Morphemics and word formation. What morpheme is used to connect words in a sentence? §3

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Hosted at http://www.allbest.ru/

Whatis morpheme and morpheme

Morphemics (from the Greek morph - form) is a branch of the science of language that studies the composition (structure) of a word. Morphemics deals with two main questions:

1) how the morphemes of the Russian language are classified,

2) how the word is divided into morphemes, that is, what is the algorithm for morphemic division.

The basic unit of morphemic is the morpheme. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful part of a word. Among morphemes prefixes, roots, suffixes, interfixes (connecting vowels), postfixes, endings are distinguished.

In this definition, both definitions are equally important - minimal and significant; a morpheme is the smallest unit of a language that has a meaning.

The minimum unit of an audio stream is sound. Sounds in a strong position can distinguish words: pond and rod. But the sounds do not denote either concepts, or objects, or their signs, that is, they do not matter.

In the course of lexicology, words are studied - grammatically designed meaningful units that serve to name objects of reality. Phrases, like words, serve to name objects of reality, but they do it more precisely, dissected (cf .: table and desk).

Another significant unit is the offer. Its difference from morphemes and words is, firstly, that it is a larger unit consisting of words, and secondly, that the sentence, having a target and intonation design, serves as a unit of communication, communication.

A morpheme differs from units of all other language levels: a morpheme differs from sounds in that it has a meaning; from words - by the fact that it is not a grammatically formalized unit of naming (it is not characterized as a dictionary unit belonging to a certain part of speech); from sentences - by the fact that it is not a communicative unit.

A morpheme is a minimal two-sided unit, that is, a unit that has both sound and meaning. It is not divided into smaller meaningful parts of the word. Words are built from morphemes, which, in turn, are the "building material" for sentences.

In Russian, the alphabetic and sound composition of morphemes is not unchanged: non-phonetic (i.e., not caused by phonetic conditions - position in relation to stress, the end of a phonetic word and other sounds) alternations of vowels and consonants are widely represented in morphemes. These alternations are not accidental, they are explained by historical processes that took place in the language in ancient times, so the alternations are of a systemic nature.

Classification of Russian morphemes

All morphemes are divided into root and non-root morphemes. Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (prefix and word-forming suffix) and form-forming (ending and form-forming suffix).

Root of the word

The main morpheme in a word is the root. The root is the common part of related words, which contains their main meaning. Words with the same root are called single-root. For example, words teach, student, teacher, study, educational, scientist, learn, study, learn contain the same root -uch- and therefore are single root. All these words denote objects, signs, or actions related to the action of `teach.' Words bush, bush, bush, bush, bush- single-rooted, since they contain the same root - bush- and denote objects, signs or actions related to the bush. Words with the same root make up a word-formation nest. Nests can be large or small. So, a nest with a root -uch- significantly larger than the nest with a root -bush-.

The fundamental difference between the root and other types of morphemes is that the root is the only obligatory part of the word. There are no words without a root, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes, suffixes ( table) and without endings ( kangaroo). The root can be used, unlike other morphemes, out of combination with other roots.

The definition of a root as "a common part of related words" is correct, but not an exhaustive description, since the language has a sufficient number of roots that occur in only one word, for example: cockatoo, very, Alas, many proper nouns naming geographical names.

Often, when defining a root, it is indicated that it "expresses the main lexical meaning of the word." For most words, this is indeed the case, for example: table-ik small table. However, there are words in which the main component of the lexical meaning is not expressed in the root or is not expressed at all by any particular morpheme. So, for example, in the word matinee the main component of the lexical meaning - `children's holiday' - is not expressed by any of the morphemes.

There are many words that consist only of the root. These are official words but, over if), interjections ( yeah, hello), many adverbs ( very, very), immutable nouns ( aloe, attache) and invariable adjectives ( beige, raglan). However, most of the roots are still used in combination with formative morphemes: part-a, good-th, go.

Roots that can be used in a word alone or in combination with inflections are called free. There are 6 such roots in the language. Those roots that can only be used in combination with affixes are called related, for example: about - raz-u-t, agit-irov-t - agit-atsij-ya.

According to some examples of fiction, journalistic literature and colloquial speech, one may get the impression that words consisting only of prefixes or suffixes are possible, for example: " Democracies, humanisms - go and go for isms isms"(V.V. Mayakovsky). But this is not so: in such cases, the suffix turns into a root and, with or without an ending, forms a noun. To find the root in a word, you need to pick up cognate (related) words. So, in the word recess we extract the root -men-, choosing single-root words change, exchange, replacement etc. in the word express find the root -skaz-, comparing the original word with the words to retell, to tell, to tell, a story, a fairy tale etc.

You need to be able to distinguish between roots that match in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. Such roots are called homonymous. Let's compare, for example, two derivational nests of words:

· one) carry, carry, transfer, tray, skid, cast-offs, porter- root -nose-;

2) nose, nasal, spout, nose, bridge of nose- root -nose-.

Words with homonymous roots are not cognate.

Phraseologism leave with a nose means `to leave with nothing, to deceive, to fool', and stay with the nose- ʻbe fooled, fail.' But what does the nose have to do with it? The fact is that this phraseological unit arose when there was another word in the Russian language nose(one-root word wear) with the meaning `offering to the bride as a ransom for her.' If the matchmakers came with such an offering to the bride's house and were refused in this house, then their offering was not accepted, they remained with their "nose". Word nose with such a meaning has fallen into disuse and is preserved only as part of a phraseological unit. But there is another word in the language nose, denoting a part of the person, coinciding in sound with the lost one, so we now associate the phraseological unit with the remaining word.

The alternation of vowels and consonants in the root

When new words and word forms are formed in many roots, alternations of sounds are possible, as a result of which different variants of the same root are formed. For example, in the words ask, ask, ask the same root -prosk-, which has alternations s/w and o/a.

Vowel alternations

1) o/a: rip - unravel, adjust - adjust, catch - catch; this alternation is very often observed in the formation of imperfective verbs with the help of suffixes -iva-/-yva-.

2) Runaway vowels about and e:

about/null sound: mouth - mouth, needle - needle, hundred - one hundred;

e/null sound: stump - stump, father - father, pine - pine, spring - Spring.

3) e/o: delirium - wander, lead - drive, drive - carry, carry - wear, rattle - thunder.

4) Full agreement / disagreement:

oro/ra: enclose - fence, health - health resort;

ee/re: coast - coastal, middle - average;

olo/la: header - header, well - treasure trove;

olo/le: captivate - captivity, milk - mammal.

Dissonance is a lexical and phonetic phenomenon of the modern Russian language: the presence of a combination of ra, la, re, le between consonants in root (or prefixed) morphemes. Through the Old Slavonic written monuments, words with non-vowel combinations penetrated into the Old Russian language and became fixed in it, coexisting with the East Slavic full agreement oro, olo, ere, elo / olo: country - side, gold - gold, beach - shore, mammal (Milky Way) - milk. Non-vowel and full-vowel formations in the history of the development of the language have undergone various changes: in some cases, the non-vowel variant has been preserved, in others - the full-vowel one; sometimes both words are preserved, but diverged in lexical meaning. Old Slavonic variants have been preserved: time, burden (but pregnant), sweet, brave, scolding (but defense) etc. Only full-vowel variants have survived: harrow, peas, well done, road, cow etc. Words like powder - dust, country - side etc., in the modern language differ in meaning.

In the full-vowel variant of the root, alternation is possible o/a associated with the formation of the imperfect form of the verb using the suffix -willow-: fence off - fence off, swamp - swamp.

It is important to remember that full agreement is possible only within one morpheme (more often the root, sometimes prefixes: through-/through-, re-/pre-) and it must be distinguished from the "false full agreement" that occurs at the junction of morphemes (put, prophet, canteen, measurement, ice).

Consonant alternations

1) k/h: beetle - bug, bake - bakes;

c/h/c: fisherman - fishing - fishing;

2) g / f: meadow - meadow, I can - you can;

g/f/z: friend - to be friends - friends;

3) cotton: fly - fly, dry - drier;

4) d / f: rare - less often, sit - I sit;

d / w / w: give birth - give birth - birth;

5) t / h: twirl - twirl, steep - steeper;

t / h / w: light - candle - lighting;

6) h / f: bottom - lower, cut - cut;

7) s / w: paint - paint, high - higher;

8) c / h: finger - finger, hare - hare;

9) b / bl: chop - ruble, love - fall in love;

10) p / pl: save - save, purchase - purchase;

11) in / vl: new - update, catch - catch;

12) f / fl: graphite - graffle;

13) m/ml: feed - feeding, break - refraction;

14) st / w: thick - thicker, plant - grow;

15) sk / u: search - search, drag - drag.

Experience shows that of all the listed cases of alternations, the greatest difficulties for schoolchildren are cases 9-13 (alternation of the labial with the combination "labial + l"). Here, the most common errors in morphemic analysis: many do not see the alternation and single out the root without l, and interpret l as a suffix. Therefore, when explaining, it is worth emphasizing (and explaining with examples) that each distinguished morpheme has a certain meaning, and if you highlight the suffix -l-, it does not add any meaning to the word, for example: buy - buy, feed - feed (cf. I drive - drives , burning - burning); update - update, update.

Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix

Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (word-forming) and formative (form-forming).

Word-forming non-root morphemes serve to form new words, morphemes, formative - to form word forms.

There are several terminological traditions in linguistics. The most common is the terminology in which all non-root morphemes are called affixes. Further, affixes are subdivided in it into derivational affixes and inflections. Another fairly authoritative tradition assigns the term affixes only to word-forming morphemes.

Word-forming morphemes are divided into prefixes and suffixes. They differ in their place in relation to the root and to other morphemes.

A prefix is a derivational morpheme that precedes a root or another prefix ( re-do, pre-pretty, seaside, somewhere, re-o-det).

A derivational suffix is a derivational morpheme that comes after the root ( table-ik, red-e-t).

In linguistics, along with the suffix, a postfix is also distinguished - a word-forming morpheme that comes after the ending or the form-forming suffix ( mind-th-xia, anyone).

Console

Console- a morpheme that comes before the root and usually serves to form new words. The prefix can be placed directly before the root (transition) or before another prefix (retake). Some prefixes, like roots, can appear in different versions, i.e. in them alternations of vowels and consonants are possible:

1) in all prefixes on a consonant, a fluent vowel is possible about at the end of the prefix:

tear - tear up, pick up - pick up, pick up - accelerate;

2) in consoles over-/pre-, through-/through- full-vowel and non-vowel variants are presented: partition - barrier, streak - excessive.

In attachments for -h- presented alternation s/c (carefree - restless), and in the attachment once- also alternating a/o (play out - draw).

Prefixes are more autonomous in word structure than suffixes:

1) prefixes can have a side, weaker stress in polysyllabic words: ultravioletnew,

2) they do not cause grammatical alternations in the root, unlike suffixes, which can cause such alternations: hand - a pen,

3) by adding only one prefix, a word of another part of speech cannot be formed, unlike suffixes: the addition of a suffix may not change the part of the word ( house - house-ik), and to form a word of another part of speech ( white - white-e-t, white-out-a),

4) prefixes are often not associated with a specific part of speech ( under-work, under-sleep), while suffixes are usually assigned to a specific part of speech:- Nick- serves to form nouns, - Liv- - adjectives, - willow- - verbs),

5) the meaning of the prefix is usually quite specific and only modifies the meaning of the original stem, while the meaning of the suffix can be either very specific (- yonok- denotes the cub of the one who is named in the root), and very abstract (- n- denotes an attribute of an object).

Suffix

A suffix (from Latin suffixus - `attached') is a morpheme that comes after the root before the ending and serves to form new words or word forms. The suffix can come directly after the root (carpenter) or after another suffix (carpentry).

Suffixes that serve to form new words are called word-forming (word-forming). Most of these suffixes For example, the suffix -ovate- forms adjectives with the meaning of incomplete quality from other adjectives: grey --->grayish, dark---> dark, liquid--->runny, pale--->paleish; suffix -in- forms possessive adjectives from nouns denoting animals: horse--->equine, elk--->moose, goose--->goose, falcon --->falcon; suffix -tel forms nouns with the meaning of the acting person from verbs: learn--->teacher, read--->reader, live --->a citizen.

Suffixes that serve to form word forms are called formative (inflectional). With the help of formative suffixes, some verb forms are formed, for example, the suffix -th forms an indefinite form ( read), -l-- past tense form (was reading), -I-- imperfect participle (reading), -yusch- - active present participle (reading). With the help of formative suffixes, comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs are formed, for example: newer, brighter, newest, highest.

In suffixes for -to- possible alternation k/h, as well as fluent vowels, for example: examination - checks - verification.

Connecting elements in a word (interfixes)

When connecting morphemes in a word, insignificant connecting elements, called interfixes in linguistics, can be used. The main type of interfixes are connecting elements used in the formation of compound words: - about-(airplane), -e-(half-e-waters), -uh-(double decker),-ex-(three-storey),-and- (five-and-story). Such connecting vowels at the junction of roots are not morphemes in the generally accepted sense (although a number of linguists consider them morphemes with a special, connecting meaning). The stems of the word are not interrupted by connecting elements.

Sometimes the term "interfix" is used to describe a wider range of phenomena - all connecting elements used in word formation and inflection. At the same time, the following types of interfixes in word formation are distinguished:

1) connecting elements used in the formation of compound words: - about-(airplane), -e-(half-e-waters), -uh-(double decker),-ex-(three-storey),-and- (five-and-story) and others,

2) consonants inserted between a root and a suffix or between two suffixes; - l-(resident),-in-(singer), -j-(coffee),-t-(argot-t-ichesy),-sh-(cine);

in shaping:

-j-(leaf-j-i),-ov-(son-ov-me),-er-(mat-er-and),-en-(tribe-en-a). The function of insignificant elements in inflection is also performed by vowels at the end of the verb stem, which have no meaning and close the verb stem: -a-(write),-e-(mountains),-about-(half-o-th), -and- (be in love).

How, with this understanding, is the question of the status of interfixes in morphemic analysis resolved? There is no consensus among linguistic scholars on this issue; interfixes of different groups are usually qualified differently.

Connecting vowels at the junction of roots (group 1) do not join either one or the other root and remain between morphemes; with morphemic articulation of a word, they can be distinguished by brackets, underlining or circling the connecting element with a circle: sam(o)let-F ¬ myself + fly.

As for the interfixes of the second group used in word formation, there are three points of view:

1) leave them between morphemes (ne (v) ets),

2) attach them to the root (singer),

3) attach them to the suffix (pe-vec).

Each of these points of view has arguments for and against. The algorithm of morphemic parsing adopted by us corresponds to the third point of view: the suffix is that segment of the derived stem that distinguishes it from the generating stem, for example, singer ¬ to sing.

The interfixes used in the inflection of nouns are considered to be extensions of the root (mother - mother-and), and the vowels at the end of the verb stem are designated as suffixes (chit-a-t).

Zero derivational suffix

Suppose that it is necessary to determine the morphemic composition of the word run. At first glance, it consists of a root and a zero ending. However, in this case the word run, like any non-derivative word, must directly and directly name some object of extralinguistic reality, be unmotivated. But it's not. Any native Russian speaker for an explanation of what is run, uses the following interpretation: "This is when they run." Indeed, nouns with an uncharacteristic meaning of an action or attribute are derivatives in Russian, they are formed from verbs or from adjectives: run ® run-rel-I , walk ® walking , blue ® syn-ev-a , strict ® strictness. Similarly: run away ® run, walk ® move, blue ® blue, quiet ® silence. From verbs and adjectives, nouns were formed, which is possible only by adding suffixes. Indeed, these words also use a suffix. This suffix is null.

To select a zero word-forming suffix, two conditions are necessary:

1) the word must be derived, motivated by another word of the language (therefore, the word din does not have a zero suffix)

2) there must be a derivational meaning that can be expressed by a non-zero suffix, but in this case it is not materially expressed: run ® run-F-, run ® run-relative .

With the help of a zero word-forming suffix, words of different parts of speech are formed:

nouns

1) with the meaning of an abstract action, formed from verbs: blow up ® explosion-F-, enter ® entrance-F-. Alternative suffixes: -enij- (walking-enij-e), -rel- (running-relative) and others;

2) with the meaning of an abstract feature, formed from adjectives: blue ® blue-F-, deaf ® backwoods-F- . Alternative suffixes: -ev- (sin-ev-a), -in- (tish-in-a), -ost- (strict-ost);

3) with the meaning of an object or person related to the action (producing it, being its result, etc.), formed from the verb (nakip-Ж- ¬ to boil) or two generating bases - the basis of the noun and the basis of the verb: steamboat-Ж- ¬ steam + walk , marriage + do. Alternative suffixes - -nick-, -ets-: heat exchange-Nick¬ warm + exchange, farmer ¬ Earth + do;

adjectives:

1) from verbs: enter-J-th ¬ enter. Alternative suffix - - n-: res-n-oh ¬ cut;

2) from nouns: everyday-F-th ¬ weekdays. Alternative suffix - -n-: forest-n-oh ¬ forest.

There are other cases of null derivational suffixation, but they are less common.

In complex 1, the method of forming such words is called suffix-free; in complex 2, words of this kind are not considered at all.

Postfix

A postfix is a morpheme that comes after an ending and usually serves to form new words.

There are few postfixes in Russian. The most common - -sya, which serves to form verbs (learn, get carried away, hide). Postfix -sya has an option -ss, in personal forms of the verb acting after vowels (learning, carried away, hid). In addition, there are postfixes something, something, something, which serve to form indefinite pronouns and pronominal adverbs, for example: some, someone's, someone; somehow, somewhere, sometime. These postfixes are written with a hyphen.

Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix

Formative morphemes serve to form word forms and are divided into endings and formative suffixes.

Formative morphemes, like other types of morphemes, necessarily have a meaning. But these are meanings of a different kind than those of roots or word-forming morphemes: endings and formative suffixes express the grammatical meanings of the word - abstract meanings abstracted from the lexical meanings of words (gender, person, number, case, inclination, time, degrees of comparison, etc.).

The ending

The ending is a changeable morpheme that serves to connect words in a phrase and sentence and forms the form of a word, expressing the meanings of gender, number, person and case. For example, in a noun table the ending -a expresses the meaning of the masculine singular of the genitive case, in the verb is reading the ending -et expresses the meaning of the 3rd person singular. Termination can be null: table(cf. table[a]), kind(cf. kind[s]) , was reading(cf. was reading[and]).

Only modified words have endings. Functional words, adverbs, invariable nouns and adjectives have no endings. Changed words do not have endings in those grammatical forms that do not have the indicated grammatical meanings (gender, person, number, case), that is, the infinitive and gerund.

Some compound nouns and compound numerals have several endings. This can be easily seen when changing these words: tr-and-st-a, tr-ex-sot-, sofa-bed-, sofa-a-bed-and.

The end may be null. It stands out from the modified word if there is a certain grammatical meaning, but it is not materially expressed. A null ending is a significant absence of an ending, an absence that carries certain information about the form in which the word is. Yes, the ending a in the shape of table-a shows that this word is in the genitive case, - at in table-at indicates the dative case. The absence of an ending in the form table says that it is a nominative or accusative case, that is, it carries information, meaningfully. It is in such cases that the zero ending is allocated in the word.

You must not confuse words with a zero ending and words in which there are no and cannot be endings - immutable words. Only inflected words can have a null ending, that is, words that have non-zero endings in other forms.

Zero endings are widely represented in the language and occur in nouns, adjectives and verbs in the following positions:

1) masculine nouns of the 2nd declension in I. p. (V. p.) singular: boy - I. p., table - I. / V. p.;

2) feminine nouns of the 3rd declension in I. p. (V. p.) singular: night;

3) nouns of all genders in R. p. plural: countries, soldiers, swamps.

But in this position, non-zero endings can also be represented: night-she - articles- . The correctness of parsing such words is achieved by declining the word. If the sound [th "] disappears during declination, then it belongs to the ending: night-her, night-ami. If [th"] is traced in all cases, then it refers to the basis: articles - become [th" -a] - become [th "-a] mi. As we can see, in these forms the sound [th "] is not expressed at the letter level, it is "hidden" in an iotized vowel. In this case, it is necessary to identify and designate this sound. "], "hidden" in an iotized vowel with j, without brackets, entered in the right place: articles j-s.

A fairly common mistake is to determine the endings of words ending in -ya, -ya, -ya. The impression is incorrect that these sound complexes are endings. Two-letter endings in the initial form are present only for those nouns that are substantiated adjectives or participles. Compare:

genius, genij-th, genij-th

army-i, army-she - tables-th, tables-th, etc.

4) short singular masculine adjectives: handsome, smart;

5) possessive adjectives in I p. (V. p.) singular; despite the external similarity of the declension, qualitative and possessive have a different morphemic structure in these cases:

Such a morphemic structure of possessive adjectives is easy to understand, given that possessive adjectives denote a sign of belonging to a person or animal and are always derivative, formed using derivational suffixes -in-, -ov-, -ij- from nouns: mom ® mom-in-, fox ® fox-i-. In oblique cases, this possessive suffix is - uy- is realized in [j], which is "hidden" in an iotized vowel;

6) a verb in the form of the masculine singular in the past tense of the indicative mood and in the conditional mood: dela-l- (by) - cf.: dela-l-a, dela-l-i;

7) a verb in the imperative mood, where the zero ending expresses the meaning of the singular: write-and-, write-and-te;

8) in short participles, the zero ending, as in short adjectives, expresses the meaning of the masculine singular: read-n-. morphemic interfix derivational

formative suffix. Modifications of the verb stem

Another type of formative morphemes is a formative suffix - a suffix that serves to form word forms.

In educational complex 2, the concept of a formative suffix is introduced, in complexes 1 and 3 - no, however, they say that "a suffix is a significant part of a word that usually serves to form new words"; this "usually" is the idea that suffixes can serve not only for word formation, but also for shaping.

Basically, all formative suffixes are present in the verb: these are the suffixes of the infinitive, past tense, imperative mood, participial and participle forms (if we consider participle and gerund participle as forms of the verb, as complexes 1 and 3 do). Not in the verb, formative suffixes are presented in degrees of comparison of adjective and adverb.

Historically, most verbs have two modifications of the stem - the infinitive and the present tense (for perfective verbs - the future). In addition to them, you can sometimes talk about the basis of the past tense.

Since word forms that have the same stem (in terms of its constituent morphemes) are combined into a verb word, it is more correct to say that a verb can have several types of stem, each of which is used in a certain set of word forms. In other parts of speech, the stem may also have a different form in different word forms (for example, son - sons), but for them it is the exception rather than the rule, while for verbs it is the rule rather than the exception. In this regard, not very successful word usage has been fixed, when different types of the same stem are called different stems.

To isolate the basis of the infinitive, it is necessary to separate the formative suffix of the infinitive: write, gnaw, weave, take care (or take care-F).

To highlight the basis of the present / simple future tense, it is necessary to separate the personal ending from the form of the present / simple future tense; it is preferable to use the form of the 3rd person plural (since this stem itself can have a different form in different forms): write-ut, workj-ut, lay-at.

To highlight the basis of the past tense, it is necessary to discard the formative suffix of the past tense from the form of the past tense - l- or -Ж- and ending; it is preferable to use any form other than the form husband. kind of unit numbers, since it is in it that a zero suffix can be represented, which can complicate the analysis: carried-l-a, writing-l-a.

Most verbs have two different types of stem: one is the stem of the present / simple future, and the other is the stem of the infinitive, as well as the past tense: chitaj- and chita-, risuj- and risova-, run- and run-, talk-and talk - . There are verbs that have the same bases of the present / simple future and the infinitive: (id-ut, id-ti), and they are opposed to the basis of the past tense (sh-l-a).

There are verbs in which all three stems are different: ter-t, ter-l-a, tr-ut; get wet, wet-l-a, wet-ut.

There are verbs in which all forms are formed from the same stem: carry, carry-l-a, carry-ut; take it, take it, take it, take it.

Different verb forms are formed from different stems.

From the stem of the infinitive, in addition to the indefinite form, personal and participial forms of the past tense (if the verb does not have a different stem of the past tense) and the conditional mood are formed.

From the basis of the present / simple future tense, in addition to personal and participial forms of the present tense, forms of the imperative mood are formed.

This is clearly seen in those verbs in which the alternation of consonants is represented:

write - write - l - (would) - write - vsh - th

write-at - write-usch-th - write-and-.

The following formative suffixes are present in the verb:

1) the infinitive is formed by formative suffixes -t / -ti: read-t, carry-t. The infinitives on -whose there are two ways to highlight inflection: oven or oven-F, where F is a zero formative suffix (historically in whose the end of the stem and the infinitive indicator proper overlapped) .

In educational complexes 1 and 3, the infinitive indicator is described as an ending. This is due to the fact that in these complexes, unlike complex 2, the concept of a formative suffix is not introduced, and the part of the word without an ending is considered to be the basis, therefore, in order to exclude the infinitive indicator from the stem, it was given the status of the ending. This is not true, since the infinitive indicator does not have the grammatical meanings of gender, number, person or case that are mandatory for the ending and indicates only the infinitive - an invariable verb form.

2) the past tense of the indicative mood is formed by the suffixes -l- (deeds-l-) and -Ж-: carried-Ж- - cf.: carried-l-a.

3) the same suffixes are presented in the conditional mood: affairs-l-by, carried-W-by.

4) the imperative mood is formed by suffixes -and-(write-and-) and -F- (do-F-, sit-F-) .

To clarify that forms like do and sit down are formed by a zero formative suffix, not a suffix * th,*-d, it must be remembered that the form of the imperative mood is formed from the basis of the present tense: write-y - write-and. In verbs like read this is not so obvious, since the stems of the infinitive and the present tense differ only in the presence of the present tense in the stem j at the end of the base: read j-th - read. But the grammatical meaning is expressed by a morpheme that is not included in the stem. This morpheme is a zero formative suffix: read -Ж- (the zero ending has a singular value - cf .: read-W-those).

5) the participle as a special form of the verb is formed by the suffixes -ash-(-yash-), -usch-(-yush-), -sh-, -vsh-, -im-, -om- / -em-, -nn- , -onn- / -enn-, -t-: run-ug-th, take-t-th (graphic variants of suffixes after soft consonants are indicated in brackets, alternating suffixes through a slash) .

6) the gerund as a special form of the verb is formed by the suffixes -a (-ya), -v, -shi, -lice, -uchi (-yuchi): delaj-ya, bud-uch.

7) a simple comparative degree of an adjective and an adverb is formed using the suffixes -e (higher), -ee / -ee (faster), -she (earlier), -zhe (deep);

8) a simple superlative degree of comparison of an adjective is formed with the help of formative suffixes -eysh- / -aysh- (fast-eysh-th, high-aysh-th).

As we can see, not only the ending can be zero, but also the formative suffix, which stands out when the meaning of mood or time is not materially expressed in some verbs:

a) a suffix that forms the past tense of the indicative mood and the conditional mood of a number of verbs in the masculine singular (nes-Ж-). In the same verbs, when forming forms of the feminine or neuter singular or plural, the suffix is used -l- (nes-l-a);

b) the imperative mood suffix for a number of verbs, which were mentioned above (do-Ж-, take out-Ж-).

The foundation

All types of formative morphemes (ending, formative suffix) are not included in the stem of the word. The basis is an obligatory element of the morphemic structure of the word, expressing the lexical meaning of the word. Formative morphemes, expressing grammatical meanings, do not change the lexical meaning of the word.

For immutable words, the whole word forms the basis, for example: if, coat, yesterday. For modified words, endings and / or formative suffixes are not included in the stem, for example: window-o, lie-be, dare-her, read-l-a, done-n-th.

The stem of a word can be interrupted by formative morphemes. These are the bases of verb forms containing the word-forming reflexive suffix -sya / -s (uch-l-a-s), the bases of indefinite pronouns containing suffixes -to, -either, -any (to-tho), the bases of some complex compound nouns (sofa-a-bed-and) and compound numerals (fifth-and-ten-and). Such bases are called discontinuous.

Principles of morphemic analysis of a word

Morphemic parsing of a word (parsing a word by composition) begins with the selection of a stem and formative morphemes - an ending and / or a formative suffix (if any).

At the same time, it is necessary to remember about j, which may be "hidden" in an iotated vowel after a vowel or separator. If it closes the stem of the word, it must be entered ( impression). If this is not done, you can make a mistake in the composition of the suffix or not notice the suffix in the word at all. So, for example, in Russian there is no suffix -*neither-, but there is a suffix - nij-: sing® ne-nij-e. the word is heaven contains the suffix - j-, which is not expressed at the literal level: under-heaven-is-j-e.

After that, the basis of the word must be divided into the root (roots) and word-forming morphemes, if they are in the word. In some textbooks (in particular, in complex 2), the following procedure is proposed for this: the root is distinguished in the word as a common part of related words, then what remains in the word is distinguished as a prefix (prefixes) and a suffix (suffixes) in accordance with our ideas about whether there is such a suffix or such a prefix in Russian. But such an analysis can lead to errors; there is not enough validity in its procedure. To avoid mistakes, the morphemic analysis of the stem must be connected with the analysis of word-formation.

The algorithm of morphemic parsing of the stem, associated with its derivational parsing, was substantiated by the Russian linguist Grigory Osipovich Vinokur (1896-1947).

What is base productivity? Derivativeness is understood as the education of a given basis from another basis at the synchronous level, in the modern language. How do we know that one basis is formed, that is, derived from another? The meaning of a derivative base can always (and should) be explained through the meaning of the base, which is the generating (basic) base for it, and not through a direct reference to the object of extralinguistic reality designated by it. For example: table ¬ table. Motivation: table - this is a `small table.' The interpretation of a derivative word necessarily includes the generating word (stem). This criterion is called the criterion of motivation.

In the criterion of motivation, it is emphasized that the semantic connection between the derivative and the producer should be felt in the modern language (at the synchronous level). Historically, one word can be derived from another. So, for example, the word forget historically derived from the word to be, word capital- from the word table. But for a modern native speaker, the semantic connections between them are destroyed. Meaning of the word capital cannot be explained through the meaning of the word table, therefore, they are not related by derivative relations. Word capital(similar forget) is non-derivative, which means that its basis is indivisible at the synchronous level, the root of this word is capitals. Mixing synchronous morphemic and etymological analysis of words in the study of the modern Russian language is unacceptable.

Algorithm for morpheme articulation of stem

In word formation, sometimes a prefix and a suffix are attached to the generating stem at the same time, for example, windowsill ¬ window(there are no words in Russian * subwindow and * windowsill). But often word-forming morphemes are attached sequentially:

white-th white-e-be whiten.

It turns out a word-formation chain, in each link of which a new word-forming morpheme is "put on" on the original generating stem. Consequently, in order not to be mistaken in the definition of the morphemic structure of a word, during its morphemic analysis, it is necessary to restore this word-formation chain and sequentially "remove" word-forming morphemes from the derived stem under study. To the word under study, its generating is selected - the word (base) from which it is formed, the closest in form and necessarily motivating in meaning to the word given for analysis (motivation criterion). Then the stem of the generating word and the stem of the derived word are compared. The difference between them is the suffix (prefix) with which the word under study is formed. Further to the generating, if it is not a non-derivative word, it is necessary to select its generating. And so it is necessary to build a word-building chain "on the contrary" until it reaches a non-derivative word. When constructing each link in the chain, it is necessary to prove the correctness of its construction by explaining the value of each derivative through the value of its generator. For example:

recovered-enij-e - recover-be - healthy

Motivation: recovery- the same as get well(result) or recover(process), denotes an action or its result, get well- become healthy.

Thus, the process of determining the morphemic composition through the word-formation chain does not begin with the selection of the root, but ends with it. From the word, as it were, affixes are "removed"; what is left is the root.

The only exception to this pattern are words with related roots. Connected, as already mentioned, is a root that is not used independently, that is, only with formative morphemes, but is always found in conjunction with word-forming prefixes and suffixes, and can attach to itself various well-defined prefixes and / or suffixes. The analysis of such words is carried out through the construction of morphemic squares, in which the given root must be used with another suffix (prefix), and the suffix (prefix) with another root:

o-u-t - o-t-t

oh-de-th - one-de-th

It is this algorithm of stem morphemic parsing: the construction of a word-building chain for words with a free root and the construction of a morphemic square for words with a connected root - that should be used in the morphemic parsing of a word.

Morphemic analysis (word analysis by composition)

In morphemic parsing of a word (parsing a word by composition), first the ending and the formative suffix (if any) are distinguished in the word, the stem is emphasized.

After that, the basis of the word is divided into morphemes.

As we have already said, two opposite approaches to the morphemic articulation of the stem are possible: formal-structural and formal-semantic.

The essence of formal-structural morphemic analysis is that the root is first of all singled out as a common part of related words. Then what goes up to the root, the student should be aware of as a prefix (prefixes) in accordance with the student's ideas about whether he met similar elements in other words. Same with suffixes. In other words, the main thing in the analysis is the effect of recognition by the student of morphemes, the external similarity of some parts of different words. And this can lead to massive errors, the reason for which is ignoring the fact that the morpheme is a significant linguistic unit. The lack of work to determine the meaning of morphemes leads to errors of two types, which have a different nature:

Errors in determining the root of the word are associated with the indistinguishability of the synchronous morphemic and historical (etymological) composition of the word. Moreover, complex 2 takes the indistinguishability of the modern and historical morphemic composition of words as a setting that sometimes helps in determining the correctness of spelling, which is quite consistent with the general spelling and punctuation orientation of the course and the textbook as a whole. So, in a textbook on theory, as an illustrative material, such an example of morphemic parsing of a word is given art(art). Obviously, such an approach cannot contribute to the correct selection of the root in the modern structure of the word and leads to the selection of insignificant segments in the stem.

Errors in the selection of prefixes and suffixes are associated with the morpheme division algorithm - with the majority of students thinking about a word as a string of morphemes that should be "recognized" as already encountered in other words. The extreme expression of this kind of parsing is cases like key(cf.: pilot), box (upholsterer). But even with a correctly defined root, one often encounters an incorrect definition of the number and composition of prefixes and suffixes if there are more than two of these morphemes in a word. This is due, firstly, to the morpheme division algorithm and, secondly, to the fact that in textbooks words with more than one prefix and / or suffix are practically not given.

The formal-structural approach to the morphemic articulation of a word is not exclusively an attribute of school practice. A similar approach has been implemented in a number of scientific publications, for example, in A.I. Kuznetsova and T.F. Efremova, where it is stated that "morpheme analysis depends little on word-formation, since usually when dividing a word, a comparative method is used, in which it is practically not taken into account what is formed from what."

The formal-structural approach is opposed to the formal-semantic (formal-semantic) approach. The main setting of this approach and the morphemic parsing algorithm come from the works of G.O. Vinokur and consist in the continuity of morphemic articulation and word-formation analysis. The fact that this approach is expedient and even the only possible one has been written by many scientists and methodologists for many decades.

The approach of educational complexes to the question of the principles and algorithm of morphemic division is different: educational complexes 1 and 3 offer a formal-semantic approach to the morphemic division of a word (complex 3 to a greater extent than complex 1), complex 2 is formal-structural.

The algorithm for morphemic parsing of the stem consists in constructing a word-formation chain "on the contrary": prefixes and suffixes are, as it were, "removed" from the word, while the root is singled out last. In parsing, it is always necessary to correlate the meaning of the derivative and the meaning of its generator; the producing basis in modern Russian is the motivating basis. If there is no relation of motivation between the meaning of the derivative and the meaning of the generating (in our view) word, the generating is chosen incorrectly.

Thus, the order of parsing the word by composition is as follows:

1) highlight the ending, formative suffix (if they are in the word),

2) highlight the stem of the word - part of the word without endings and formative suffixes,

3) highlight the prefix and / or suffix in the basis of the word through the construction of a word-formation chain,

4) highlight the root in the word.

1) carpenter

Sample reasoning:

carpenter- verb form carpentry; the verb is in the past tense of the indicative mood, which is expressed by the formative suffix - l-, masculine singular, which is expressed by zero ending (compare: carpenter-and).

The foundation - carpentry-.

Verb carpentry formed from a noun a carpenter, motivated through it: carpentry - `to be a carpenter'; the difference between the basis carpentry and a carpenter- suffix - a-, alternation is presented in the basics to / h.

Noun a carpenter in modern language it is non-derivative, since it cannot be motivated through the word raft. Consequently, a carpenter / carpenter- root.

So the word form carpenter has a zero ending with the meaning of the masculine singular, the formative suffix - l- with the meaning of the past tense of the indicative mood, the word-forming suffix - a- with the meaning of being what is named in the motivating basis, the root carpenter. stem carpentry.

Sample writing:

carpenter - form ch. carpentry ¬ carpenter, striping to / h.

2) dressing

Sample reasoning:

Dressing- noun, ending - e(it is this segment of the word that changes when it is declined: dress up, dress up, dress up).

At the junction of the ending and the stem, the sound [th "] is pronounced in all forms, which is "hidden" in the letter e standing after a vowel. Therefore, this sound belongs to the basis, closes it. The base of the word dress up[th"].

Word dressing derived from the verb dress: dressing - `the process of dressing is the same as dressing.' The difference between the basis dressing and verb stem clothing- segment - neither[th"]-, which is a word-forming suffix.

The verb to dress is derived from the verb dress and has an imperfect form. The means of word formation - suffix - wa-.

The verb to dress is non-derivative, but there are verbs in the language undress, re-dress with the same root, but different prefixes, therefore, we are dealing with a related root - de- and a prefix about-.

...

Similar Documents

The root as a morpheme that carries the lexical meaning of the word (or the main part of this meaning), the patterns of their spelling in Russian. Checked unstressed consonants, vowels in the root. The letters I, A, U after hissing. Connecting O, E in compound words.

presentation, added 12/12/2012

Features of English phonetics. Sound and alphabetic composition of the word. Classification of vowels and consonants. Transcription icons and their pronunciation. The main types of syllables. Placement of stress in words. Rules for reading vowels and consonants.

term paper, added 06/09/2014

Composition of vowel phonemes in German and Belarusian languages. Classification, main characteristics of vowel phonemes in German and Belarusian. General definition of vowels and phonemes. Composition of vowel phonemes of the Belarusian language. Alternation of German vowel phonemes.

term paper, added 08/31/2008

Phonetics as a science. classification of sounds (consonants and vowels). Consonants: main features; first move; neutralization; gemination. Vowels: Old English diphthongs; velar mutation; development of unstressed vocalism; vowel change.

term paper, added 01/03/2008

Sounds of speech. Vowels and consonants and letters denoting them. Strong and weak position of vowels and consonants in a word. The concept of spelling. The word is the unit of language. significant parts of the word. Root of the word. main members of the proposal. Synonyms. Antonyms.

abstract, added 10/25/2008

Differences and similarities of the suffix -tel- in personal nouns in modern Russian and Church Slavonic, the reasons for these differences. Study of the meaning of suffixes in two languages, their quantitative composition, substantiation of contacts in semantics.

term paper, added 09/17/2014

The concept of word formation as a method of secondary nomination. The essence of the productivity of word-formation models in the English language. Affixal way of word formation, features of suffixation in English. The semantic range of the -y suffix.

thesis, added 04/15/2014

The rule for writing the letter "e" in the suffix -en in nouns. The ability to use the suffix -en- in an unstressed position in written speech. Writing a suffix in the stems of indirect cases and plural forms of nouns with unstressed vowels.

presentation, added 12/11/2014

Reduced sounds, names and verbs in Old Slavonic words. Analysis of the spelling of words in the monuments of the XI century. Origin of vowels and consonants. Causes of quantitative changes in vowels, diphthongs and diphthong combinations. The Law of Palatalization.

laboratory work, added 04/10/2014

Affix and non-affix ways of word formation. Attaching a suffix to a generating stem (verb, noun) and a prefix to the root. Latin and Greek suffixes. Formation of complex words by addition. Prefix-suffix derivatives.

18. Morphemics, morphemes, their types

MORPHEMICS is a section of linguistics that studies the types and structures of morphemes, their relationship to each other and to the word as a whole.

A MORPHEME is the minimum indivisible meaningful part of a word, i.e. a certain meaning is assigned to the phonetic form.

In Russian there are words that are changeable and unchangeable. The former consist of a stem (i.e., a part of a word that contains lexical meaning) and an ending (i.e., a part of a word that indicates the relationship of a given word with other words in a sentence), the latter - only from the stem.

The basis necessarily includes a hoden (the main part of the word, which is common to all related words), and there may also be pschiyaaki (morphemes before the root) and suffixes (morphemes after the root before the ending, if any). All significant parts of a word, except for the root, are called affixes.

By function, affixes are divided into:

Derivational or derivational (serve to form new words): anti-democratic (word-forming prefix), courage (word-forming suffix),
- formative or inflectional (serve to form word forms): cats (ending), read (formative prefix), faster (formative suffix).

19. Alternation of sounds in a word.

During word formation and inflection, the following alternations in the roots of words can be observed:

Vowel alternation:

e - o: I'm taking - to carry,
e (e) - o - and: lit - arson - set fire,
e - a: day - day,
e - zero sound: root - root,
e-and: hang - hang,
oh - a: dawn - dawn,
o - zero sound: sleep - sleep,
o - zero sound - s: ambassador - send - send,
a (i) - to them: hush up - hush up,
a (i) - in: occupy - occupy,
u (u) - ov (ev): chew - chew, peck - peck,
y - o - s: dry - dry - dry out,
and - oh: beat - fight,
e - oh: sing - sing, etc.

Consonant alternation:

d -f -s: friend - make friends - friends,
to - c-h: face - face - personal,
d - f - railway: drive - drive - driving,
d, t - st: I lead - lead,
st - u - s: grow - grow - grew,
k, g - h: help - help,
x -sh: deaf - silence,
h-zh: to carry - I drive,
zg - zzh: splash - splatter,
s-sh: wear-wear,
b - bl: love - love,
p - pl: buy - buy, etc.

20. Depending on the number of roots at the base of the word, the following are distinguished:

Simple words (they have one root, most of these words),
- compound words (they have two or more bases), such words can be written with a hyphen (red-blue) or together (steam locomotive - two roots are connected by a connecting vowel).

21. Single-root (related) words- these are words containing the same root; two different forms of the same word cannot be called the same root, they are one word. For example, the words "watchman - watchdog - guard" are one-root, and the words "watchman and watchmen" are two different forms of the same word.

22. ETYMOLOGY is a branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words. The subject of its study is the sources and processes of the formation of the vocabulary of the language and the reconstruction of the vocabulary of the ancient period.

23. WORD FORMATION- This is a branch of linguistics that studies all aspects of the creation, functioning, structure and classification of derivatives and compound words.

Word formation methods.

1. Morphological methods (they are the main ones in Russian):

affixation:

Prefix method (a new word is formed by adding a prefix to the stem of the word: get sick),
- suffix method (a new word is formed by adding a suffix to the stem of the word: bath attendant),
- prefix-suffix method (a new word is formed by simultaneously adding a prefix and a suffix to the stem: armrest);
non-affix way (a new word is formed without an affix: rot, explosion);
word formation (a new word is formed by adding words or bases to a restaurant car, a steam locomotive);
abbreviation (a new word is formed by abbreviating words: people's commissar, USSR).

2. Non-morphological methods:

Morphological-syntactic method (a new word is formed by the transition of the word to another part of speech; cf .: student on duty - class on duty).

Lexico-semantic method (new words appear as a result of the disintegration of a polysemantic word into homonyms, for example, "world" as "universe" and "peace" as "a state without war").

Lexico-syntactic method (a new word is formed as a result of the merging of a combination of words into one unit: now - now).

Morphemics- a branch of linguistics that studies the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

The basic unit of morphemic is the morpheme. Morpheme- this is the minimum significant part of the word (root, prefix, suffix, ending).

A morpheme is the smallest unit of a language that has a meaning.

For example: Return

WHO means "reverse action" or "direction of movement". The action is usually directed towards a subject or an object.

ROTATING- Roundabout Circulation

EIJ- a process conceivable objectively

E- cf., singular, im.p.

Just like a phoneme, a morpheme is a structural element of a word. Since the morpheme is a linguistic unit, we observe in it the same systemic features as in the phoneme. A morpheme is an invariant (sample, standard), and variants of a morpheme are called morphs.

For example: FRIEND - FRIEND, DRUZ ', FRIEND, FRIEND [K], FRIEND [SH]

Morphs of the same morpheme in relation to each other are called allomorphs. Even if the morpheme is equal in structure to the phoneme, for example, Oh, S, K it still matters.

The morpheme differs from the units of all other language levels: from sounds a morpheme differs in that it has a meaning; from words- the fact that it is not a grammatically designed unit of the name; from offers- the fact that it is not a communicative unit.

Morpheme and word

General: presence of meaning, reproducible, impenetrable, constancy of sound and meaning. Both words and morphemes are made up of phonemes.

Features:

Classification of Russian morphemes

All morphemes are divided into root and non-root (affixal). Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (prefix and word-forming suffix) and formative (ending and form-forming suffix).

Root morphemes

Root morphemes include ROOT, AFFIXOID.

Root- the common part of related words, which expresses the main real meaning of the stem.

The root is the only obligatory part of the word. There are no words without a root, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes, suffixes (table) and without endings (kangaroo).

The definition of a root as "a common part of related words" is correct, but not an exhaustive description, since the language has a sufficient number of roots that occur in only one word, for example: cockatoo, very, Alas, many proper nouns naming geographical names.

Often, when defining a root, it is indicated that it "expresses the main lexical meaning of the word." For most words, this is indeed the case, for example: table-ik'small table'. However, there are words in which the main component of the lexical meaning is not expressed in the root or is not expressed at all by any particular morpheme. So, for example, in the word matinee the main component of the lexical meaning - 'children's holiday' - is not expressed by any of the morphemes.

There are many words that consist only of the root. These are official words but, above, if), interjections ( yeah, hello), many adverbs ( very, very), immutable nouns ( aloe, attache) and invariable adjectives ( beige, raglan). However, most of the roots are still used in combination with formative morphemes: part-a, good-th, go-tee.

The root stood out when comparing the words of one derivational nest.

At the root, historical alternations are most often observed.

Roots are of 2 types: free and connected.

loose root- this is a root, which is able to act without affixes as part of indivisible stems (meeting without prefixes and suffixes).

For example, WATER, WATER- free root

Related root known only as part of articulating stems and cannot be used without affixes.

For example, RAGPizza, RAG, RAG, RAG

affixoid is a morpheme of transitional type between the proper root and the affix. On the one hand, the affixoid carries the same real meaning as the root, on the other hand, the affixoid creates a word-formation model like an affix, i.e. being a serial element, creates a series.

For example, GARDENER, POULTRY GROWER, FLOWER

-VOD- affixoid "one who is engaged in cutting something, someone"

Affixoids are divided into prefixoids (before the root) and suffixoids (after the root) depending on the location.

Affixal morphemes

- morphemes that create word-building models and clarify, complement the meaning of the root. Affixal morphemes are common to a number of non-single-root words.

For example, URAL, LENINGRAD, AMERICAN -"inhabitant of a locality" - EC-

Affixes include: PREFIX (), SUFFIX (), INTERFIX (), ENDING (FLEXION), POSTFIX ().

Affixes perform either derivational (word-forming) function: morphemes are used to create new words; or relational (shaping) function: morphemes of new words do not create, but create the form of the same word.

For example, TEACHER– 4 affix morphemes

I, TEL- derivational f-ya

BUT- shape. f-i

NIC - word-figure. f-i + shaping. f-i

However, there are morphemes that perform both functions simultaneously. They are called syncretic.

Affixes can be productive and unproductive.

Productive called affixes, to-rye used in modern. stage of language development to create new words or forms of a single word: COPY- productive.

Unproductive affixes - affixes that are not currently used to create present. words: back street, simplicity, warmth- unproductive

Affixes can be regular or irregular. Regular - often found (-n-, -to-), irregular - rarely found in words (-their-).

There are suffixes that occur in 1-2 words: postAMPT, BUGLE, APPLAUSE.

Like words, morphemes can be native Russian and borrowed.

For example, weirdo, fisherman (-ak-); pie OK, man OK (-ok-)- originally Russian

TRANS-, DEZ-, A-, SUPER-; -IROVA-, -FITSIROVA-, -IZM- borrowed

Suffix -

An affixal morpheme, which comes after the root and serves to form new words and grammatical forms.

SEA + -SK- → MARINE - word-figure. suffix

SON - SONJYA- grammatical. the form

DRAW - draw- shape. suffix

There can be several suffixes in a word, but word-forming, i.e. the one that creates the given word will always be the last suffix.

For example, TEACHER ← TEACHER (TO TEACH + -TEL-) + SC

Suffixes can be different in structure. They can be simple: -IST-, -ISM-, -I-, -TEL-, -SK-, and can be complex (composite): -NICHA-, -FITSEROVA (TH)-

Suffixes are materially expressed and zero.

For example, withered, withered, withered, withered

Prefix (prefix) -

An affixal morpheme, which stands before the root, and serves to form new words or forms of the same word.

For example, Listen ←listen- word-forming

write→Write- shaping

Prefixes cannot create words of other parts of speech. There is no prefix zero, it is always materially expressed (unlike suffixes and endings)

Prefixes: simple (o-, on-, pro-, for-); complex (negative, under-); native Russian and borrowed

Interfix

In derivative words, there is a morpheme, which does not quite correspond to the characteristics of a given unit of language, since it has no lexical or grammatical meaning, but is used to create new words or forms of one word.

Not all scholars recognize the interfix as a morpheme, and call this formant a morphemic spacer.

Interfix can combine stems in compound words: esophagus, daredevil.

Interfixes include frozen endings inside complex derivative stems: crazy.

Do not confuse interfixes and suffixes within compound words. Wed: evergreen(suffix) , fruit and vegetable(interfix).

An interfix can combine a root and a suffix: yalta + -ets- + IN → Yalti

Flexia (end)–

Meaningful morpheme in inflected words.

The ending always indicates the possibility of replacing this morpheme with another sound complex. The list of possible changes is determined by the part of speech.

For example, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER, WINTER - 12 paradigms; book - 24 paradigms.

The entire list of grams. forms of one word is called the paradigm of this word, and the paradigm is formed by changing the endings.

Remains unresolved. the question of whether the ending is only a formative morpheme, or it can be recognized that it is also a word-formative morpheme.

Postfix -

An affixal morpheme, which stands after inflection and is used to create new words or forms of one word. Postfix is observed in discontinuous stems.

For example, spinning - derivational

SYa is a shape. in forms suffer. pledge to suffer. structures.

Wed: The crane lifts the load. The load is lifted by a crane.

- SOMETHING, - EITHER, - ANYTHING, creating an unpredictable pronouns are postfixes.

Form-forming yavl-Xia morpheme THOSE in the forms of the imperative mood of verbs and has grammatical. plural value numbers: go

Not everyone unequivocally evaluates this morpheme: some consider THOSE postfix, because this morpheme comes after another formative morpheme And; others consider it to be a suffix.

The base of the word

this is the part of the word that precedes the ending and expresses the lexical meaning of the given word. The basis of inflected and invariable words is different. In inflected (inflected or conjugated) words, the stem is defined as part of the word without the ending and formative suffixes : window about, sadness ny, drove Xia. To highlight the basis of the word, it is necessary to discard the ending and formative suffixes. The stem of immutable words is equal to the word: sad , to my mind , khaki .

Many words of the Russian language have a primary character, that is, they are not formed from any other words. The basis of such words is called non-derivative, for example: grey, black, forest, water-a, grass-a. The non-derivative stem is always indivisible, that is, it cannot be divided into morphemes; it consists only of the root. Various derivational affixes (prefixes,

suffixes, interfixes, postfixes), as a result of this, new words with a derivative stem appear, for example: mountain-a - mountain-th - horn-o-ski-n-th; brother - brother-sk-th - brotherly. In this way, derivative basis- this is the basis of words formed from any other words by adding various morphemes.

As part of the derivative base, in addition to the root, there may be:

1) one or more suffixes ( male-estv-o, male-estv-enn-th, male-estv-enn-ost);

2) only prefixes ( for-husband, not-friend, great-grandson);

3) various combinations of prefixes and suffixes ( in a husband-sk-i, air-husband-a-t, air-husband-a-l-th).

The derived stem is segmentable, that is, in addition to the root, other morphemes are distinguished in it; the derivative base can be continuous ( fish, tables, dream) and discontinuous ( meet, carried away).

Each derived base has its own generating base. The generating basis is the basis of the word from which the given word is formed. For example: water -> water-yang-oh - watery - wateriness.

4) combination of prefixes, suffixes and postfixes ( for-doh-well-t-sya, o-dum-a-lice-s).

Those derivational affixes with the help of which the given word is produced are attached to the generating stem.

As a result, various word-building chains arise, which are based on a word with a non-derivative stem. All words in the chain are cognate (related) words.

22. Word formation. Derivative word. Ways of word formation in modern Russian.

word formation is a branch of linguistics that studies the ways of forming words of a language.

Word formation studies the structure of the word (what parts it consists of, what is the meaning of these parts, what position they occupy in the word) and ways of forming words.

Word formation is connected with lexicology, since newly formed words replenish the vocabulary of the language and new words are formed on the basis of words already existing in the language according to the models of this language.

Word formation is also associated with morphology, since the newly formed word is formed according to the grammatical laws of the given language.

Word formation connection with syntax manifests itself in the fact that syntactic transformations are determined by the word-building potential of the word.

New words appear by 2 types of word formation:

1. morphological; 2. non-morphological.

With morphological word formation a new word is created by adding / truncating morphemes, i.e. some operation is performed with the morpheme. These include private methods of addition and affixation.

Non-morphological methods- ways where the formation of a new word is associated with changes in its semantics. New morphemes are not added, and even sometimes the structure of the stem does not change.

Non-morphological ways of word formation include:

Lexico-semantic way

Lexico-grammatical method (morphological-syntactic)

Lexico-syntactic way

Non-morphological types of word formation

Lexico-semantic

A new word appears as a result of semantic changes in a word that has already changed in the language. Those. initially, polysemy (polysemy) develops and a new meaning breaks away, turning into a homonym.

For example, pioneer (discoverer) → pioneer (member of a children's organization); plant (enterprise) → plant (plant); scapula (tool) to scapula (bone)

The morphemic structure has not changed, part of the word has not changed, the semantics has changed!!!

Morphemics- a branch of linguistics that studies the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms.

Morphemics deals with two main questions:
1) how the morphemes of the Russian language are classified,
2) how the word is divided into morphemes, that is, what is the algorithm for morphemic division.

The basic unit of morphemic is the morpheme.

Morpheme- this is the minimum significant part of the word (root, prefix, suffix, ending).

Classification of Russian morphemes

All morphemes are divided into root and non-root morphemes. Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (prefix and word-forming suffix) and form-forming (ending and form-forming suffix).

Root

The fundamental difference between the root and other types of morphemes is that root is the only obligatory part of the word. There are no words without a root, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes, suffixes ( table ) and without endings ( kangaroo ). The root can be used, unlike other morphemes, out of combination with other roots.

There are many words that consist only of the root. These are official words but, over if ), interjections ( yeah, hello ), many adverbs ( very, very ), immutable nouns ( aloe, attache ) and invariable adjectives ( beige, raglan ). However, most of the roots are still used in combination with formative morphemes: part-a, good-th, go-ti.

Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix

Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (word-forming) and formative (form-forming).

Word-forming non-root morphemes serve to form new words, morphemes, formative - to form word forms.

Word-forming morphemes are divided into prefixes and suffixes. They differ in their place in relation to the root and to other morphemes.

Console- a derivational morpheme that stands before the root or another prefix (re-do, pre-pretty, seaside, in some places, re-do).

Suffix- derivational morpheme, standing after the root (table- ik , red- e- t).

In linguistics, along with the suffix, there are also postfix- a derivational morpheme standing after the ending or formative suffix (mind-th- Xia , whom- or ).

Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix

Formative morphemes serve to form word forms and are divided into endings and formative suffixes.
Endings and formative suffixes differ in the nature of the grammatical meaning they express

The ending

The ending- a formative morpheme that expresses the grammatical meanings of gender, person, number and case (at least one of them!) And serves to connect words in a phrase and sentence, that is, it is a means of agreement (new th student), management (letter brother- y) or connection of the subject with the predicate (I id- at , you go- eat ).

Some compound nouns and compound numerals have several endings. This can be easily seen by changing these words: tr- and -st- a , tr- ex -hot-, sofa -bed-, sofa- a -bed- and .

The end may be null. It stands out from the modified word if there is a certain grammatical meaning, but it is not materially expressed.

Zero ending- this is a significant absence of an ending, an absence that carries certain information about the form in which the word is. Yes, the ending a table-shaped a shows that this word is in the genitive case, - at on the table- at indicates the dative case. The absence of an ending in the form of a table indicates that this is a nominative or accusative case, that is, it carries information that is meaningful. It is in such cases that the zero ending is allocated in the word.

formative suffix. Modifications of the verb stem

Another type of formative morphemes is a formative suffix - a suffix that serves to form word forms.
Basically, all formative suffixes are presented in the verb: this suffixes of the infinitive, past tense, imperative, participial and participle forms. Non-verb formative suffixes are represented in degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs.

Most verbs have two different kinds of stem: one is the present/future simple stem, and the other is the infinitive stem as well as the past tense: read j - and chita - , rice - and rice - , run - and running - , dialect - and speak - .

There are verbs that have the same bases of the present / simple future and the infinitive: ( id -ut, id -ti), and they are opposed to the basis of the past tense ( sh -l-a).

There are verbs in which all three stems are different: tere- th, ter- l-a, tr- ut; weep- th, mok- l-a, wet- ut.

There are verbs in which all forms are formed from the same stem: carried ti, carried l-a, carried ut; carried ti, carried l-a, carried ut.

Different verb forms are formed from different stems.

From the basis of the present / simple future tense, in addition to personal and participial forms of the present tense, forms of the imperative mood are formed.

This is clearly seen in those verbs in which the alternation of consonants is represented:
write- th - write- l- (would - write- vsh-th
write y - write usch-th - write and- .

The foundation

All types of formative morphemes (ending, formative suffix) are not included in the stem of the word.

The foundation- this is an obligatory element of the morphemic structure of the word, expressing the lexical meaning of the word. Formative morphemes, expressing grammatical meanings, do not change the lexical meaning of the word.

For immutable words, the whole word is the basis, for example: if, coat, yesterday. Changed words do not include endings and / or formative suffixes in the stem, for example: window- about, lying- th, dare- her, read- l-a, did- nn-th.

The stem of a word can be interrupted by formative morphemes. These are the basics of verb forms containing the word-forming reflexive suffix -sya / -sya ( teach- l-a-s), bases of indefinite pronouns containing suffixes - something, - either, - anything ( to- hoo), the bases of some compound nouns ( sofa- a- bed- i) and complex numbers ( heel- and- ten- and). Such bases are called discontinuous.

Morphemic analysis (word analysis by composition)

Morphemic analysis is carried out according to the following plan:
1. Determine what part of speech the word is; indicate its base and ending.
2. Set the lexical meaning of the word and determine how it is formed (from which word and with the help of which morphemes); indicate prefixes, suffixes and the root of the word.

Sample morpheme parsing

carpenter

Sample reasoning:
carpenter - a form of the verb carpenter; the verb is in the past tense of the indicative mood, which is expressed by the formative suffix -l-, masculine singular, which is expressed by the zero ending (compare: carpenter-i).

The foundation- carpenter-.

The verb carpentry is formed from the noun carpenter, motivated through it: carpentry - ‘to be a carpenter’; the difference between the base carpenter and the carpenter is the suffix -a-, in the bases the alternation of k / h is represented.
The noun carpenter in the modern language is non-derivative, since it cannot be motivated through the word raft. Therefore, carpenter / carpenter is the root.

Thus, the word form carpenter has a zero ending with the meaning of the masculine singular, the formative suffix -l- with the meaning of the past tense of the indicative mood, the word-forming suffix -a- with the meaning of being what is named in the motivating stem, the root carpenter. The basis of the word carpenter is.

The doctrine of the structure of the word and its parts has developed in linguistics for a long time, but the term itself morphemic relatively new. It entered wide scientific use in 1970, after the release of Grammar-70. Morphemics is a set of morphemes of a given language and a section of linguistics in which morphemes are studied.

Within morphemics, the following sections are distinguished: 1) classification of morphemes according to their place in the word; 2) classification of morphemes by types of meanings; 3) the doctrine of morphemes and their speech representatives.

1) Classification of morphemes according to their place in the word.

Morphemes are divided into root and official. The latter are called the generic term affix. Affixes include prefix, suffix, postfix, interfix, infix, confix, inflection, ambifix, transfix, etc.

Root carries the main meaning. It concentrates the main content of the lexical meaning, which is specified by affixes. Service morphemes are much less informative than the root: cf. -out- (white) or -it(bleach). If we know the root, then this is much more than if we know all the affixes.

Prefix(lat. prae'before', fixus‘attached’) is the part of the word before the root that has a derivational ( do - make over) or formative value (species pair do – do). In Russian, as in the North American language of Haida, there are 70 prefixes.

Suffix(lat. sub‘under’) is the part of the word that follows immediately after the root and has a derivational ( tea - kettle) or formative value ( teach taught) meaning.

Flexion(lat. flexio‘flexion’) is a modified part of a word, as a rule, expressing inflectional meaning and linking words into a syntactic construction. Less frequent word-formation function of inflection: mathematician - mathematics, slave - slave(a woman subject to any passion - slave of love), blue - blue, exit - exit. The ending does not lose its inflectional meaning if it serves as a means of word formation. In any case, a part of a word without an ending is called inflectional basis.

internal flexion- alternation of vowels of the root, expressing inflectional, derivational or grammatical meaning: eng. goose'goose' - geese‘geese’. Sometimes such a morpheme is described as a transfix (see below). The concept of internal inflection arose when describing German dialects, where vowel alternation is widespread. For example, the Germanic root meaning ‘break’ contains all eight possible vowels in the German language: Bruch‘fracture’, gebrochen'broken', brach‘broke’, brache – ‘would break’, Brechen'break', brich‘break’, bruchig'brittle', abbrockeln'break off'. In Russian linguistics, the term is more often used alternation: collect - collect - collect. Strictly speaking, the root is here -br-, but not - bir- / -ber- as they say in school.

Postfix- part of the word after the end: sya-, anyone, where is the root to-, the ending -then(somebody,to somebody) and postfix someday.

Ambifix- a morpheme that, without changing the meaning, can be attached to the root from any side: eng. come-out and outcome'Exodus'.

Infix- a morpheme inserted inside the root: Tagalog. sulat'letter' - s-um-ulat‘write, write’ s-in-ulat'was written'; lit. jutau‘felt’ juntu‘feel’; lat. vici'won' - vinco‘I win’.

Confix(lat. con- a prefix with the value of compatibility), or circumfix(lat. circulus‘circle’) is a two- or three-component (“broken”) morpheme, which is a combination of a prefix and a suffix (postfix). Its first part is in front of the root, and the second after it: German. machen-ge mach t , goll. make-gemaakt(from transitive verb - passive participle: do - done), wonen-gewond(from an intransitive verb - a real participle: to live - living); hung. legnagyobb‘largest’ – the superlative degree is formed by a circumfix leg--bb(root of the word Nagy'big'). Some linguists do not use the term confix, describing the formation of such forms as the addition of two morphemes. In Russian studies, for example, this method of word formation is called prefix-suffix: for-speech-j-e, underground.

Transfix(lat. trans‘through, through’) is a broken infix, or root confix. Transfix, representing vowels, passes through the root morpheme. At the same time, he breaks the root, and the root - it. There are several transfer options. The vowels surround the central root consonant: Arabic. katib‘writer, scribe’, kitab‘letter, book’. Another option - vowels surround the first two consonants: Arabic. qtl‘kill’ - uqtul‘kill’, iqtal‘forcing to kill’; cf. qatala‘he killed’, qutila'he was killed', qutilu‘they were killed’, uqtul‘kill’, qatil‘killer’ iqtal‘causing to kill’.

2) Classification of morphemes by types of meanings.

Morphemes are inflectional (syntactic), formative (grammatical, morphological) and word-formative. Inflectional morphemes are sometimes called lexical which creates ambiguity. One might think that morphemes with lexical meaning are roots, which is certainly not true. The lexical meaning is expressed by the whole word, i.e. a collection of morphemes, not just a root.

3) The doctrine of morphemes and their speech representatives - morphs. A morpheme is an abstract language invariant. It is realized by specific (material) speech variants - morphs. Morpheme - friend- can be represented by the following morphs: [friend] ( friend), [druk] ( friend), [drush] ( girlfriend), [druze, ] ( friends), [friend]( be friends).

On the one hand, morphemes can be homonymous: weeding- an objectified action; student-to-a- an indicator of the feminine gender. On the other hand, there may be no phonetic similarity between morphs of the same morpheme: tale- to-a >say- och-to-a.

§ 2. Word formation: generating and derivative basis. Ways of word formation. word-formation type.

The main unit of word formation is the derived word. Most of the words in the language are derivatives (about 88%). The derivative word has a special meaning - derivational. It, as a rule, does not coincide with the sum of morphemic meanings. barn‘room for cows’, and not, for example, a person caring for cows. Derivative meaning is a common meaning for a number of derivative words. Words with the same affixes can have different derivational meanings: barn, chicken coop- the premises for what is called the producing basis; spa visitor, graduate- people related to what is called the producing basis; kettle, coffee pot- utensils for what is called the producing basis.

It is important to distinguish between the synchronic and diachronic aspects of word formation. From the point of view of the real source of words in the language, all words are derivatives, i.e. originated from somewhere. It's just that the derivation of some words is in another language or is unknown, the derivation of others ceases to be realized over time or is rethought. Diachronic word formation includes etymology and historical word formation within the given language. The etymology establishes the primary source of the word, which may also be in another language: pomade from lat. pomum‘apple’ > fr. pommade, it. pomata(Originally, lipstick was made from apples.) In any case, diachronic word formation reveals the real origin of the word.

Synchronic word formation finds out not the real source of the origin of the word, but how it appears to modern native speakers. Synchronous productivity has a systemic character. For synchrony, it is important to understand which word the analyzed word is opposed to. Word a spoon, formed, according to the history of the language, from the lost word lies, in modern Russian is perceived as not motivated. In the word fork also no suffix -to-, although even an ordinary native speaker understands that it comes from pitchfork. In synchrony, a derivative is a word that is perceived as more complex from a formal semantic point of view.

So, a diachronically derivative is a word formed in real time, generated. Synchronically derived - a word motivated purely logically; logic is conditioned not by real word-formation processes, but by the language system.

Word formation in the narrow sense is the production of words on the basis of existing ones. If considered broadly, as an area of onomasiology, then word formation should include semantic derivatives, borrowings, tracing papers.

The generating word is usually simpler formally and semantically. It also happens vice versa. Which is easier please or rejoice? please simpler from a formal point of view, but semantically more difficult, since in its interpretation there is a reference to rejoice: please“to make someone happy.”

Morphological (more precisely, morphematic) ways of word formation in the national language are determined by a set of its word-forming affixes. In accordance with them, prefixal, suffixal, transfixal, infixal, flexion methods, etc. are distinguished. Word formation is also carried out by affix combinations, which can be very sophisticated: Hung. meg-szent-ség-telen-ít-hetetlen-ség-es-kedés-e-i-tek-ért.A rough translation of this word is ‘because of [your] constant striving to be undefiled’. The word is formed by joining to the root - szent-'holy' prefix meg- with the grammatical meaning of the duration of the action and 11 suffixes expressing various meanings (object, relationship to a person, repetitive action, etc.).

The specificity of word formation depends on the general specificity of the structure of the language. In English, the main ways of word formation are suffixation and prefixation: natural‘natural’ > naturally'naturally', usual‘regular’ > unusual'unusual'; decryptor‘decoder’. Productive in English and word formation. Here it is without a connecting vowel, usually with an accent on the first word: handbook'directory'- hand‘hand’ and book'book'. Much more productive than in Russian, conversion. The most frequent model « noun > verb":a test'test' > to test'test'.

In ancient Chinese, there were no auxiliary morphemes at all. Accordingly, word formation in it could only be non-morphological. Modern Chinese, along with non-morphological methods, also uses morphological ones. The main way of word formation in it is word composition. Word daxue‘university’ is made up of words da‘big’ and xuexi'the study'.

§ 3. Morphemic, derivational, etymological analysis. Simplification.

Morpheme analysis involves the elucidation of the morphemic structure of the word. In school, it is usually called parsing a word by composition.

Word-formation analysis is carried out in two stages: 1) it is necessary to find a word that directly motivates the given, i.e. as close as possible to it in formal and semantic terms; 2) find out the way of word formation.

For more information about morphemic and word-formation analysis, see the training manual "Morfemics and word formation".

Etymological analysis finds out the original source of the word - its etymon (Greek 'truth'). Etymological analysis requires special knowledge. Students and linguists themselves, whose scientific interests do not include the study of etymology, use ready-made results presented in etymological dictionaries. It is easy to establish that the words liken,to resemble, like, (not) appropriate, be honored descended from the base -like(l)- . In these words, a repeating element is highlighted -ext- (with-ext-ny, comfortable), which is no longer decomposed into smaller components. This root will be an etymon for all historically (diachronically) cognate words, even if they have diverged in meaning. But the meaning of the etymon is not clear, and further analysis is impossible for a non-specialist. Look in the etymological dictionary. Russian words with root -ext- ascend to the common Slavic word, and it, in turn, to the Indo-European: o.-s. * doba-‘period of time, term’ < i.-e. * dhabros‘fit, fit’, ‘be comfortable’.

Over time, various changes occur in the morphemic structure of the word. The most common of them simplification. It is a simplification of the morphemic structure, i.e. overgrowing of the morpheme suture and a decrease in the number of morphemes: palace-ets → palace; in-cous → taste.

Questions and tasks for self-control:

1. What do morphemics and word formation study?

2. What sections stand out in morphemics?

3. What are the morphemes and ways of word formation?

4. List the basic units of the morphemic and word-formation levels and give them a definition.

5. What is morphemic, derivational and etymological analysis?

6. Define simplification and give your own examples.

Lecture No. 11. Lexicology.

§ 1. The word as a subject of lexicology and the central unit of the language

§ 2. Lexical meaning

§ 3. System relations in vocabulary (polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy, paronymy)

§ 4. Etymology and internal form of the word

§ 5. Phraseology

§ 6. Lexicography

Portal for the student. Self-training

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Classification of Russian morphemes

The alternation of vowels and consonants in the root

Vowel alternations

Consonant alternations

Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix

Console

Suffix

Connecting elements in a word (interfixes)

Zero derivational suffix

Postfix

Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix

Principles of morphemic analysis of a word

Algorithm for morpheme articulation of stem

Morphemic analysis (word analysis by composition)

Similar Documents

Classification of Russian morphemes

Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix

Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix

Morphemic analysis (word analysis by composition)

RELATED ARTICLES