and Maine, depicting Geoffroy himself with a coat of arms, where on an azure field there are supposedly four rearing golden lions (the exact number of lions is difficult to determine due to the position , in which the shield is drawn). The earl was the son-in-law of Henry I, King of England, who ruled from 1100-1135, who, according to the chronicle, granted him this coat of arms.

The first English king to have a personal coat of arms was Richard I the Lionheart (1157-1199). His three golden leopards have been used since then by all the royal dynasties of England.

"WHO HERE IS SORRY AND POOR WILL BE RICH THERE!"

The Crusades, which lasted from 1096 to 1291, constituted an entire era in European history. The beginning of this two-hundred-year war was provoked by the Turks, who had established themselves in Palestine - fanatical Muslims, who, armed with their irreconcilable religion, began to desecrate the shrines of Christianity and put obstacles in the way of Christians who wanted to make a pilgrimage to Palestine and Jerusalem. But the true reasons lay deeper and consisted in the centuries-old confrontation between Europe and Asia, which continues to this day. The Asian tribes, united under the banner of Islam, began a grandiose expansion, as a result of which they conquered Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, Spain, threatened Constantinople and were already approaching the very heart of Europe. In 711, an Arab army of 7,000 men led by Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to the European continent. Thus began the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula (the rock on the Spanish coast has since been called Mount Tariq, or in Arabic - Jabal-Tariq, which in Spanish pronunciation turned into Gibraltar). By 715, almost the entire Iberian Peninsula was in Muslim hands. In 721, the Umayyads, who ruled a vast caliphate from 661-750, crossed the Pyrenees, invaded Spain, and began their conquest of southern France. They captured the cities of Narbonne and Carcassonne. Thus, new strongholds arose for attacks on Aquitaine and Burgundy. The ruler of the Franks, Charles from the Carolingian family (689-741), defeated the Arabs when they reached the Loire. This happened in 732 at the Battle of Poitiers. The victory earned him the nickname Martell - "hammer", because he stopped the advance of Muslims in Western Europe. But the Arabs held power in Provence for several decades. The military expansion of the Muslim conquerors contributed to the penetration of Arab art and philosophy into Europe in a short period of their heyday. Arab culture gave impetus to the development of medicine and natural sciences in Western Europe. In Byzantium, the Muslims were smashed by Emperor Leo III the Isaurian. The further spread of Islam was stopped by the beginning political disintegration of the Muslim world, until then strong and terrible by its unity. The caliphate was divided into parts that were at enmity with each other. But in the XI century, the Seljuk Turks launched a new offensive to the West, stopping under the very walls of Constantinople.

By that time, the lands of Western Europe were divided between secular and church feudal lords. The feudal system was strengthened, replacing the communal one with its military democracy. The oppression and impoverishment of the people intensified - there were practically no free tillers left, the peasants were enslaved and taxed. The feudal lords invented more and more taxes, competing in extortions with the church - the largest feudal owner, whose greed knew no bounds. Life became unbearable, which is why the population of Europe, impatiently awaiting the end of their torment in connection with the end of the world promised by the Church and the onset of paradise on Earth, was in a state of religious exaltation, expressed in the desire for all kinds of spiritual exploits and in readiness for Christian self-sacrifice. The flow of pilgrims increased. If the Arabs in the past treated them tolerantly, now the Turks began to attack pilgrims and destroy Christian churches. The Roman Catholic Church decided to take advantage of this, hatching plans for world domination, for which, first of all, it was necessary to subjugate the breakaway eastern - Byzantine - church and increase its income by acquiring new feudal possessions - dioceses. In the latter, the interests of the church and the feudal lords completely coincided, since there were no more free lands and peasants sitting on them, and according to the rule of "majorate" the land was inherited from the father only to the eldest son. So the call of Pope Urban II to protect the Holy Sepulcher fell on fertile ground: the oppressive socio-economic conditions in Europe led to the emergence of many desperate people who had nothing to lose and who were ready to go on a risky journey to the ends of the world in search of adventure, wealth and the glory of the "warriors of Christ." In addition to large feudal lords driven by aggressive motives, the idea of ​​​​a campaign to the East was taken up by numerous small feudal knights (junior members of feudal families who could not count on receiving an inheritance), as well as merchants of many trading cities, hoping to destroy their main competitor in trade with the rich East - Byzantium . But the greatest enthusiasm was, of course, experienced by the common people, brought to despair by poverty and deprivation. Huge masses of people were inspired by the speech of Pope Urban in Clermont on November 24, 1095, and vowed to go to war against the infidels for the liberation of the Holy Sepulcher and the Holy Land. They sewed crosses on their clothes, cut out of cloth (often taken from the attire of the priests themselves, who called the masses to the feat), which is why they got the name "crusaders". To the cries of "So God wants!" many set off directly from the Plain of Clermont, following the pope's propaganda appeal: "The land you inhabit has become cramped with your numbers. Hence it comes that you bite each other and fight with each other ... Now your hatred, enmity will cease and internecine strife will slumber. Take the path to the Holy Sepulcher, uproot that land from the wicked people and subjugate it to yourself... Whoever is woeful and poor here will become rich there!".

The first crusade took place in 1096, but coats of arms could well have appeared a little earlier. The problem is that the first documentary evidence of coats of arms appeared at least two hundred years after their appearance. Perhaps the close connection between the crusades and the birth of heraldry is explained by the fact that it was during this period that the use of emblems became widespread. This required the creation of an ordered system of symbolic images as a means of communication, because the coat of arms served as an identification mark that carried some information about the owner and was clearly distinguishable from a distance.

Since the 12th century, armor has become more and more complex, the helmet covers the entire face of the knight, he himself is dressed in armor entirely, from head to toe. In addition, with some differences, all the armor was of the same type, so it became impossible to identify the knight not only from a distance, but also close up. This situation gave impetus to the mass use of the coat of arms as an identification mark. In addition to the coat of arms depicted on the shield, additional emblems gradually appeared, which were designed to help the knights recognize each other at a distance and in the heat of battle: the pommel (kleinod) - an ornament from animal horns and bird feathers fixed on the top of the helmet (this element received development during knightly tournaments), as well as heraldic pennants and standards. The combination of two types of generic signs - a shield and a pommel - later formed the material basis of the coat of arms.

But back to the crusades. Much in heraldry indicates that it took shape during the conquest of the East by the Crusaders. Here are the signs. The term enamel, which denotes heraldic colors, is of Eastern origin. The word comes from the Persian "mina", meaning the blue color of the sky (the first enamels were blue). The unique technique of enamel painting came to Europe from Persia, Arabia and Byzantium. It was in this way - by applying enamel - that steel armor, shields and special armorial boards were painted, which the heralds exhibited at tournaments. The blue color or azure - "azur" - was brought to Europe from the East - its very modern name ultramarine (overseas blue) reminds of this. The heraldic name "azur" comes from the Persian "azurk" - blue. From here comes the name of lapis lazuli (lapis lazuli), a stone found mainly in Afghanistan, from which this paint is obtained. The name of the red color - "gyulz" (gueulez) - came from the purple-dyed furs with which the crusaders sheathed their marching clothes around the neck and sleeves (in the "Rules of Heraldry" section, it will be said that heraldic figures were often made from pieces of fur stuffed with on the shield). The name comes from the word "gul" - red, in Persian, denoting the color of a rose. The origin of the green color - "vert", also called "sinople", probably comes from dyes produced in the East. The orange color, more commonly found in English heraldry, is called "tenne" - from the Arabic "henne". This was the name of the vegetable yellow-red dye, known to us as henna. It is an ancient custom among Asiatic and Arabian chieftains to henna the mane, tail, and belly of their war horses, and the right hand that holds the weapon. In general, the inhabitants of the East dye their hair and nails with henna. Eastern origin has the name of a shield with a special semicircular cutout from one or both edges, where a spear is inserted. This shield is called "tarch" - just like its Arabic prototype.

Two important details of the heraldic design - the baptism and the burlet - owe their origin to the crusades. In the first crusade, dozens of knights died every day from the heat, as their steel armor became red-hot in the sun. The Crestons had to borrow from the Arabs a method used by the inhabitants of the desert to this day: in order to escape from the hot sun and prevent the helmet from heating up, the Arab and Persian warriors used a piece of cloth thrown over the head and shoulders and fixed on the head with a hoop of woven camel hair intertwined with silk threads. The so-called kufya is still an integral part of the Arab costume. It is from her that the lambrequin or lambrequin ("lambrequin", from the Latin "lambellum" - a piece or a piece of matter), as well as a burlet (from the French "burrelet" - a wreath) comes from. The namet is an obligatory part of the coat of arms, and is depicted as a cape with fluttering ends, attached to the helmet with a burlet or crown. The basting is either whole, with an ornamentally carved edge (especially in early coats of arms) or excised, with long, whimsically intertwined flaps (probably, the basting cut with saber blows indicated the courage of the owner of the coat of arms - a participant in the hottest fights).

During the crusades, European feudal lords, who were well known to everyone in their homeland, joined a huge international army and, against the general background, lost their usually pronounced external individuality, which is why they had the need to somehow distinguish themselves from the mass of the same knights , demonstrate their national, tribal and military affiliation. The conquests of the crusaders were always accompanied by terrible robbery and robbery, so the rule was established according to which the knight who first broke into any house of the taken city was declared the owner of everything that was in it. The knights had to somehow mark the loot in order to protect it from the encroachments of comrades-in-arms. With the advent of coats of arms, this problem was solved by nailing a shield with the coat of arms of its new owner to the door of the house. Not only individual crusaders, but also major military leaders had such a need: the inhabitants of the houses and quarters taken by their detachments hung out the banners of these troops in order not to be plundered by other feudal lords. It should be noted here that conflicts over the division of booty, skirmishes and disputes over the honor of taking this or that city arose among the crusaders constantly. You can also add that all the crusades were very poorly organized. In the preparation of military operations, complete confusion reigned, and during the battles there was a general dump. All their strife, greed, deceit and cruelty, from which Europe groaned, the secular and church feudal lords brought with them to the East. Later, this (as well as the traditionally treacherous policy of Byzantium) will lead to the collapse of the crusader movement and the expulsion of Europeans from the occupied territories, but for now there is a need to somehow streamline the situation. An example was before my eyes: Arab warriors used shield emblems, usually consisting of inscriptions or drawings of flowers and fruits. This custom, like many others, was adopted by the crusaders and became one of the foundation stones of the emerging heraldry.

The consequence of the crusades was the extinction of many noble families in Europe, all male representatives of which died during the campaigns. Noble families, whose roots go back to the era of the conquest of Rome by barbarian tribes, simply disappeared. As a result, European monarchs for the first time were forced to favor the nobility, creating a new aristocracy. Coats of arms played the most important role in this, since often the only basis for claiming nobility and documentary evidence of noble origin was a coat of arms brought from the Holy Land.

So, the accumulation in one place of many feudal lords from different countries (an unusual situation for Europe), the international nature of the crusader army, the need to identify each other and (in conditions of illiteracy and language barriers) to assert their own name, as well as the characteristics of weapons, the method of warfare and borrowing many inventions of Eastern civilization - all this became the reason for the emergence and design of heraldry.

The coat of arms owes to knightly tournaments no less than to the crusades. Tournaments appeared before the Crusades. In any case, there is a mention of the military games that took place in 842 in Strasbourg during the negotiations between Charles the Bald and Louis the German. Tournaments probably took shape in France in the middle of the 12th century and then spread to England and Germany. In some chronicles, the French baron G. de Prelly is called the inventor of tournaments, but most likely he only developed the first rules for tournaments.

Tournaments have long become an integral part of Western European life. Only knights with an impeccable reputation were allowed to participate in them. Violation of the knightly code threatened with terrible shame. Around 1292, new, safer rules for tournaments were introduced - "Statutum Armorum". Only blunt weapons could be used. Each knight was allowed only three squires. In duels, special spears were now used, which easily break on impact. It was forbidden to fight out of turn, to injure the enemy's horse, to strike otherwise than in the face or chest, to continue the fight after the enemy raised his visor, to act as a group against one. Violators were deprived of weapons, horses and imprisoned for up to three years. Special tournament armor appeared so massive that the knight and his horse could hardly bear their weight. The horses themselves from the 13th century also dressed in armor. Just like the shields of the knights, horse blankets had heraldic coloring. Two more important details should be mentioned. The knight had to be clearly visible from above, from the stands, especially during the general fight. That is why the already mentioned pommel appeared (or at least became widespread) - figures fixed on the top of the helmet, made of light wood, leather and even papier-mâché (later - from more expensive materials). The famous German errant knight of the 14th century, Ulrich von Liechtenstein, who took part in several tournaments dressed as the legendary King Arthur, introduced the fashion for complex pommel: he wore a helmet decorated with the figure of Venus, holding a torch in one hand, and an arrow in the other. Tents or tents in which the knights prepared for competitions, stored weapons and rested between battles (the crusaders used the same tents on campaigns), will also be reflected in the art of heraldry in the future - they will turn into a heraldic mantle and a canopy tent.

Tournaments have evolved from wild bloody battles into colorful theatrical performances, where formalities have become increasingly important, and the fight itself has become less important and more conventional. For example, in the "Tournament of the World", held in Windsor Park in England in 1278, swords made of parchment-covered whalebone and silver plated, boiled leather helmets and light wood shields were used. For certain achievements in the competition, the knight received points (for example, bonus points were awarded for a knocked down pommel). The winner was determined by the crowned persons, the oldest knights or specially appointed judges (often heralds), sometimes the issue of the winner was decided by the ladies in whose honor the knights fought. Tournaments were traditionally imbued with an emphatically reverent attitude towards women, which was almost the basis of the knightly code. The award to the winner in the tournament was given from the hands of the lady. The knights performed adorned with some kind of badge received from their ladies. Sometimes the ladies brought their knights tied with a chain - the chain was considered a symbol of special honor and was given only to the elite. In every contest, the last blow was delivered in honor of the lady, and here the knights especially tried to distinguish themselves. After the tournament, the ladies led the winner to the palace, where they disarmed him and arranged a feast in his honor, where the hero occupied the most honorable place. The names of the winners were entered into special lists, their exploits were passed on to their descendants in the songs of the minstrels. The victory in the tournament also brought material benefits: sometimes the victor took away the horse and weapons from the enemy, took him prisoner and demanded a ransom. For many poor knights, this was the only way to earn a living.

From Friday to Sunday, when tournaments were allowed by the church, there were fights every day, and in the evenings dances and festivities were held. There were several types of competitions: horse races, when the knight had to knock the enemy out of the saddle with a blow of a spear; sword fight; throwing spears and arrows; the siege of wooden castles built specifically for tournaments. Another way to show courage besides the tournament was to "protect the passages". A group of knights announced that in honor of their ladies they would defend a place from everyone. So, in 1434, at Orbigo, in Spain, ten knights defended the bridge from sixty-eight rivals for a month, having spent more than seven hundred fights. In the 16th century foot fights with short spears, maces and axes became popular. In Europe, only persons of noble birth were allowed to participate in tournaments. In Germany, the requirements were more liberal: sometimes, in order to get permission, it was enough to refer to an ancestor who took part in a jousting tournament. We can say that the main pass to the tournament was the coat of arms, proving the high origin of the owner and his position in the tribal hierarchy. For connoisseurs, such as the heralds, the presented coat of arms contained all the necessary information. That is why emblems were the most important part of tournament etiquette, which became so numerous that it was time to put things in order in this area.

The heralds systematized knowledge about coats of arms, developed general principles and rules for their compilation and recognition, and ultimately created the science of "coat of arms" or "heraldry"
There are two options for the origin of the terms "heraldry" and "herald": from the late Latin heraldica (from heraldus - herald), or from the German Herald - spoiled Heeralt - a veteran, as they called people in Germany in the Middle Ages who had a reputation as valiant and brave warriors who were invited as guests of honor and judges at various celebrations, and, in particular, at tournaments. These veterans were supposed to preserve the customs of chivalry, develop the rules of tournaments, and also monitor their observance.
The predecessors of heralds were representatives of several related professions, whose duties were combined and specified, which led to the appearance of heralds in the classical sense of the word - heralds, courtiers and wandering minstrels, as well as the veterans mentioned above.
Heralds or parliamentarians were used even in ancient armies, as they are still used today - for negotiations with the enemy, for the announcement of decrees and various kinds of announcements.

Minstrels (French menestrel, from medieval Latin ministerialis) are called medieval singers and poets. In any case, this term acquired such a meaning in France and England at the end of the Middle Ages. Initially, in all feudal states, ministerials were people who were in the service of a lord and performed some special duty (ministerium) with him. Among them were also poets-singers, unlike their wandering brothers in the craft, who were constantly at the court or a high-ranking person. In France in the 12th century, minstrels were sometimes called the servants of the king in general, and sometimes his court poets and singers. The function of court minstrels was to sing and glorify the exploits of their feudal lords. And from here it’s not far to the function of stewards of court ceremonies and, in particular, knightly tournaments. It is likely that the wandering minstrels, whose art was in demand at the courts of European feudal lords, gained experience in recognizing the coats of arms that constantly surrounded them. The oldest known herald poet was Konrad of Würzburg, who lived in the 13th century. The functions of veterans, who by the nature of their activities were directly related to the coats of arms, have already been said.

It is possible that representatives of all three professions were called at a certain historical moment by one common term - heralds. One way or another, but the spread of knightly tournaments contributed to the emergence of special officials who were supposed to announce the opening of the tournament, develop and observe the ceremonial of its holding, and also announce all the fights and the names of their participants. This required special knowledge - the herald had to know well the genealogy of the noble families whose representatives took part in the battles, and be able to recognize the coats of arms of the knights who had come to the tournament. So gradually the profession of heralds acquires a purely heraldic character, and heraldry itself is born at tournaments.

The French name of heraldry - "blason" - comes from the German "blasen" - "blow the horn" and is explained by the fact that when the knight drove up to the barrier that protected the tournament venue, he blew the horn to announce his arrival. Then the herald came out and, at the request of the tournament judges, described the coat of arms of the knight aloud as proof of his right to take part in the tournament. From the word "blasen" comes the French "blasonner", the German "blasoniren", the English "blazon", the Spanish "blasonar" and the Russian word "blazonirovat" - that is, to describe the coat of arms. The heralds created a special jargon to describe coats of arms (and today used by specialists in heraldry), based on Old French and medieval Latin, since chivalry itself, like many things connected with it - the chivalric code, weapons developments, tournaments and, finally, heraldry - originates from France, or rather from the empire of Charlemagne (747-814), inhabited by Franco-Germanic tribes. Much of the heraldic terminology is denoted by quasi-French, obsolete words. In the Middle Ages, French was used by the ruling classes in most of Western Europe, so the rules of heraldry had to be drawn up in that language. However, some heraldic terms are so ornate that they seem deliberately designed to puzzle the uninitiated. The special terms developed by the heralds will be discussed below.

It is assumed that the Russian word "coat of arms" is borrowed from the Polish "herb" and is found in many Slavic and German dialects (herb, erb, irb) in the meaning of heir or inheritance. The Slavic name of this identification mark directly indicates its hereditary character. The English term "coat of arms", denoting the coat of arms, comes from the name of a special item of clothing "surcoat" - a linen or silk cape that protects the knight's armor from the sun and rain (the word "knight" comes from the German "ritter" - rider).

So, coats of arms are becoming increasingly important in the countries of Western Europe. In England, since the 12th century, heralds have been held in high esteem at the court of kings. Edward III (1312-1377) established a heraldic college that functions to this day (this institution - "The College of Arms" - is located in London on Queen Victoria Street). In France, Louis VII (1120-1180) established the duties of heralds and ordered all royal regalia to be decorated with fleur-de-lis. Under the French king Philip II Augustus (1165-1223), heralds begin to dress in a knight's dress with the coat of arms of the owner and entrust them with some duties in tournaments. The duties of the heralds are precisely formulated by the middle of the 14th century. The title of herald becomes honorary, it is raised only after any battle, tournament or ceremony. To do this, the sovereign poured a goblet of wine (sometimes water) on the head of the initiate and gave him the name of the city or fortress associated with the initiation ceremony, which the herald kept until he received the next highest degree - the title of armory king (fr. "roi d" armes ", German. "Wappenkoenig") The duties of the herald were divided into three main groups: 1) they were charged with declaring war, making peace, offering to surrender the fortress, and the like, as well as counting those killed and wounded during a battle or tournament and assessing the valor of knights; 2) they were required to be present at all solemn ceremonies - at the coronation or burial of the sovereign, at the elevation to knighthood, ceremonial receptions, etc. 3) they were assigned purely heraldic duties - the compilation of coats of arms and genealogies.
The work of the heralds was paid very well, there was a tradition not to let the sent herald go without a gift, so as not to show disrespect to the sovereign who sent him.

Each state was divided into several heraldic brands, which were under the supervision of one "arms king" and several heralds. For example, France in 1396 was divided into eighteen such marks. In Germany in the 14th century, individual provinces also had their own heralds.
True, from the 18th century, heralds lose their medieval significance, but do not disappear without a trace, and are still used at solemn ceremonies - coronations, marriages, etc.

Centuries after the appearance of coats of arms, the first scientific works on heraldry and coats of arms proper begin to appear, the earliest of which, apparently, is the Zuricher Wappenrolle, compiled in Zurich in 1320.

In France, Jacob Bretex at the end of the 13th century describes tournaments and the coats of arms of their participants. But the earliest work outlining the rules of heraldry is considered to be the monograph of the Italian jurist Bartolo, whose "Tractatus de insigniis et armis" was published in 1356.
Berry, chief herald of France at the court of Charles VII (1403-1461), traveled all over the country on the instructions of the king, visiting castles, abbeys and cemeteries, studying images of coats of arms and compiling genealogies of ancient noble families. Based on his research, he compiled the work "Le registre de noblesse". After him, the French heralds began to keep regular genealogical records. A similar task was received from the kings in the period from Henry VIII (1491-1547) to James II (1566-1625) by English heralds, who carried out the so-called "heraldic visits" - inspection trips around the country in order to census noble families, register coats of arms and verify their eligibility . It turned out that most of the old coats of arms that appeared before 1500 were appropriated by the owners without permission, and not granted by the king. It was not difficult to invent a simple coat of arms. The situation in which three unrelated noblemen had the same emblems was not uncommon, but only proved that these emblems were adopted by them arbitrarily. When a dispute arose between the owners of identical coats of arms on this basis, each appealed to the king as the last resort. It is noteworthy that when the dispute was resolved, the nobleman, forced as a result to abandon his coat of arms, took comfort in the fact that he independently invented a new one for himself.
The materials collected during the "heraldic visits" formed the basis of English genealogy and heraldry.

CITY ARMS

At the heart of the city and state emblems are the seals of the feudal lords, which certify the authenticity of the documents sent by them from their possessions. The family coat of arms of the feudal lord, thus, passed first to the seal of the castle, and then to the seal of the lands belonging to him. With the emergence of new cities and the formation of new states, the requirements of the time and legal norms led to the creation of coats of arms, either completely new, not borrowed from the family coats of arms of the nobility, but bearing symbolic images indicating local attractions, historical events, the economic profile of the city, or mixed. An example is the coat of arms of Paris, in which a ship and an azure field with golden lilies adjoin. The ship symbolizes, on the one hand, the island de la Cité on the Seine River, which lies in the very center of the city, in the form of a ship, and on the other hand, trade and trading companies, the main component of the urban economy. An azure field with golden lilies is an old emblem of the Capetian dynasty, under whose patronage Paris was.

From the end of the 13th and during the 14th centuries, heraldry penetrated into all areas of public life, and heraldic terminology became commonly used in the cultural strata of society. Heraldry is becoming fashionable in literature, art, and everyday life. Coats of arms appear everywhere, from knightly armor to the collars of your favorite dogs. The knights who returned from the crusades began, imitating the luxurious clothes of the eastern rulers, to wear special coats of arms, matching the colors of their coats of arms and decorated with embroidered coats of arms and mottos. Servants and squires receive clothes with the coat of arms of their masters, ordinary nobles put on a dress with the coats of arms of their seniors, noble ladies begin to wear dresses with images of two coats of arms: on the right - the coat of arms of their husband, on the left - their own. Under the French king Charles V the Wise (1338-1380), clothes painted half in one, half in another color came into fashion. From the nobles and their squires, this fashion passed to the representatives of the urban estates. Thus, heraldry becomes an important component of the culture of Western Europe.

Along with individual heraldry, in the Middle Ages, other areas of heraldry were developed - urban and corporate, including church. City artisans and merchants created guilds, registered as "legal entities" and supplied with coats of arms, respectively. It was customary for the members of the guild to wear the heraldic colors of their association - special liveries. So, for example, members of the London Butcher's Company wore white and blue liveries, bakers wore olive green and chestnut colors, wax candle merchants wore blue and white liveries. The Furriers Company of London was allowed to use ermine fur in its coat of arms, although according to medieval norms, this heraldic color could only be used by royal and noble families as a sign of their exclusivity and superiority. On corporate coats of arms were placed mainly tools.

Similar coats of arms, called vowels - "armes parlantes", in which the name of the craft was conveyed by heraldic symbols, are received by many workshops and guilds. For example, here is how the coats of arms of the workshops of Ghent, one of the largest craft centers of the Middle Ages, looked like: coopers depicted a working tool and a tub on the shield of their coat of arms, butchers - a bull, fruit merchants - a fruit tree, barbers - a razor and scissors, shoemakers - a boot, fishmongers - fish, shipbuilders - a ship under construction. The goldsmiths' workshop of Paris received from King Philip VI (1293-1350) a coat of arms depicting royal golden lilies, combined with a golden cross and the emblems of their craft - golden sacral vessels and crowns, with the motto "In sacra inque coronas". Apothecaries depict scales and a lancet on their coats of arms, nailers - hammer and nails, charioteers - wheels, manufacturers of playing cards - symbols of card suits. In addition, images of the patron saints of the respective crafts were found in corporate coats of arms. The French king Louis XIII, wishing to raise the importance of the merchants, granted coats of arms to six merchant guilds of Paris, in which the ship from the Parisian city coat of arms was adjacent to the symbols of the corresponding crafts and mottos.

Wishing to imitate the aristocracy, wealthy citizens used family signs like coats of arms, although they were not official. But the French government, in need of money, decided to turn the spreading fashion to its advantage and allowed everyone to acquire coats of arms, but for a fee. Moreover, greedy officials even obliged the townspeople to acquire coats of arms. As a result of the introduction in 1696 of a tax on the right to have a personal coat of arms, the treasury began to receive significant income, since a huge number of coats of arms were registered. But as a result of this, the value of coats of arms in France has fallen dramatically - the incredibly prolific coats of arms have depreciated.

Educational institutions have also used coats of arms for centuries. Universities often received the coat of arms of their founders, such as Christ's College, Cambridge, founded by Lady Margaret Beaufort. Eton College received its coat of arms in 1449 from its founder, King Henry VI (1421-1471), a devout hermit whose failure to rule was one of the causes of the Wars of the Scarlet and White Roses. The three white lilies on this coat of arms symbolize the Virgin Mary, in whose honor the college was founded. Many private and commercial firms still strive to obtain a coat of arms, since the presence of such a coat of arms gives the company solidity and reliability. For example, the well-known English trading company Herrods received a coat of arms relatively recently.

From the first days of its existence, the church claimed the highest and absolute power in this world, therefore it appropriated all the attributes of secular power, including coats of arms. The coat of arms of the papacy in the 14th century was the crossed gold and silver keys of the Apostle Peter - "allowing" and "binding", tied with a gold cord, on a scarlet shield under the papal tiara. These symbols have received various interpretations, which we will not dwell on here. Let's just say that the coat of arms indicates the rights received by Peter to "decide" and "bind" all the affairs of the church and that these rights were inherited from him by his successors - the popes. This coat of arms is today the official coat of arms of the Vatican, but each pope receives his own coat of arms, in which the keys and tiara frame the shield. For example, the current Pope John Paul II has a coat of arms that he received when he was Archbishop of Krakow from the hands of Archbishop Bruno Haim, a specialist in heraldry. The cross and the letter "M" on the coat of arms symbolize Christ and the Virgin Mary. It should be said that placing any inscriptions in the coat of arms, except for mottos, is considered bad form, but the author of the coat of arms is justified, referring to the traditions of Polish heraldry (which will be discussed later), where runic letters were originally used. Indeed, the letter "M" resembles a rune of a similar design.

The flag of the Vatican depicts the small coat of arms of the city-state, in which there is no scarlet shield, but this color is transferred to the cord that binds the keys. Obviously, the colors of the keys are chosen for the flag - gold and silver.

The church, which was the largest feudal lord of the Middle Ages, early began to use coats of arms for practical purposes - to identify and demonstrate the territorial affiliation of church organizations. Coats of arms have been found on the seals of abbeys and bishops since the 12th century. The most common symbols of church heraldry are the keys of St. Peter, the eagle of St. John and other signs symbolizing various saints, details of church life, and a wide variety of crosses. In the UK, there are certain rules for the coats of arms of church leaders, showing their status in the church hierarchy. For example, the coats of arms of archbishops and bishops are decorated with miters (the coat of arms of the Pope is crowned with a tiara), and on the coats of arms of priests of a lower rank, special hats of different colors are placed, in accordance with their status, equipped with multi-colored cords and tassels. A dean, for example, might have a black hat with two purple single cords with three red tassels on each. The priests of the Roman Catholic Church are not under the jurisdiction of the official heraldic authorities, but the coats of arms they use have been regulated by a special decree since 1967. For example, the coat of arms of a Catholic archbishop may contain a green hat with two green single cords, each with ten green tassels.

At the heart of all the state emblems of European countries lay the family emblems of the ruling dynasties. On many modern European state emblems, in one form or another, there are lions and eagles - traditional symbols of power and statehood.

On the coat of arms of Denmark - three azure leopards on a golden field decorated with scarlet hearts - this is how the coat of arms of King Knud VI Valdemarsson looked around 1190. Along with the English, this emblem can be considered the oldest European national emblem. On the large royal coat of arms of Sweden, lions support the shield and are also present in the second and third quarters of the shield. Around 1200, the ruler of Norway got his own coat of arms, which depicts a crowned lion of St. Olaf holding a battle ax in his front paws. The lion of the Finnish coat of arms was gradually formed by the 16th century. On the arms of Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, a lion also settled - the old emblem of the Dukes of Burgundy. On the coat of arms of the Netherlands - a golden lion with a silver sword and a bunch of arrows in its paws. This is the union emblem of the Republic of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, which gained independence in 1609. The republican coat of arms as a whole survived after the creation of the kingdom in 1815. The coat of arms took its modern form in 1917, when, at the initiative of Prince Consort Heinrich of Mecklenburg (1876-1934), the royal crown on the head of a lion was replaced with a regular one, a mantle with a canopy and shield-holder lions appeared. By decision of the Congress of Vienna, which established a new European order after the collapse of the Napoleonic empire, the Netherlands gained independence. The son of the last stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, William VI of Orange, became King of the Netherlands under the name of William I. But the southern provinces of the Netherlands decided to defend their own independence. In 1830, an uprising took place in Brabant, and since then the Brabantian golden lion in a black field has been perceived as a symbol of the independence of the union of the southern provinces. In 1831, the Kingdom of Belgium was proclaimed, the coat of arms of which was the coat of arms of Brabant. The coat of arms of Luxembourg was approved by King William I of the Netherlands in 1815, since he was also the Grand Duke of Luxembourg. The lion can also be seen on other state emblems. In international state heraldry, the lion is adjacent to another symbol of supreme power - the eagle. It can be seen on the emblems of Austria, Albania, Bolivia, Germany, Indonesia, Iraq, Colombia, Libya, Mexico, Poland, Syria, the USA, Chile and many other countries. Unfortunately, the volume of this article does not allow us to pay attention to each of them, so here we will consider only some examples.

The Austrian three-stripe (red-white-red) shield was the coat of arms of the Dukes of Babenberg, who ruled this country until 1246. His image appeared on the seals of the dukes in the 20-30s of the XIII century. Earlier, in the second half of the 12th century, the image of a black eagle, a very common heraldic emblem, first appeared on the seal of the first Austrian Duke Henry II of Babenberg. The Austrian knights, led by Duke Leopold V, set off on the third crusade under a flag with a black eagle. Soon, in 1282, Austria came under the rule of the new Habsburg dynasty, whose family coat of arms was a red lion in a golden field. From 1438 to 1806, the Habsburgs almost continuously occupied the throne of the Holy Roman Empire, whose emblem was traditionally a double-headed eagle. He became the coat of arms of Austria, and later the Austrian Empire (1804) and the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1868). The same eagle can be seen on the shield of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa.

Plants can be seen at the base of the coat of arms of Great Britain. These are unspoken (silent) mottos or symbols of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales. In different versions of the coat of arms, they can be depicted both separately and collected in one fantastic plant, a kind of hybrid consisting of the Tudor rose, the Caledonian thistle of Scotland, the Irish clover shamrock and the Welsh onion.

The Tudor rose was formed from the scarlet rose of the Lancasters and the white rose of the Yorks, who fought among themselves for the English throne. After the "War of the Scarlet and White Roses", which lasted from 1455 to 1485, the founder of the new dynasty, Henry VII (1457-1509), united the emblems of the warring houses into one. Shamrock joined the "hybrid" rose and thistle in 1801 with the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

The rose, thistle, shamrock, and bow illustrate another area of ​​heraldry. A variety of badges attached to clothes that could symbolize a particular person, country or some concept appeared even before the coats of arms, in antiquity, and in the Middle Ages gained great popularity. With the development of heraldry, these badges began to acquire a heraldic character. The badge, as a rule, represented one main emblem of the family coat of arms, many of which were very complex and consisted of many details. These badges were designed to show that their owners belong to the environment of a person or to a whole family. During the War of the Scarlet and White Rose, many soldiers, especially foreign mercenaries, dressed in the heraldic colors of their master. For example, at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, the soldiers of the Earl of Richmond's army wore white and green jackets, the soldiers of Sir William Stanley's army wore red, and so on. In addition, they wore the personal badges of their commanders. It was the prototype of a military uniform. In all modern armies, along with elements of heraldry, there are special badges. The owner of the coat of arms could have several badges, as well as arbitrarily change them at will.

Apart from Western Europe, only Japan by the 12th century had developed a similar heraldic system called "mon". In some European languages, this is erroneously translated as "coat of arms", although it is not a coat of arms in the European sense of the word. As an example, we can consider the emblem of the imperial family - a 16-petal chrysanthemum. Similar signs were also placed on helmets, shields and breastplates of armor, but unlike coats of arms, they were never depicted so large that they could be recognized from a distance. If such identification was required, "mon" was displayed on the flags. Just like the European coat of arms, "mon" is used in art - for decorating clothes, furniture, and interiors. Just like in European royal families, the younger members of the Japanese imperial family had a chrysanthemum image modified according to certain rules. Just like in Europe, in Japan, "mon" was required to be legalized. Both hereditary heraldic systems arose independently of each other, but their similarity is not surprising, since feudal societies developed along the same lines. Like European, Japanese heraldry survived the era of chivalry and is widely used in our time.

SOME CONSIDERATIONS

In Europe, as well as in the USA and other former colonies, heraldry continues to live, despite the fact that feudalism is a thing of the past, and the coats of arms themselves play a purely decorative role. But in these countries, heraldry, which has a long history, has become a good tradition and has largely been democratized. Many people who have no relation to the nobility for a long time, having found the owner of the coat of arms among their ancestors, are in a hurry to decorate their homes with a coat of arms with a certificate in a beautiful frame. As a result, new coats of arms are constantly appearing. In many countries there are official heraldic societies involved in the development and approval of coats of arms, genealogical research. The large number and solid status of these organizations testifies to the real need of society for heraldry, which today is not a mossy fragment of history, but a part of modern culture. Obviously, while there are people who are interested in the past of their kind, interest in coats of arms will also remain - witnesses of cruel wars, heroic crusades and luxurious jousting tournaments (to be convinced of this, it is enough to familiarize yourself with the short and, of course, incomplete list of national and international heraldic organizations, which you can not even read, but just skim through your eyes).

Unfortunately, the present and future of heraldry is not so optimistic in Russia, where there is practically no ground for its existence. In addition, the old Russian heraldry is not very rich in material: it includes several thousand noble and several hundred provincial and city coats of arms, most of which appeared at about the same time and in one place - in the corresponding administrative institution, that is, in the Senate department of heraldry. The "General Armorial of the Noble Families of the All-Russian Empire", which by 1917 amounted to 20 volumes, contained only about 6 thousand coats of arms, with a total number of noble families of about 50 thousand. Of course, this is a drop in the bucket compared to the resources of European heraldry. Although various kinds of emblems were used by the Slavs in antiquity, real emblems appeared in Russia five hundred years later than in Europe, and not because of practical necessity, but as a beautiful toy from the West. Therefore, not having time to take root, Russian heraldry was carried away by the whirlwinds of history.

In the process of creating site materials, the question sometimes arose - how detailed should they be? What to talk about in general terms, and what to consider in detail? The degree of detail was determined by common sense, because the purpose of the site is to give the reader only a general idea of ​​heraldry, which is to some extent reflected in its title. "Excursion to Heraldry", of course, cannot claim to be a complete coverage of this vast area, since only the basic principles are stated here, illustrated by some examples. Nevertheless, the authors believe that these materials may be of interest to those who have just begun to be interested in heraldry and are in need of basic information on this topic.
The efforts of modern heraldry as an auxiliary scientific discipline are aimed at studying coats of arms, namely, at identifying their owners, clarifying the history of their origin and establishing the time of their creation. For serious historical research, of course, more detailed information and more reliable sources will be required than the Excursus to Heraldry. But in order to understand what a coat of arms is, what it consists of, what its main elements mean and what its main elements are called, and, finally, in order to try to create a coat of arms on your own, guided by the principles outlined and focusing on the examples given, you can successfully use our review. In any case, the authors hope that they have mentioned here all the main points necessary for the first steps towards the practical study of heraldry.

List of some foreign heraldic organizations:

• AUSTRALIA: The Heraldry Council of Australia; The Heraldry Society (Australian ranch); The Heraldry Society of Australia Heraldry Australia Inc.
• AUSTRIA: Heraldisch-Genealogische Gesellschaft.
• ENGLAND & WALES: The College of Arms; The Heraldry Society; Institute of Heraldic and Genealogical Studies.
• BELGIUM: Heraldique et Genealogique de Belgique; Musees Royaux d "Art et d" Histoire; L "Office Genealogique et Heraldique de Belgigue.
• HUNGARY: Magyar Heraldikai es Geneologiai Tarsasag.
• GERMANY: Der Herold; Genealogisch-Heraldische Gesellschaft; Wappen Herold; Deutsche Heraldische Gesellschaft.
• DENMARK: Heraldisk Selskab, Koebenhavn; Dansk Genealogisk Institute;Nordisk Flaggskrift.
• IRELAND: The Chief Herald of Ireland's Office; The Heraldry Scoiety of Ireland.
• ITALY: Aradico Collegio; Instituteo Italiano di Genealogia ed Araldica.
• CANADA: Canadian Heraldic Authority; Heraldry Society of Canada.
• LUXEMBOURG: Conseil Heraldique de Luxembourg.
• NETHERLANDS: Koninklijk Nederlands Genootschap voor Geslact en Wapenkunde; Central Bureau voor Genealogy.
• NORWAY: Heraldisk Forening Norsk; Norsk Vapenring; Norsk Slekthistorik Forening; Kunstindustrimuseet i Oslo; middelalderforum; Universitetet i Oslo, Historisk Institute; Universitetet i Oslo Ethnografisk Museum.
• NEW ZEALAND: The Heraldry Society of New Zealand; The Heraldry Society (New Zealand Branch).
• POLAND: Heraldic Records Archive.
• PORTUGAL: Institutio Portuges de Heraldica.
• SCANDINAVIAN SOCIETY: Societas Heraldica Scandanavica.
• USA: New England Historic Genealogical Society; North American Institute of Heraldic and Flag Studies; American College of Heraldry; The Augustan Society Inc.; Genealogical and Heraldic Institute of America; National Genealogical Society.
• FINLAND: Heraldica Scandanavia; Suomen Heraldinen Seura; Finlands National Committe for Genealogi och Heraldik; Genealogiska Samfundet and Finland; Heraliske Sallskapet and Finland.
• FRANCE: Federation des Societes de Genealogie, d "Heraldique et de Sigillographie; La Societe Franeaise D" Heraldique et de Sigillographie; La Societe du Grand Armorial de France.
• SCOTLAND: Lord Lyon King of Arms, and the Court of Lord Lyon; The Heraldry Society of Scotland; The Scottish Genealogical Society.
• SWITZERLAND: Heraldische Schweizersche Gesellschaft.
• SWEDEN: Swedish state herald: Clara Neveous, Riksarkivet - Heraldiska sektionen; Svenska Heraldiska Foreningen (Heraldry Society of Sweden); Heraldiska Samfundet; Skandinavisk Vapenrulla (SVR); Svenska Nationalkommitten for Genealogi och Heraldik; Voestra Sveriges Heraldiska Saellskap; Riddarhuset; Genealogiska Foereningen Genealogical Society).
• South Africa: The State Herald; Bureau of Heraldry; The Heraldry Society of Southern Africa.
• JAPAN: The Heraldry Society of Japan.
• INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: Academie Internationale d "Heraldique; Confederation Internationale de Genealogie et d" Heraldique; International Congress of Genealogical and Heraldic Studies; International Fellowship of Armorists (Heraldry International); International Genealogical Institute; Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day Saints.

The word coat of arms comes from the German word erbe, which means inheritance. The coat of arms is a symbolic image that shows the historical traditions of a state or city.
Coats of arms appeared a very long time ago. The totems of primitive tribes can be considered the forerunners of coats of arms. The coastal tribes had figures of dolphins and turtles as totems, the steppe tribes had snakes, the forest tribes had bear, deer, and wolf figures. A special role was played by the signs of the Sun, Moon, water. The reign of Grand Duke Ivan III (1462-1505) is the most important stage in the formation of a unified Russian state. Ivan III managed to finally eliminate dependence on the Golden Horde, repelling the campaign of Khan Akhmat against Moscow in 1480. The Grand Duchy of Moscow included Yaroslavl, Novgorod, Tver, Perm lands. The country began to actively develop ties with other European states, its foreign policy position strengthened. In 1497, the all-Russian Sudebnik was adopted - a single code of laws of the country.
It was at this time - the time of the successful construction of Russian statehood.
The Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III (1462-1505) married the Byzantine princess Sofya Palaiologos and, in order to increase his authority in relations with foreign states, takes the family coat of arms of the Byzantine kings - the Double-Headed Eagle. The double-headed eagle of Byzantium personified the Roman-Byzantine Empire, covering East and West. Emperor Maximilian II, however, did not give Sophia his Imperial eagle, the eagle depicted on the banner of Sophia Paleologus had not an Imperial, but only a Caesar's crown.
However, the opportunity to become equal with all European sovereigns prompted Ivan III to adopt this coat of arms as the heraldic symbol of his state. Having turned from the Grand Duke into the Tsar of Moscow and taking for his state a new coat of arms - the Double-headed Eagle, Ivan III in 1472 puts Caesar's crowns on both heads, at the same time a shield with the image of the icon of St. George the Victorious appears on the eagle's chest. In 1480 the Tsar of Moscow became Autocrat, i.e. independent and independent. This circumstance is reflected in the modification of the Eagle, a sword and an Orthodox cross appear in its paws.


The collapsed Byzantine Empire makes the Russian Eagle the successor of the Byzantine one and the son of Ivan III, Vasily III (1505-1533) puts on both heads of the Eagle one common autocratic Cap of Monomakh. After the death of Vasily III, because. his heir Ivan IV, who later received the name Grozny, was still small, the regency of his mother Elena Glinskaya (1533-1538) began, and the actual autocracy of the boyars Shuisky, Belsky (1538-1548). And here the Russian Eagle undergoes a very comic modification.

Ivan IV is 16 years old, and he is crowned king, and immediately the Eagle undergoes a very significant change, as if personifying the entire era of the reign of Ivan the Terrible (1548-1574, 1576-1584). But during the reign of Ivan the Terrible there was a period when he renounced the Kingdom and retired to a monastery, handing over the reins of government to Semyon Bekbulatovich Kasimovsky (1574-1576), and in fact to the boyars. And the Eagle reacted to the ongoing events with another change.
The return of Ivan the Terrible to the throne causes the appearance of a new Eagle, the heads of which are crowned with one common crown of a clearly Western pattern. But that's not all, on the chest of the Eagle, instead of the icon of St. George the Victorious, the image of the Unicorn appears. Why? This can only be guessed at. True, in fairness it should be noted that this Eagle was quickly canceled by Ivan the Terrible.

Ivan the Terrible dies and the weak, limited Tsar Fedor Ivanovich “Blessed” (1584-1587) reigns on the throne. And again the Eagle changes its appearance. During the reign of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, between the crowned heads of the double-headed eagle, a sign of the passion of Christ appears: the so-called Calvary cross. The cross on the state seal was a symbol of Orthodoxy, giving a religious coloring to the coat of arms of the state. The appearance of the "Golgotha ​​cross" in the coat of arms of Russia coincides with the time of the establishment in 1589 of the patriarchate and church independence of Russia. Another coat of arms of Fedor Ivanovich is also known, which is somewhat different from the above.

In the 17th century, the Orthodox cross was often depicted on Russian banners. The banners of foreign regiments that were part of the Russian army had their own emblems and inscriptions; however, an Orthodox cross was also placed on them, which indicated that the regiment fighting under this banner served the Orthodox sovereign. Until the middle of the 17th century, a seal was widely used, on which a two-headed eagle with a rider on its chest was crowned with two crowns, and an Orthodox eight-pointed cross rises between the heads of the eagle.

Boris Godunov (1587-1605), who replaced Fyodor Ivanovich, could have been the founder of a new dynasty. His occupation of the throne was completely legal, but popular rumor did not want to see him as a legitimate Tsar, considering him a regicide. And the Eagle reflects this public opinion.
The enemies of Russia took advantage of the Troubles, and the appearance of False Dmitry (1605-1606) under these conditions was quite natural, as was the appearance of a new Eagle. I must say that some of the seals depicted another, clearly not a Russian Eagle. Here, events also left their mark on the Orel, and in connection with the Polish occupation, the Orel becomes very similar to the Polish one, differing, perhaps, in a two-headed one.

A shaky attempt to establish a new dynasty in the person of Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), the painters from the command hut reflected in Orel one deprived of all sovereign attributes and, as if in mockery, either a flower or a cone will grow from the place of fusion of heads. Russian history says very little about Tsar Vladislav I Sigismundovich (1610-1612), however, he was not crowned in Russia, but he issued decrees, his image was minted on coins, and the Russian State Eagle had its own forms with him. And for the first time, the Scepter appears in the paw of the Eagle. The short and essentially fictitious reign of this king actually put an end to the Troubles.
The Time of Troubles ended, Russia repulsed the claims to the throne of the Polish and Swedish dynasties. Numerous impostors were defeated, the uprisings blazing in the country were suppressed. Since 1613, by decision of the Zemsky Sobor, the Romanov dynasty began to rule in Russia. Under the first tsar of this dynasty - Mikhail Fedorovich (1613-1645), nicknamed by the people "The Quietest" - the State Emblem changes somewhat. In 1625, for the first time, a double-headed eagle is depicted under three crowns, George the Victorious returned on his chest, but not in the form of an icon, in the form of a shield. Also, on the icons, George the Victorious always galloped from left to right, i.e. from west to east towards the eternal enemies - the Mongol-Tatars. Now the enemy was in the west, the Polish gangs and the Roman curia did not give up their hopes to bring Russia to the Catholic faith.

In 1645, under the son of Mikhail Fedorovich - Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich - the first Great State Seal appeared, on which a two-headed eagle with a rider on his chest was crowned with three crowns. Since that time, this type of image has been constantly used.
The next stage in the change of the State Emblem came after the Pereyaslav Rada, the entry of Ukraine into the Russian state. At the celebrations on this occasion, a new, unprecedented three-headed Eagle appears, which was supposed to symbolize the new title of the Russian Tsar: "All Great and Small, and White Russia Tsar, Sovereign and Autocrat."
To the charter of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Bogdan Khmelnitsky and his descendants on the city of Gadyach dated March 27, 1654, a seal was attached, on which for the first time a two-headed eagle under three crowns is depicted holding symbols of power in its claws: a scepter and an orb.
In contrast to the Byzantine model, and possibly under the influence of the coat of arms of the Holy Roman Empire, the double-headed eagle began to be depicted with raised wings starting from 1654.
In 1654, a forged double-headed eagle was installed on the spire of the Spasskaya Tower of the Moscow Kremlin.
In 1663, for the first time in Russian history, the Bible, the main book of Christianity, came out from under the printing press in Moscow. It is no coincidence that the State Emblem of Russia was depicted in it and its poetic “explanation” was given:
The eastern eagle shines with three crowns,
Faith, hope, love for God shows,
The krill is extended, embraces all the worlds of the end,
North, south, from east to sunset
He covers well with outstretched wings.

In 1667, after a long war between Russia and Poland over Ukraine, the Andrusovo truce was concluded. To seal this treaty, a Great Seal was made with a double-headed eagle under three crowns, with a shield with a rider on the chest, with a scepter and an orb in its paws.
In the same year, the first Decree in the history of Russia dated December 14 “On the royal title and on the state seal” appeared, which contained an official description of the coat of arms: “The double-headed eagle is the coat of arms of the sovereign Grand Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Duke Alexei Mikhailovich of All Great and Small and White Russia of the autocrat, His Tsarist Majesty of the Russian reign, on which three crowns are depicted, signifying the three great Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberian glorious kingdoms. On the Persians (chest) the image of the heir; in pasnoktyah (claws) a scepter and an apple, and reveals the most merciful Sovereign, His Royal Majesty the Autocrat and Possessor.
Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich dies and the short and unremarkable reign of his son Fyodor Alekseevich (1676-1682) begins. The three-headed Eagle is replaced by the old two-headed Eagle, and at the same time does not reflect anything new. After a short struggle with the boyar choice for the kingdom of the young Peter, with the regency of his mother Natalya Kirillovna, the second tsar, the weak and limited John, is elevated to the throne. And behind the double royal throne stands Princess Sophia (1682-1689). The actual reign of Sophia brought to life a new Eagle. However, he did not last long. After a new outbreak of unrest - the Streltsy rebellion, a new Eagle appears. Moreover, the old Eagle does not disappear, and both of them exist for some time in parallel.

In the end, Sophia, having been defeated, goes to the monastery, and in 1696 Tsar John V also dies, the throne goes solely to Peter I Alekseevich "The Great" (1689-1725).
And almost immediately the State Emblem dramatically changes its shape. The era of great transformations begins. The capital is transferred to St. Petersburg and Orel acquires new attributes. Crowns appear on the heads under one common larger one, and on the chest there is an order chain of the Order of St. Apostle Andrew the First-Called. This order, approved by Peter in 1798, became the first in the system of the highest state awards in Russia. The Holy Apostle Andrew the First-Called, one of the heavenly patrons of Peter Alekseevich, was declared the patron saint of Russia.
The blue oblique St. Andrew's Cross becomes the main element of the sign of the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called and the symbol of the Russian Navy. Since 1699, images of a double-headed eagle surrounded by a chain with the sign of the St. Andrew's Order have been found. And next year, the St. Andrew's Order is placed on an eagle, around a shield with a rider.
From the first quarter of the 18th century, the colors of the double-headed eagle were brown (natural) or black.

It is also important to say about another Eagle, which Peter painted as a boy for the banner of the Amusing Regiment. This Eagle had only one paw for: "Whoever has only one land army has one hand, but whoever has a fleet has two hands."
In the short reign of Catherine I (1725-1727), the Eagle again changes its forms, the ironic nickname "Queen of the Swamp" went everywhere and, accordingly, the Eagle simply could not help but change. However, this Eagle lasted a very short time. Menshikov, drawing attention to him, ordered to withdraw it from use, and by the day of the coronation of the Empress, a new Eagle appeared. By decree of Empress Catherine I of March 11, 1726, the description of the coat of arms was fixed: “A black eagle with outstretched wings, in a yellow field, on it is a rider in a red field.”

After the death of Catherine I in the short reign of Peter II (1727-1730) - the grandson of Peter I, Orel remained virtually unchanged.
However, the reign of Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740) and Ivan VI (1740-1741) - the great-grandson of Peter I, does not cause practically any change in the Eagle, with the exception of an exorbitantly elongated body. However, the accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth (1740-1761) entails a radical change in the Eagle. Nothing remains of the imperial power, and George the Victorious is replaced by a cross (moreover, not Orthodox). The humiliating period of Russia added the humiliating Eagle.
The Eagle did not react in any way to the very short and extremely insulting reign of Peter III (1761-1762) for the Russian people. In 1762, Catherine II "The Great" (1762-1796) came to the throne and the Eagle changed, acquiring powerful and grandiose forms. In the minting of coins of this reign there were many arbitrary forms of the coat of arms. The most interesting form is the Eagle, which appeared during the time of Pugachev with a huge and not quite familiar crown.
The Eagle of Emperor Paul I (1796-1801) appeared long before the death of Catherine II, as if in opposition to her Eagle, to distinguish the Gatchina battalions from the entire Russian Army, to be worn on buttons, badges and headdresses. Finally, he appears on the standard of the Tsarevich himself. This Eagle is created by Paul himself.
During the short reign of Emperor Paul I (1796-1801), Russia pursued an active foreign policy, faced with a new enemy for itself - Napoleonic France. After the French troops occupied the Mediterranean island of Malta, Paul I took the Order of Malta under his protection, becoming the grand master of the order. On August 10, 1799, Paul I signed a decree on the inclusion of the Maltese cross and crown in the state emblem. On the chest of the eagle, under the Maltese crown, there was a shield with St. George (Paul interpreted it as the “root coat of arms of Russia”) superimposed on the Maltese cross.
Paul I made an attempt to introduce the full coat of arms of the Russian Empire. On December 16, 1800, he signed the Manifesto, which described this complex project. Forty-three coats of arms were placed in the multi-field shield and on nine small shields. In the center was the coat of arms described above in the form of a double-headed eagle with a Maltese cross, larger than the rest. The shield with coats of arms is superimposed on the Maltese cross, and under it the sign of the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called again appeared. The supporters, the archangels Michael and Gabriel, support the imperial crown over the knight's helmet and mantle (cloak). The whole composition is placed against the background of a canopy with a dome - the heraldic symbol of sovereignty. Two standards with two-headed and one-headed eagles emerge from behind the shield with coats of arms. This project has not been finalized.

As a result of the conspiracy, on March 11, 1801, Pavel fell at the hands of palace regicides. The young Emperor Alexander I "Blessed" (1801-1825) takes the throne. By the day of his coronation, a new Eagle appears, already without the Maltese emblems, but, in fact, this Eagle is quite close to the previous one. The victory over Napoleon and almost complete control over all processes in Europe causes the emergence of a new Eagle. He had one crown, the wings of an eagle were depicted lowered (spread out), and in the paws not the traditional scepter and orb, but a wreath, lightning bolts (peruns) and a torch.
In 1825, Alexander I (according to the official version) dies in Taganrog and Emperor Nicholas I (1825-1855), strong-willed and aware of his duty to Russia, takes the throne. Nicholas contributed to the powerful, spiritual and cultural revival of Russia. This revealed a new Eagle, which changed somewhat over time, but still carried all the same strict forms.
In 1855-1857, during the heraldic reform, which was carried out under the leadership of Baron B.Kene, the type of the state eagle was changed under the influence of German designs. The drawing of the Small Coat of Arms of Russia, executed by Alexander Fadeev, was approved by the highest on December 8, 1856. This version of the coat of arms differed from the previous ones not only in the image of an eagle, but also in the number of “title” coats of arms on the wings. On the right were shields with the emblems of Kazan, Poland, Tauric Chersonesos and the combined emblem of the Grand Duchies (Kyiv, Vladimir, Novgorod), on the left - shields with the emblems of Astrakhan, Siberia, Georgia, Finland.

On April 11, 1857, the Supreme approval of the entire set of state emblems followed. It included: Large, Medium and Small, coats of arms of members of the imperial family, as well as "titular" coats of arms. At the same time, drawings of the Large, Medium and Small state seals, arks (cases) for seals, as well as seals of the main and lower government places and persons were approved. In total, one act approved one hundred and ten drawings lithographed by A. Beggrov. On May 31, 1857, the Senate published a Decree describing the new emblems and the norms for their use.
Also known is another Eagle of Emperor Alexander II (1855-1881), where the gleam of gold returns to the Eagle again. The scepter and orb are replaced by a torch and a wreath. In the course of his reign, the wreath and torch are replaced several times by the scepter and orb, and several times they return again.

On July 24, 1882, Emperor Alexander III approved the drawing of the Great Coat of Arms of the Russian Empire in Peterhof, on which the composition was preserved, but the details were changed, in particular the figures of the archangels. In addition, the imperial crowns began to be depicted like real diamond crowns used during the coronation.
The large Russian state emblem, approved by the Highest on November 3, 1882, is in a golden shield a black double-headed eagle crowned with two imperial crowns, above which is the same, but in a larger form, a crown, with two fluttering ends of the ribbon of the St. Andrew's Order. The state eagle holds a golden scepter and orb. On the chest of the eagle is the coat of arms of Moscow. The shield is crowned with the helmet of the Holy Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky. The namet is black with gold. Around the shield is the chain of the Order of St. Apostle Andrew the First-Called; on the sides of the image of the saints Archangel Michael and Archangel Gabriel. The canopy is golden, crowned with the imperial crown, dotted with Russian eagles and lined with ermine. On it is a scarlet inscription: God is with us! Above the canopy is the state banner, with an eight-pointed cross on the staff.

On February 23, 1883, the Middle and two variants of the Small Coat of Arms were approved. In January 1895, the royal command was given to leave unchanged the drawing of the state eagle, made by Academician A. Charlemagne.
The latest act - "Basic Provisions of the State Structure of the Russian Empire" of 1906 - confirmed all previous legal provisions relating to the State Emblem, but with all the strict contours it is the most elegant.
With minor changes made in 1882 by Alexander III, the coat of arms of Russia lasted until 1917.


The Commission of the Provisional Government came to the conclusion that the double-headed eagle itself does not carry any monarchical or dynastic signs, therefore, deprived of a crown, scepter, orb, emblems of kingdoms, lands and all other heraldic attributes "left in the service."

The Bolsheviks held a completely different opinion. By a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of November 10, 1917, along with estates, ranks, titles and old regime orders, the emblem and flag were abolished. But the decision turned out to be easier than the execution. State bodies continued to exist and function, so for another six months the old coat of arms was used where necessary, on signboards with the designation of government bodies and in documents.


The new coat of arms of Russia was adopted along with the new constitution in July 1918. Initially, the ears were not crowned with a five-pointed star; it was introduced a few years later as a symbol of the unity of the proletariat of the five continents of the planet.
It seemed that the double-headed eagle was finally dismissed, but as if doubting this, the authorities were in no hurry to remove the eagles from the towers of the Moscow Kremlin. This happened only in 1935, when the Politburo of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks decided to replace the old symbols with ruby ​​stars.

In 1990, the Government of the RSFSR adopted a resolution on the creation of the State Emblem and the State Flag of the RSFSR. After a comprehensive discussion, the Government Commission proposed to recommend to the Government a coat of arms - a golden double-headed eagle on a red field.

In 1993, by decree of President B.N. Yeltsin, the double-headed Eagle was approved as the state emblem. And finally, on December 8, 2000, the two-headed Eagle was approved by the State Duma.
The coat of arms of Peter I is taken as the basis of the modern coat of arms. But the double-headed eagle is golden in color, not black, and it is placed on a red heraldic shield.

Throughout the history of our state, each head of state has contributed to the development and formation of the coat of arms. At the same time, he tried to ensure that the historical events and achievements taking place at that moment were reflected on the coat of arms. The character and political views were also reflected in the coat of arms.
Initially, the eagle appeared in Russia from the collapsed mighty Roman Empire. It was necessary for the young Russian state as a symbol of power. The stronger Russia became, the more confident and stronger the eagle looked on the coat of arms. Over time, he had all the attributes of power: a crown, a scepter and an orb.

Emblems, their symbolic meaning in the Middle Ages was given great importance. A special role was assigned to the signs that personify the concept of the state, the supreme power of the sovereign, the idea of ​​his dominance over his subjects. Among the state symbols, the emblems that make up the distinctive sign of the state - the state emblem - took precedence. The selection of emblems of the state emblem, the determination of their combination, proportions, colors belonged to the competence of the highest state power. The State Emblem was an important part of the institution of external design of the supreme power.

What is a coat of arms?

Coat of arms (from the German Erbe - inheritance) - an emblem, a hereditary distinctive sign, a combination of figures and objects that are given a symbolic meaning that expresses the historical traditions of the owner.

Coats of arms are depicted on banners, seals, coins, placed as a sign of ownership on architectural structures, household utensils, weapons, works of art, manuscripts, books, etc. They are divided into the following main groups:

state,

land (cities, regions, provinces, provinces and other territories that are part of the state),

corporate (medieval workshops),

tribal (noble and bourgeois families).

The state emblem is the official emblem of the state, depicted on seals, letterheads of state bodies, banknotes and others. A certain science is engaged in the study of coats of arms - heraldry.

Heraldry (Late Latin heraldica, from heraldus - herald) - armorial studies, an auxiliary historical discipline, the main subject of study of which is the coat of arms - a symbolic distinction for persons, surnames, clans, states.

It is believed that the coats of arms appeared in the 10th century, but it is difficult to find out the exact date. The first coats of arms depicted on the seals attached to documents date back to the 11th century. It should be borne in mind that in the era of total illiteracy, the use of a coat of arms for signature and for denoting ownership was the only way for many to certify a document with their name. Such an identification mark was understandable even to an illiterate person (it is quite possible that coats of arms appeared first on seals, and only then on weapons and clothes).

The first English king to have a personal coat of arms was Richard I the Lionheart (1157-1199). His three golden leopards have been used since then by all the royal dynasties of England.

During military campaigns, the emblems placed on the shields of the knights became their main distinguishing feature, since the armor was closed and the faces of the knights were hidden by visors. The distinctive signs of the knights were generic and were inherited. The popularity of jousting tournaments led to the emergence of heralds - heralds, whose task was to describe the coats of arms and determine their accessories. Heralds in medieval Europe enjoyed great influence.

The Crusades also contributed to the spread of coats of arms. The accumulation in one place of many feudal lords from different countries, the international nature of the crusader army, the need to identify each other (in conditions of illiteracy and language barriers), as well as the characteristics of weapons, the method of warfare and the borrowing of many inventions of Eastern civilization - all this became the reason for the emergence and design heraldry.

In the XII-XIII centuries, coats of arms appeared at cities, at workshops, at priests almost throughout Europe. At first, they reflected mainly complex social relations, in particular land disputes, and often became an element of the court.

With the formation of estate monarchies, practical heraldry takes on a state character: the right to grant and approve coats of arms becomes the exclusive privilege of kings, a stamp is introduced - an official certificate for the right to use the coat of arms depicted and described in it, a certain fee is established for the approval of the coat of arms - "search for rights to the coat of arms", for the use of an unapproved coat of arms, a fine is levied. In absolutist monarchies, special departments are established at the royal courts, headed by a king of arms (in 1696 in France, in 1706 in Prussia).

Double-headed eagle on the coats of arms of the states of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages

Most ancient civilizations had some elements of heraldry in their culture, for example, a system of seals or stamps, which in the future will be inextricably linked with heraldry. The double-headed eagle is one of the legendary armorial figures. It occupies a prominent place among the most ancient symbols and heraldic signs.

The homeland of the double-headed eagle is the Ancient East. It was there that the oldest images of this sign were found. The oldest of them dates back to the 13th century BC - this is a stone relief in the ruins of the city of Alacha-Eyuk in Asia Minor (modern Turkey), depicting a double-headed eagle with outstretched wings, leaning on two small incomprehensible animals, presumably rabbits (see Appendix 2). Near the Turkish village of Bogazkoy, another relief was found (XII century BC), where a two-headed eagle is placed below two figures of female deities welcoming the Hittite king. Cylinder seals of the 6th century BC, discovered in Chaldea, are mentioned.

The sign of the double-headed eagle has become widespread in the Arab and Persian worlds. It was used on the coins of the Sassanid state (Persia, VI century), coins of the Arab dynasties of the Zengids and Ortukids (XII-XIV centuries).

It is not so easy to judge in what capacity images of double-headed eagles were used in the ancient world: the surviving images are extremely few and not accompanied by inscriptions. The art of the ancients is characterized by a desire for symmetry, and the appearance of the figure of an eagle, which is given a symmetrical structure with the help of a second head, corresponds to the characteristic traditions of ancient Eastern culture. Researchers suggest that the double-headed eagle served as a sign of royal power, a symbol of eternal life, vigilant vigilance, omniscience, and vigilance. But the double-headed eagle did not play the role of the state emblem or the emblem of the rulers.

The oldest image of a double-headed eagle in Western Europe dates back to 1180 - it is placed on the seal of Count Ludwig von Sarwerden. It is believed that Europeans got acquainted with the double-headed eagle during the Crusades and borrowed this sign from the east. In 1138-1254. The double-headed eagle was used as an identification mark by the Hohenstaufen dynasty - emperors and kings of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. There is a double-headed eagle on the gold coins of Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa. The kings of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1197-1268 depicted a double-headed eagle in their coat of arms.

In the XIII-XV centuries. the double-headed eagle is widely distributed in Western Europe. The coats of arms known to us with this sign are in the dozens (coats of arms on coins and seals of Ludwig of Bavaria, King Wenceslas IV of the Czech Republic, King Bertrand III of France the Handsome, Bishops of Cologne and Mainz, the cities of Friedberg (Germany) and Palermo (Sicily), Svoya localities (modern France) and the Netherlands).

In 1434, the double-headed eagle first appears in the officially established state coat of arms - the coat of arms of the Holy Roman Empire: the eagle was depicted as black in a golden field, had golden beaks, claws and halos surrounding its heads.

The double-headed eagle was also known at the other pole of European culture - in Byzantium. As a decorative element, the double-headed eagle has been found in Byzantium since the 5th century, and from the first half of the 14th century it began to be used as one of the state identification marks.

The emperors from the Palaiologos dynasty, the last dynasty of the rulers of Byzantium, used the sign of the double-headed eagle especially actively. The handwritten Gospel of Emperor Dmitry Palaiologos depicts the so-called "Eagle of Palaiologos" - a golden double-headed eagle under a crown on a red field, on the chest of which is a medallion with the monogram of Palaiologos. The same eagle was placed on the seals of Emperor Dmitry. The red silk banner of Emperor Andronicus II the Elder Palaiologos depicts a golden double-headed eagle under two crowns. Below the paws of the eagle are two medallions with the emperor's monogram, and between the heads is an equal-ended cross with expanding ends. The last emperor of Byzantium - Constantine XI Palaiologos - died in 1453, during the capture of the capital of Byzantium - Constantinople - by the troops of the Ottoman Turks. According to legend, at the end of the battle, the Turks were able to identify the body of the emperor only by the golden double-headed eagles on his boots.

Probably, the Byzantine influence determines the widespread use of the double-headed eagle in the Balkan countries, where the tradition of using this symbol acquired new forms and features. Here, at different historical stages, the double-headed eagle served as a state symbol. Today, a black double-headed eagle without attributes on a red field serves as the state emblem of Albania, and a golden double-headed eagle on a red field is the emblem of Montenegro.

The rich history of the double-headed eagle can be summarized as follows: having arisen in ancient times in the east, by the 15th century, the double-headed eagle had spread over vast expanses from Persia (modern Iran) to Western Europe and was used in a variety of ways: from decorative decoration to the state symbol.

The first emblems in Russia

What is known about the history of the Russian coat of arms? There is little written evidence of Russian symbols in the sources. Yes, they are scarce and fuzzy.

In ancient Russia, there was no such emblem image. The Slavs of the Dnieper region, who lived in the 6th-8th centuries AD, had intricate ornaments that marked one or another territory.

The most ancient emblems are the so-called signs of Rurikovich. Svyatoslav has a bident, his descendants have a trident and later an attacking falcon. What these signs symbolized is not known for certain. However, most historians agree that these are christograms (i.e. symbols related to the Christian faith).

Some princes sympathized with one type of signs and used them more often than any other. So, the family of Moscow princes, to which Ivan III, the first sovereign of Russia, belonged, relatively often used the figure of a horseman. During excavations in Novgorod, coins were found dating back to 1212-1216. The horsemen on the coins and seals of the Moscow princes were depicted in a variety of ways: the “swordsman” (a horseman with a sword in his hand), the “falconer” (a horseman with a falcon in his hand), the “spearman” (a horseman with a spear), just a horseman without any weapons and equipment are known . Subsequently, this sign appears on the front side of the coin (penny). On the other side, some symbol associated with the prince was usually depicted, for example, the image of his patron (see Appendix 1)

The image of the rider was understood by contemporaries as the image of the owner of the badge himself - the prince. On coins and seals, the rider was usually accompanied by an inscription indicating the title and name of the prince. The title inscription and the rider were perceived as a complex: the rider - as the image of the prince, and the title inscription - as a signature on the image, explaining who exactly is depicted on this coin or seal.

The peculiarity of the Russian sign culture is as follows:

1. signs were created arbitrarily, without taking into account any general rules for their construction,

2. the signs were, in general, inconsistent: the same prince, city, hierarch used different signs on his seals and coins and arbitrarily changed them without regard to any objective reasons.

This is explained by the fact that Russia until the end of the XIV century was not a single entity, there were only separate principalities, occasionally uniting (mainly to repel the enemy). Symbolism is understood as a whole complex of phenomena and objects that personified any visible image that expresses people's ideas about what state principles should be.