The domestic policy of Alexander II did not bring political peace to Russia. Despite his far-reaching social and administrative reforms, he faced fierce opposition and an open revolutionary movement.

Political opposition came primarily from the nobility.

There was an idea that the nobility, having lost their social and economic privileges, should receive political privileges in return. This idea arose among the members of the provincial committees, who were dissatisfied with the radicalism of the editorial commissions.

In addition to the political programs of the nobility, as a continuation of the tradition of the Decembrists, other projects were put forward that provided for the transformation of Russia in a constitutional and democratic direction.

A revolutionary idea arose among raznochintsy.

These were the children of peasants and merchants (educated); clergy children who refused to be priests; children of petty officials, and children of impoverished nobles. Raznochintsy quickly formed a new social class - the intelligentsia, which included many nobles. Their number grew rapidly, who were connected with newspapers, or universities.

The leaders of the intelligentsia desired a social revolution, although Russian industry was underdeveloped and could not provide the basis for socialism. They criticized the government for not being radical enough. Harsh criticism was given in the revolutionary organs abroad.

The most famous of them was The Bell, published by Alexander Herzen in London.

Revolutionary propaganda was conducted in harsh tones. The proclamation "Young Russia" in 1862 called for terror - the murders of members of the government. A number of arsons took place in St. Petersburg. The government arrested and exiled several leaders of the radicals.

The activity of Russian revolutionaries was connected with the movement in Poland.

The Polish Revolution broke out in 1863.

Immediately before this, the government began to pursue a liberal policy in Poland and placed the reforms in the hands of an outstanding Polish figure, Marquis Alexander Wielopolski.

Radical elements in Poland decided to sabotage this reform. The uprising was suppressed by military force, after which the last remnants of Polish independence were liquidated.

The Kingdom of Poland received its official name - Privislenskie provinces.

In 1864, a land reform was carried out under the supervision of Milyutin and Cherkassky. They carried it out more successfully than in Russia. Thanks to this, the Polish peasants remained loyal to the Russian government until the World War.

The Polish uprising influenced the evolution of the opposition and revolutionary movement in Russia. It raised the patriotism of the people and strengthened the government.

Russian revolutionary leaders associated with the Polish uprising lost their prestige in Russia. Karakozov's attempt to assassinate Emperor Alexander II in 1866 was a separate act, a small group.

A new wave of anti-government activity took place in the 1870s. In intellectual circles, a desire was expressed for elected representation not only in local government (zemstvo and city), but also higher. The reforms were to be completed by the creation of a parliament.

This movement especially intensified after the war with Turkey in 1877-1878. When the liberated Bulgaria received a constitution, the activity of revolutionary organizations intensified.

From 1870 to 1875 the radical intelligentsia refrained from fighting the government but undertook propaganda among the masses. Many intellectuals went "to the people". They lived among peasants and workers, worked in schools and became workers in the countryside or in industry.

Fearing the consequences of propaganda, the government arrested revolutionaries. Many were imprisoned and exiled on one suspicion of the police. Government measures have caused bitterness among the intelligentsia. Among them were revolutionaries who began to use terror and prepare murders.

In 1879, in Lipetsk (center of Russia), the leaders of the revolutionary movement held a secret meeting. An Executive Committee was elected to overthrow the government.

The committee decided to stop all assassination attempts on individual officials and concentrate all efforts on the assassination of Alexander II.

Alexander II became the object of the hunt. Unsuccessful attempts were made one after another at an accelerating pace, until one of them ended in the death of the emperor on March 1 in St. Petersburg.

The assassination of Alexander II took place on the very day that he signed the approval of the Committee of Representatives in aid of the Council of State.

It was the so-called "constitution of Loris-Melikov" (Minister of the Interior). In his opinion, the revolutionaries enjoyed the moral support of the moderate classes of society because of their dissatisfaction with the autocracy of the government. He believed that the government should satisfy the moderates by granting a constitution. This measure, he believed, should deprive the revolutionaries of the moral sympathy of these classes.

The assassination of the king prevented the implementation of this plan. Alexander III rejected the constitutional plan and the statement signed by Alexander II was never published.

social movements

Most of the supporters were in the ranks of the liberals, who, despite the variety of shades, mainly advocated a peaceful transition to constitutional forms of government, for political and civil freedoms, and for the enlightenment of the people.

In the 60s, in the wake of the denial of the old order, the ideology of nihilism arose among the students. At the same time, under the influence of socialist ideas, artels, communes, workshops arose, hoping that collective labor would unite people and prepare them for socialist transformations.

The revolutionaries also stepped up their activities. In the summer and autumn of 1861, inspired by the growing uprisings of the peasants, they distributed proclamations and leaflets calling on the youth, the "educated society", the peasants, and the soldiers to prepare for the fight. In 1861, the strictly conspiratorial organization "Land and Freedom" arose. Then it broke up, but after 15 years the organization reappeared under the same name.

There were other underground groups and circles that were ready to resort to terror in order to overthrow the autocracy. In 1866, a member of one of these organizations, student D. Karakozov, made an unsuccessful attempt on Alexander II.

In the spring of 1874, the idea arose to go to the people in order to educate them and prepare peasant uprisings. "Going to the people" continued for several years.

KAVELIN Konstantin Dmitrievich (04.11.1818-03.05.1885) - Russian scientist and liberal public figure.

K. D. Kavelin was born in St. Petersburg in a family that belonged to the middle stratum of the Russian nobility. He was educated at home. In 1842, Kavelin graduated from the law faculty of Moscow University and entered the service of the Ministry of Justice. Having defended his master's thesis "Basic principles of the Russian judiciary and civil legal proceedings", he received a place at the Department of the History of Russian Legislation at Moscow University. In 1844, K. D. Kavelin joined the circle of Moscow Westernizers. V. G. Belinsky had a great ideological influence on him during this period of time.

In the 2nd floor. 40s K. D. Kavelin, together with S. M. Solovyov, laid the foundations of the “state school” in Russian historical science. In their opinion, the state played the main role in the history of Russia. In 1848, Konstantin Dmitrievich left Moscow University and moved to St. Petersburg. He first served in the Ministry of the Interior and later in the office of the Committee of Ministers.

After the accession to the throne of the new Emperor Alexander II in the capital, they began to talk about the imminent abolition of serfdom. In 1856, K. D. Kavelin presented for the highest consideration a draft peasant reform - “A Note on the Emancipation of the Peasants in Russia”. For its time, it was one of the most liberal peasant reform projects.

The following year, K. D. Kavelin, whose name was well known, and whose scientific reputation was impeccable, was invited to teach Russian history and civil law to the heir to the throne, Tsarevich Nikolai Alexandrovich. Konstantin Dmitrievich accepted this offer. At the same time, he began lecturing at St. Petersburg University. His “Note on the Liberation of the Peasants in Russia” appeared on the pages of the Sovremennik magazine and caused discontent in the ruling circles. Kavelin stopped giving lessons to the heir to the throne. Soon Kavelin left the university. He and several other professors, outraged by the behavior of the administration during the student unrest, resigned.

In con. 50 - early. 60s KD Kavelin became a prominent figure in the Russian liberal movement. He found a common language with representatives of the liberal bureaucracy and supported the initiatives of the government. Kavelin was a consistent supporter of compromise in public life. He believed that for the prosperity of Russia it was necessary to preserve the autocracy. He agreed with the Slavophiles that it was necessary to "educate society." He wrote about this in the pamphlet The Nobility and the Emancipation of the Peasants (1862). Starting from the 2nd floor. 60s K. D. Kavelin became closer and closer to the Slavophiles.

In the last years of his life, K. D. Kavelin was engaged in a lot of scientific activities. He wrote the works "Problems of Psychology", "On the Tasks of Art", "Problems of Ethics", in which he posed the problem of personality as a key problem. However, these works did not have a significant public response.

The funeral of Kavelin resulted in a demonstration of the gratitude of Russian society to one of the pillars of the Russian liberal movement. He was buried at the St. Petersburg Volkov cemetery, next to the grave of I. S. Turgenev, a friend of his youth. I.V.

"Polar Star" - literary and socio-political collections of the Free Russian Printing House, which were published by A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev in London in 1855–1862. and in Geneva in 1868.

The almanac got its name in honor of the Decembrists' edition of the same name, which was published in 1823-1825. The first issue of the magazine was published on July 25, 1855, on the anniversary of the execution of five Decembrists: P. Pestel, K. Ryleev, M. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, S. Muravyov-Apostol and P. Kakhovskiy. Their profiles were featured on its cover. The epigraph to the magazine was the words of A. S. Pushkin "Long live the mind!". In total, eight issues of the almanac were published: Nos. 1–7 in London, No. 8 in Geneva.

The publication of the Polar Star meant the birth of a free press that was not controlled by the Russian authorities and censorship. On the pages of the "Polar Star" were published the works of Pushkin, Ryleev, Nekrasov, journalistic articles by Ogarev and Herzen. The memoirs of the Decembrists I. I. Pushchin, M. S. Lunin, N. A. and M. A. Bestuzhevs were first published in the collections. The amnestied Decembrists I. D. Yakushkin, M. A. Bestuzhev and others secretly sent their correspondence to London. The Polar Star published articles on a variety of issues: from people's life to issues of state policy, from its pages there were demands for the liberation of peasants with land , the abolition of censorship.

The almanac was distributed throughout Russia in large numbers, although people were persecuted for its distribution. In educated circles in Russia, the Polar Star magazine enjoyed great prestige. D. Ch.

"KOLOKOL" - the first Russian revolutionary newspaper, which was published by A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev in the Free Printing House in London.

The initiative in publishing a new illegal newspaper belonged to N. Ogarev. In the beginning. 1856 Ogarev, better versed in affairs in the Motherland, suggested to Herzen that he set up a newspaper that would promptly respond to all the most important events in Russia. Herzen at that time published the almanac "Polar Star", which came out irregularly, with long breaks.

A year later, Herzen issued a special leaflet in which readers were informed of the imminent release of a new edition.

The first issue of the Kolokol newspaper was published on June 22, 1857. It was a small edition of eight pages. His motto was the words "Vivos voco" - "I call the living", taken from a poem by F. Schiller.

Gradually, voluntary distributors united around the publication. Among them were L. I. Mechnikov, N. I. Zhukovsky, M. A. Bakunin. In Moscow, Voronezh and other cities, young people tried to get it republished or copied it by hand. From the very beginning of its existence, the Bell had an unheard-of success and colossal influence in Russia. This was connected both with the social upsurge in Russia after the Crimean War and with the bright anti-serf position of the newspaper. One of the reasons for the newspaper's popularity was Herzen's giftedness as a journalist. He owned most of the articles published in Kolokol.

The Bell was published for 10 years, from 1857 to 1867. It was printed first in London, then in Geneva, first once, then twice a month. A total of 245 issues were published. D. Ch.

POPULARITY is an ideology and movement of the raznochintsy intelligentsia, which combined a radical program with the ideas of utopian socialism.

Populism was a kind of peasant, communal socialist utopia. A. I. Herzen and N. G. Chernyshevsky are considered its founders. They called for service to the people, for the struggle for the liberation of the peasantry. In their opinion, it was possible to create a socialist society in Russia. They saw its sprouts in the peasant community. Both Herzen and Chernyshevsky believed that the only way to free the Russian people was by revolutionary means.

In the 1870s There were three main trends in populism. The first was represented by M. A. Bakunin and Bakuninists, rebels, supporters of anarchism. Considering the Russian peasant a "born" socialist, Bakunin urged the youth to immediately prepare a popular uprising against the three main enemies: private property, the state, and the church. Under his influence, a rebellious trend developed in populism. They believed that the success of the "revolt" would be helped by community relations in the village.

The followers of P. L. Lavrov constituted the second trend. They saw the main revolutionary force in the peasantry, but believed that the people were not yet ready for an uprising and that it was necessary to show them the possibility of fighting the existing system. Lavrov's followers believed that it was necessary to "wake up the people."

The theoretician of the third trend was P. N. Tkachev. He believed that the revolution should begin with a coup d'etat by the forces of an intelligent revolutionary minority, which, after seizing power, would involve the masses in the reorganization of society. There were far fewer supporters of Tkachev than Bakunin and Lavrov.

All populists perceived the development of capitalism in Russia as a decline, a regression. They believed that Russia was original, that communal agriculture would not allow capitalism to develop, but would become the basis of a socialist society.

The revolutionary populists believed that socialism could be reached through a peasant revolution.

The activities of the Narodniks reached their highest point in the 1870s. Then the mass "going to the people" began. The revolutionary organizations "Land and Freedom" and "Narodnaya Volya" entered the struggle against the autocracy.

Members of the Ishutinsk circle (1863-1866) combined propaganda work with elements of a conspiracy. It was here that the plan to assassinate Alexander II was born. It was carried out by D. V. Karakozov. In 1869, S. G. Nechaev tried to create a secret conspiratorial organization "People's Reprisal", built on the principles of unlimited centralism, blind subordination of ordinary members to unknown leaders. In opposition to Nechaev, a society of “Chaikovites” arose, in which revolutionary ethics became one of the main issues. It included M. A. Natanson, S. M. Kravchinsky, S. L. Perovskaya, P. A. Kropotkin and others. They quickly withdrew from educational activities and began to prepare “going to the people”, to the village.

In the spring and summer of 1874 mass "going to the people" began. However, the peasants cautiously listened to the rebellious speeches of the populists and did not support them. To con. In 1875, the participants in the movement were arrested and then convicted under the “trial of the 193s”.

In 1877, a new populist organization arose in St. Petersburg, which since 1878 was called "Land and Freedom". It included M. A. and O. A. Natansons, A. D. Mikhailov, G. V. Plekhanov, and others. They considered it necessary to wage a political struggle against the autocracy. Terror gradually became one of the main means of revolutionary struggle.

In July 1879, “Land and Freedom” broke up into two independent organizations - “Narodnaya Volya” (A. I. Zhelyabov, A. D. Mikhailov and others), which united supporters of terror, and “Black Redistribution” (G. V. Plekhanov, V. I. Zasulich, P. B. Axelrod, and others), where they began to study and promote Marxism. In 1881, the People's Will made an attempt on Alexander II and the emperor died. Soon the organization was crushed by the police.

In the 2nd floor. 1880 - early. 1890s Populism was going through a crisis caused by the defeat of the "Narodnaya Volya". The influence of the liberal populists, who united around the journal Russkoye Bogatstvo and N.K. Mikhailovsky, increased. The revolutionary populists (a group of Narodnaya Volya in St. Petersburg, other local circles and organizations) began to cooperate with Lenin's "Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class", others formed the party of socialist revolutionaries - the Socialist-Revolutionaries. The revival of revolutionary populism in con. 1890 - early. 1900s (the so-called neo-populism) is associated with the activities of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. From 1879 to 1883 more than 70 trials of populists took place in Russia, in which more than 2 thousand people were involved. N.P.

"GOING TO THE PEOPLE" - a mass movement of raznochinny youth in the middle. 1870s Raznochintsy intellectuals tried to infiltrate the people's environment in order to educate the peasants, propagate socialist ideas and agitate for the revolutionary overthrow of the autocratic system.

Even A. I. Yeertsen called on Russian revolutionaries to go "to the people." Later, P. L. Lavrov set the task of propaganda and educational work among the peasants. M. A. Bakunin called the peasants to a direct revolt against the autocratic power.

The revolutionary-minded youth readily responded to these calls. The movement peaked in 1873–1874. Having mastered the professions of teachers, doctors, craftsmen, etc. young people moved from St. Petersburg and Moscow to the countryside. The Narodniks carried out propaganda in more than 37 provinces of European Russia. The "Lavrists" were waiting for a concrete result of their activity - a revolutionary uprising - in 2-3 years, and the "Bakuninists" - "in the spring" or "in the autumn". But the peasants did not perceive the revolutionary calls, and the propagandists themselves aroused suspicion in them. The intellectual, "bookish" faith of the Narodniks in the "ideal peasant" who was ready to abandon his land, farm, family, and at the first call to attack the tsar and landowners with an ax, collided with the harsh reality of peasant life. The populists were shocked that the peasants were increasingly turning them over to the police.

Already in 1873, arrests began, and in 1874 they became widespread.

Members of "Land and Freedom" began to arrange their settlements "among the people" in order to continue propaganda of the revolution and not attract the attention of the police. October 1877-January 1878. in the Special Presence of the Senate, the “Case of Revolutionary Propaganda in the Empire” was heard, which went down in history as the “trial of the 193s” over the most dangerous, from the point of view of the investigation, participants in “going to the people”. It was the largest political trial in the history of Tsarist Russia. 28 people were sentenced to hard labor, more than 70 to imprisonment or administrative exile, but 90 defendants were acquitted. However, Alexander II sent into exile 80 of those justified.

To con. 1870s propaganda work in the countryside gradually ceased. After the split of the "Land and Freedom" in 1879, propaganda among the people was considered necessary only by the organization "Black Redistribution" ("village workers"), but even it was to the end. 1881 ceased to exist. V. G.

"LAND AND WILL" (1861-1864) - a revolutionary populist organization that took shape in the beginning. 60s 19th century in St. Petersburg around N. G. Chernyshevsky.

The organization "Land and Freedom" was headed by N. A. Serno-Solovyevich. The political program of Land and Freedom was very general and vague. The populists saw their task in saving the people from the consequences of the reform of 1861. They demanded that all the land that they had used before the abolition of serfdom be transferred to the peasants. They believed that after the overthrow of tsarism, the land would pass into the hands of the peasants, who were accustomed to living in a community, and they would begin to build a just society. The organization was engaged in issuing revolutionary proclamations addressed to various social strata of Russia. One of them, “Bow to the lordly peasants from their well-wishers,” fell into the hands of a government agent. N. G. Chernyshevsky was accused of writing it.

In 1862, N. G. Chernyshevsky and N. A. Serno-Solovyevich were arrested. The organization was led by inexperienced students. They counted on the peasant revolution, which, in their opinion, was to take place in 1863.

When they realized that their hopes were in vain, the organization dissolved itself in 1864. I.V.

ANARCHISM (from Greek anarchia - anarchy, anarchy) - a socio-political trend, whose supporters denied external coercion in relation to a person and, consequently, the state as a form of organization of society based on coercion. In Russia, anarchism was widespread in the middle. 19 - beg. 20th century

Anarchist theories developed in the 1940s and 1970s. 19th century Their social roots were in the outlook of peasants and townspeople, who lived in small, self-governing communities. These segments of the population were ready to cooperate with the authorities in matters that affected their immediate interests, primarily in organizing the protection of their rights, their land from external encroachments. To do this, they needed a "good ruler." On other issues, the community member did not allow the state to interfere in his affairs. Hence the well-known formula of "popular anarchism": "good ruler + will", that is, unlimited freedom of the individual.

In contrast to "popular anarchism", anarchy theorists demanded the immediate destruction of any state, believed that the future society should be "a free association of free individuals."

The English thinker G. Godwin (1756-1836) is considered to be the founder of theoretical anarchism. In his Discourses on Political Justice, he dreamed of a society of free independent workers, criticized coercion and deceit in society, and opposed revolutionary violence.

M. Stirner (1806-1856) laid the foundations of individualistic anarchism, which affirmed the absolute priority of the individual over society. Stirner denied all forms of behavior and believed that the source of all morality is the strength and power of an individual, that the wishes and will of individuals are hidden behind any events in society.

The founder of the ideas of revolutionary communist anarchism was the Russian thinker and revolutionary M. A. Bakunin.

Russian anarchists advocated collectivism, in search of a social ideal, they turned to the life of the peasant community. They were uncompromising, categorical, demanded quick changes, called for revolution, and in this their views differed from those of anarchists abroad.

Many Russian populists of the 1960s and 1970s were influenced by Bakunin's works. 19th century, who participated in "going to the people". They tried to arouse in the peasantry rebellious moods against the authorities, they looked for the "primordial rebel" in the Russian peasant, called him "to the ax."

But the peasantry did not respond to the calls of the anarchists. Moreover, many revolutionary propagandists were handed over to the police by the peasants. The anarchists were disappointed in their own people, they had to revise their views and move on to direct terrorist actions. All this led to the fact that in con. 70s the influence of anarchism on the minds of Russian revolutionaries began to weaken.

Adapt the theory of anarchy to Russian reality at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. tried the Russian scientist and revolutionary P. I. Kropotkin. But this social trend was revived in Russia in the beginning. 20th century on a new level. The time of the highest rise of anarchism in Russia came at the time of the revolutionary events of 1917 and the Civil War. V. G.

BAKUNIN Mikhail Alexandrovich (05/18/1814-29/06/1876) - leader of the international revolutionary movement, one of the founders of revolutionary anarchism.

Bakunin was born in the Tver province into a well-born noble family. His father, Alexander Mikhailovich Bakunin, was the governor of Tver. At the age of 15, Bakunin entered the St. Petersburg Artillery School. After graduation, he received the rank of ensign, but soon retired. The following years, for the most part, he lived in Moscow, where he was engaged in philosophical self-education, studied the works of the German philosophers G. Hegel and I. Fichte. In the circle of N. V. Stankevich, he first seriously became acquainted with German classical philosophy. In the circle and among young people who were fond of philosophy, his authority was undeniable.

In 1840 Bakunin left for Germany to seriously study philosophy at the University of Berlin. There he became interested in politics and soon joined the socialist movement. Bakunin could not stay away from the revolution of 1848-1849, he fought on the barricades in Paris. During the Slavic congress in Prague in 1848, an uprising broke out, and Bakunin was one of its leaders. In May 1849, in Dresden, he was also at the head of the rebels. He was twice sentenced to death: first by the Saxon and then by the Austrian courts. In 1851, the Austrians handed over Bakunin to the Russian authorities, and he spent 6 years in prison in the Peter and Paul Fortress. In 1857 he was sent to an eternal settlement in Siberia, but after a while Bakunin fled from exile. After visiting Japan and America, he reappeared in Europe. Participated in the Polish uprising of 1863, tried to organize a secret alliance of socialist revolutionaries in Italy, participated in the uprising in the French city of Lyon.

In 1864, Bakunin joined the First International, but soon, due to ideological differences with K. Marx, he created his own organization, the International Alliance of Socialist Democracy, and this led to a split in the International. Bakunin accurately identified the most vulnerable points of Marxist theory and directed all the strength of his temperament to its criticism. Bakunin considered unfounded Marx's assertion about the key role of the proletariat in society. He was especially negative about the idea of ​​the dictatorship of the proletariat, believing that it would not lead to freedom. Bakunin was doubtful about K. Marx's desire to create a centralized and disciplined revolutionary organization. Bakunin hoped for a spontaneous popular revolt. He considered the Russian people initially a rebellious people. The intelligentsia, the “intellectual proletariat,” was called upon to wake him up.

Bakunin was the creator of the theory of anarchism, which denies the state. He rejected not management in general, but centralized management, concentrated in one hand, going "from top to bottom." He proposed to replace the power of the state with a federal free organization "from the bottom up" - workers' associations, groups, communities, volosts, regions and peoples. Bakunin believed that an ideal society is a society in which unlimited freedom and independence of a person from any power reigns. Only then can all the faculties of the individual be developed. A free society, according to Bakunin, is a society in which the principle of self-government of the people would be realized. In the 60-70s. 19th century Bakunin had many supporters in the European and Russian socialist movement.

In con. 60 - early 70s M. A. Bakunin paid much attention to the development of the revolutionary cause in Russia. He participated in the publication of the newspaper "Narodnoe delo", wrote revolutionary brochures and leaflets, collaborated with S. G. Nechaev. Bakunin hoped through Nechaev to spread the ideas of anarchism in Russia. At the same time, he led the activities of the "International Alliance of Socialist Democracy" and tried to contribute to the beginning of the socialist revolution in Europe.

Bakunin was an active, restless nature, but, despite this, his political activity suffered a complete collapse - he never managed to realize his ideals. In the last years of his life, he lived in Bern, Switzerland, completely retired, wrote memoirs and philosophical treatises. Buried in Bern. I.V.

Zhelyabov Andrey Ivanovich (1851-04/03/1881) - Russian revolutionary populist, member of the Executive Committee of the "Narodnaya Volya".

A. I. Zhelyabov was born in the Taurida province into a family of serfs. He graduated from the Kerch gymnasium and in 1869 entered the law faculty of the Novorossiysk University in Odessa. For participation in October 1871 in student unrest, he was expelled from the university, and then expelled from Odessa.

Returning to Odessa, in 1873-1874. he became a member of the Odessa group of "Chaikovites", who studied the works of K. Marx, conducted propaganda among the workers and the intelligentsia. He was tried in the "trial of the 193s" - the trial of the participants in the "going to the people." After the acquittal in 1878, Zhelyabov lived in the Podolsk province.

He believed that events were moving slowly and that it was necessary to make them develop faster, and that terror was needed to wake up the country, set society in motion. Zhelyabov participated in the Lipetsk Congress of Terrorist Politicians in June 1879. At the Voronezh Congress of Land and Freedom, he was accepted into the organization.

AI Zhelyabov acted as one of the main defenders of political terror. After the split of "Land and Freedom", he proposed the creation of "People's Will" - a workers', student's and military organization. He participated in the creation of several of its most important policy documents, in the organization of numerous terrorist acts.

Zhelyabov was preparing an assassination attempt on Alexander II on March 1, 1881, but the day before, on February 27, he was arrested. He was convicted in the process of "March First" and executed along with other defendants. N.P.

ZASULICH Vera Ivanovna (1849-1919) - activist of the Russian revolutionary movement.

V. I. Zasulich was born in the village of Mikhailovka, Smolensk province, into a noble family. In 1867 she graduated from the boarding school and passed the teacher's examination. In 1868 she settled in St. Petersburg and participated in revolutionary circles. There she met S. G. Nechaev and gave him her address for sending letters. In 1869, she was arrested in connection with the Nechaev case. Zasulich spent two years in prison, then in exile in the Novgorod province, then lived under police supervision in Kharkov. Since 1875, she moved to an illegal position.

On January 24, 1878, Zasulich wounded the St. Petersburg mayor F. F. Trepov with a shot from a revolver. By shooting him, she was trying to draw public attention to the plight of political prisoners. The young terrorist got her way. The trial of Zasulich attracted a great deal of public attention. Her defender at the trial was the famous lawyer A.F. Koni. Sensational was the decision of the jury to acquit the defendant and release her from custody.

The court acquitted V. I. Zasulich, but she, fearing arrest, went abroad. In 1879, she returned to Russia and joined the Black Redistribution group, which was engaged in revolutionary propaganda. In 1880, she again went abroad and was a representative of the "Narodnaya Volya". Later, Zasulich opposed terror as a tactic of the revolutionary struggle.

In 1883, together with G. V. Plekhanov, Zasulich participated in the creation of the first Marxist group, the Emancipation of Labor. She corresponded with K. Marx and F. Engels and translated their works into Russian, took part in the work of the Third International.

In 1899–1900 Zasulich was illegally in St. Petersburg, where she met V. I. Lenin. Since 1900, she was a member of the editorial board of the Iskra newspaper organized by Lenin. She participated in the creation of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP). In 1903, she joined the Mensheviks and became one of the leaders of Menshevism.

In con. In 1905 she returned to Russia and almost retired from political activity. Author of works on history, philosophy, literature, socio-political issues. V. G.

TKACHEV Petr Nikitich (06/29/1844-03/29/1885) - publicist, theorist of the "conspiratorial" trend in revolutionary populism.

P. N. Tkachev was born into a small estate noble family in the village. Sivtsevo, Pskov province. Without completing his studies at the gymnasium, in 1861 he entered the law faculty of St. Petersburg University. A few days after the start of classes, he was arrested for participating in student unrest, but was soon released on bail by his mother. In 1862–1865 he was arrested several times in connection with the activities of underground political organizations.

Since 1868, P. N. Tkachev collaborated with S. G. Nechaev and tried to prepare a popular uprising against the autocracy. In 1868, he passed the exams for the full course of the law faculty of the university externally and defended his dissertation for the degree of candidate of law. In 1869 he was arrested, and in 1871, after a two-year investigation in connection with the case of S. G. Nechaev, he was sentenced to imprisonment with subsequent exile to Siberia. Later, the exile was replaced by deportation to the city of Velikiye Luki under police supervision.

In 1873 Tkachev fled abroad. In Zurich (Switzerland), he worked for some time in the editorial office of the Vperyod! magazine, which was edited by P. L. Lavrov. Soon they had fundamental disagreements. Since 1875, P. N. Tkachev, first in Geneva, and then in London, published the Nabat magazine. In his articles, he substantiated the tactics of immediate revolutionary action, including terror, to prepare for a political revolution. Tkachev believed that the revolution is the seizure of power and the establishment of the dictatorship of the "revolutionary minority", and this requires the organization of revolutionary forces. In his opinion, the victorious revolutionary government will have to transform the economic structure of society in the spirit of communal socialism. These guidelines guided the revolutionary organization Narodnaya Volya.

In 1878 Tkachev moved to Paris, and in 1880 he moved the journal's printing house to Russia. He developed plans for an illegal move to his homeland to organize an armed struggle against the autocracy. But after the assassination of Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya, police supervision sharply increased and Tkachev could not carry out his plans.

From 1882, Tkachev's health began to deteriorate rapidly, and in 1885 he died in Paris in a psychiatric hospital.

P. N. Tkachev went down in Russian history as a representative of “Blanquisism”, a movement named after L. O. Blanqui, a French utopian who developed the doctrine of seizing power through a political conspiracy. V. G.

KARAKOZOV Dmitry Vladimirovich (10/23/1840-09/03/1866) - a populist terrorist who made the first attempt on the life of Emperor Alexander II.

DV Karakozov was born into a family of poor nobles. He studied at Kazan, then Moscow universities. In 1865, he became a member of a secret society organized by N. A. Ishutin, his cousin, and was a member of the conspiratorial circle "Hell". Its members - mortuses (suicide bombers) were preparing to commit terrorist acts.

At the end of March 1866, Karakozov secretly left Moscow for St. Petersburg. On April 4, 1866, when Alexander II finished his walk in the Summer Garden, Karakozov stepped out of the crowd, approached the tsar and fired at him with a double-barreled pistol. Alexander II was not injured. Karakozov's second shot failed. He was seized by the gendarmes and some of the onlookers. Karakozov had poison with him, but he did not have time to use it.

During the investigation into the Karakozov case, Ishutin's entire organization was exposed and destroyed. By June 12, 1866, the investigation was over. Karakozov was sentenced to deprivation of all rights of the state and to death by hanging. On September 3, 1866, he was executed. V. G.

PEROVSKAYA Sofya Lvovna (09/01/1853-04/03/1881) - revolutionary populist, terrorist, one of the organizers of the assassination of Emperor Alexander II.

S. L. Perovskaya was born in St. Petersburg in the family of the Pskov vice-governor L. N. Perovsky. In 1870, she left home, began working in women's populist circles, as well as in the Chaikovtsy circle, where at first they were engaged in self-education, and then moved on to the study of Marxism. In the spring of 1873, Perovskaya passed the exams for the title of people's teacher. In January 1874, Perovskaya was arrested, but after six months of imprisonment she was released on bail by her father for lack of serious evidence.

In 1877, the police involved her in the “trial of the 193s” (over the participants in the “going to the people” in 1874), but due to the lack of accusatory materials, she was released again. In 1878, Perovskaya was again arrested and sent into exile in the Olonets province. On the way, she fled from the sleeping gendarmes and arrived in St. Petersburg. Here Perovskaya joined the revolutionary organization "Land and Freedom" and went underground. In the autumn of 1879, Land and Freedom split into Narodnaya Volya and Cherny Repartition. Perovskaya began to help the Narodnaya Volya terrorists, actively participated in the failed assassination attempt on Alexander II on November 19, 1879. In 1880, together with other Narodnaya Volya members, she prepared to blow up the royal train near Odessa, but the attempt failed. In 1881, Perovskaya took over the leadership in preparing the seventh assassination attempt on Alexander II. On the day of the assassination of the tsar, March 1, 1881, she placed all the participants in the assassination in the places determined by her, and at her signal they threw bombs at Alexander II. The king died in agony.

March 10, 1881 Perovskaya was arrested on the street. On April 3, 1881, by the verdict of the Governing Senate, she was executed along with other active participants in the assassination of the king. V. G.

ALEKSEEV Petr Alekseevich (14.01.1849–1891) – worker, leader of the revolutionary movement.

The first years of his life he lived in a family of peasants in the Smolensk province. From the age of ten he worked in Moscow factories, in 1872 he moved to St. Petersburg. There he became close to the revolutionary populists and went to propagate populist ideas among the peasants of the Smolensk region, called for a peasant revolution that would give them "land and freedom."

After the failure of "going to the people", he took an active part in the "All-Russian Social Revolutionary Organization". In April 1875, Alekseev was arrested for t. and. process 50 March 9, 1877 delivered a revolutionary speech that received a warm public response. Sentenced to 10 years of hard labor, and after it - to a settlement in the north of Yakutia.

According to the official version, he was killed by robbers. V. G.

RUSSIAN SECTION OF THE I INTERNATIONAL - an organization of Russian revolutionary populists who were in exile.

The Russian section took shape in Geneva at the beginning. 1870, from among the representatives of t. and. "young emigration" of the 60s. The organization included M. A. Bakunin, N. I. Utin, A. Trusov, the Bertenevs, E. Dmitrieva-Tomanovskaya, A. Korvin-Krukovskaya, and others. The organization aimed to link the Russian liberation movement with the European one.

In 1868, the Russian Section published the 1st issue of the journal Narodnoye Delo, which was created by Bakunin, Utin and others. Bakunin propagated his anarchist views through the journal, with which Utin did not agree. There was a split in the editorial office. M. A. Bakunin withdrew from its membership. "People's Affairs" remained the organ of the Russian section. On March 12, 1870, N. I. Utin, together with his like-minded people, sent a letter to London, to the General Council of the International. In a letter, they announced the creation of their organization and asked K. Marx to become its corresponding secretary in the General Council of the International. K. Marx announced the admission of the Russian section to the International and agreed to represent its interests in the General Council.

The views of the members of the Russian Section were not Marxist. They saw no fundamental difference between the movements of the proletariat headed by the International and the popular movements in Russia and denied Marx's teaching on the dictatorship of the proletariat. They believed that Russia could bypass the capitalist stage of development and pass directly to socialism through communal traditions. The Russian section promoted the ideas of the International in Russia. The magazine "Narodnoe delo" was read by young people in large cities of Russia.

The Russian section existed until the dissolution of the First International in 1872. V. G.

LAND AND WILL (1876–1879) is a revolutionary populist organization.

The founders of the organization were M. A. Natanson, A. D. Mikhailov, G. V. Plekhanov and others. Later, V. N. Figner, S. L. Perovskaya, N. A. Morozov, S. M. Kravchinsky.

The ultimate goal of Land and Freedom was to overthrow the monarchy in Russia and build a social republic based on the self-government of peasant communities and workers' associations in the cities.

The members of the organization considered propaganda work in the village to be the main direction of their activity. They became the initiators of "going to the people." The intelligentsia: doctors, teachers, clerks - had to move to the countryside and prepare the people for the revolution. But the majority of the Narodniks, having moved to the countryside, were never able to achieve tangible success.

As a result, discussions began in Land and Freedom about the advisability of further work in the countryside and the need for a transition to individual terror as the main method of activity.

Within the “Land and Liberty” a group stood out, whose duties included protecting the organization from provocateurs and preparing assassination attempts on the most cruel officials. A group of 10-15 people from March 1878 to April 1879 carried out a series of high-profile assassination attempts. V. Zasulich seriously wounded the mayor of St. Petersburg Trepov. S. Kravchinsky in broad daylight stabbed the chief of the gendarmes Mezentsev with a knife. V. Osinsky in Kyiv shot at the deputy prosecutor. G. Popko killed a gendarmerie colonel for the expulsion of revolutionary students. In 1879, A. K. Soloviev made an attempt on the life of Alexander II on the Palace Square in St. Petersburg.

In the summer of 1879, at the Voronezh Congress, "Land and Freedom" split into "propagandists" and "politicians" (terrorists) and ceased to exist as a single organization.

Two new organizations arose: Black Redistribution, whose members continued to engage in propaganda work, and Narodnaya Volya, which headed for terrorist activities. I.V.

"BLACK REDISTION", the party of socialist-federalists - a revolutionary populist organization in Russia at the beginning. 1880s

It arose in August-September 1879. After the split of the "Land and Freedom", 16 "village workers", supporters of "going to the people", formed their own organization - "Black Redistribution". This name of the organization was given because among the peasants there were rumors about the imminent general - "black" - redistribution of land. According to their worldview, the members of the organization were close to Bakuninism, which was expressed in its official name - socialist-federalists.

Initially, the members of the organization shared the Land and Freedom program, denied the need for political struggle, and did not accept the terrorist and conspiratorial tactics of the People's Will. They believed that only the people could make a revolution, and they were supporters of extensive agitation and propaganda among the masses.

The organizers of the Central circle of the "Black Repartition" in St. Petersburg were G. V. Plekhanov, P. B. Axelrod, O. V. Aptekman, M. R. Popov, L. G. Deich, V. I. Zasulich and others. printing house, organized the publication of the magazine "Cherny Peredel" and the newspaper "Grain". By 1880, changes had taken place in the Black Redistribution program: its members recognized the importance of the struggle for political freedoms and the need for terror as a means of revolutionary struggle.

Soon, in 1880-1881, arrests began, which weakened the organization, and by the end. 1881 "Black Repartition" ceased to exist as an organization. N.P.

"PEOPLE'S WILL" 1879-1881 - revolutionary terrorist organization. "Narodnaya Volya" was formed in the summer of 1879 after the split of the "Land and Freedom" and united the supporters of individual terror.

At the head of the organization "Narodnaya Volya" was the Executive Committee, which included A. D. Mikhailov, A. I. Zhelyabov, S. L. Perovskaya, N. A. Morozov, V. N. Figner, M. F. Frolenko and etc. "Narodnaya Volya" was distinguished by a high level of organization and conspiracy. It contained approx. 500 people, she had her cells in many major cities of the country, in the army and navy. The Narodnaya Volya did not deny the need to "go to the people" and continue agitation in the countryside, but they staked on a terrorist struggle against the government. The murders of the most influential representatives of power, according to the beliefs of the Narodnaya Volya, were supposed to stir up the masses.

The main goal of the Narodnaya Volya was the overthrow of the autocracy. Then they planned to convene a Constituent Assembly, carry out social reforms, endow citizens with democratic rights and freedoms.

According to the revolutionaries, Emperor Alexander II stood in the way of implementing their plans, so it was his people who decided to eliminate him. Two assassination attempts - in Ukraine and in Moscow - did not achieve their goals. On February 5, 1880, an explosion occurred in the Winter Palace (the organizer of the assassination attempt was S. N. Khalturin). By a lucky chance, the emperor survived, but 10 people died from the explosion, 53 people were injured.

Then the leaders of the Executive Committee of the "Narodnaya Volya" planned a new explosion - on the Stone Bridge of the Catherine Canal. The operation was prepared by A. I. Zhelyabov. The emperor was constantly monitored, the routes of his trips were found out. On the embankment of the Catherine Canal, the emperor was mortally wounded by a bomb thrown by I. Grinevitsky, a member of the People's Will, and died nine hours after the explosion. The assassination of Alexander II was the last success of the "Narodnaya Volya". Almost all members of its Executive Committee were arrested. A. I. Zhelyabov, S. L. Perovskaya, A. D. Mikhailov, N. I. Kibalchich, N. I. Rysakov, who were preparing the assassination attempt, were hanged in April 1881.

Contrary to the expectations of the revolutionaries, the regicide did not spark a peasant uprising. On the contrary, the people pitied the emperor. All the efforts of the Narodnaya Volya, aimed at organizing a political coup, were in vain. The tactics of individual terror, on which the Narodnaya Volya had high hopes, turned out to be a dead end. I.V.

THE SOUTHERN RUSSIAN UNION OF WORKERS (1875) is the first political revolutionary workers' organization in Russia.

The organization was created in Odessa in July 1875 by the revolutionary E. O. Zaslavsky.

It included working circles of several factories. In the charter of the Union, which Zaslavsky drew up under the influence of the First International, the main goal was proclaimed the violent overthrow of the political system of the country, the destruction of the privileges of the exploiting classes. However, the statutes said nothing about the special mission of the proletariat in the struggle for a just social order. As a populist, Zaslavsky viewed the proletariat as part of the working and exploited people. Unlike other programs of the Narodniks, the charter of the Union spoke of the need for political struggle.

The core of the organization consisted of 60 members, around which approx. 200 people. The Assembly of Deputies became the highest governing body. Contacts were established with the workers of Kharkov, Taganrog, Rostov-on-Don, Orel and Petersburg. Members of the Union introduced workers to illegal literature and involved new participants in the labor movement, they organized two strikes.

In December 1875, as a result of betrayal, the Union was crushed by the police, and its leaders were put on trial. Zaslavsky, sentenced to 10 years of hard labor, died in prison of tuberculosis. V. G.

THE NORTHERN UNION OF RUSSIAN WORKERS (1878–1880) is one of the first revolutionary proletarian organizations in Russia.

The Northern Union of Russian Workers was created in St. Petersburg on December 30, 1878. It was founded by the locksmith V. I. Obnorsky and the carpenter S. N. Khalturin. The program of the Northern Union came out illegally as a leaflet called "To the Russian Workers." The main goal of the Northern Union was the overthrow of "the existing political and economic system of the state as extremely unjust", the creation of a "free people's federation of communities", the elimination of private ownership of the means of production. The Northern Union considered it necessary to introduce freedom of speech, press, assembly, and to eliminate political investigation. He raised the question of creating an all-Russian organization of workers. It was envisaged the destruction of estates and the introduction of compulsory and free education in all types of educational institutions. The demands also included the restriction of the working day, the prohibition of child labor. In the program, the tasks of the Northern Union echoed the tasks of the First International, which proclaimed the solidarity of the workers of all countries.

The northern union consisted of about 200 people, the same number of sympathizers. Only workers were admitted to it. The basis of the organization was workers' circles, which united into branches. At the head of the branches were administrative committees, endowed with the right to make independent decisions. Of the practical actions of the Northern Union, the participation in the strike at the New Paper Spinning Mill in 1879 is best known. The Northern Union tried to organize the publication of the illegal newspaper Rabochaya Zarya, but only one issue was published in 1880.

The police dealt the first blows to the Northern Union at the beginning of 1879, when some of its leaders were arrested, including V. Obnorsky. S. N. Khalturin was carried away by the terrorist activities of the Narodnaya Volya and gradually retired from work in the organization. The activities of the Northern Union in 1880 gradually ceased. V. G.

SECURITY DEPARTMENT - local body of political investigation.

Security departments were established in St. Petersburg in 1866, then in Moscow and Warsaw in 1880. Initially, it was called the “Department for the Protection of Public Security and Order”, since 1903 - the Security Department, and among the people - simply “Okhranka”. Security departments existed until February 1917.

Formally, the security departments were part of the offices of police chiefs and mayors, but they retained the rights of completely independent institutions, since they were directly subordinate to the Police Department. The main task of the security departments was to search for revolutionary organizations and individual revolutionaries. Arrests and cases based on materials collected by the Okhrana were conducted by the provincial gendarme department.

The security departments had extensive special agents. External surveillance was carried out by fillers. "In the surveyed environment" there were also secret agents: informers and provocateurs who participated in the activities of revolutionary organizations and often failed them.

§ 25 - 26. PUBLIC MOVEMENTS 60 - 70's. XIX B Conservatives. The attitude of Russian society to the reforms of the government was ambiguous. The conservatives, adapting to the reformist course of Alexander II, were dissatisfied with the abolition of the "primordial rights" of the nobility to land and

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From the book World History. Volume 1. Stone Age author Badak Alexander Nikolaevich

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Social movements The most important factor in the modernization of Denmark throughout the period described was the dissatisfaction of broad social strata with the orders of traditional society and the authorities who established them. Until 1848 the struggle against the absolutist state

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49. PUBLIC MOVEMENTS OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY. CONSERVATIVES AND LIBERALS The era of reforms of the 60s. 19th century changed the course of social and political thought in Russia. With the abolition of serfdom, a fundamentally new society arose in the country, based on the formal equality of people.

In the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries, a process of systematic creation of a new full-fledged economic model took place in Russia, due to the use of both new social forms and the introduction of new production technologies.

In the 19th century, the civilized world, which primarily included the countries of Europe, was swept by a wave of the formation of a new social system -. A comprehensive definition of capitalism was developed both in the works of communist ideologists such as K. Marx and F. Engels, and in the purely liberal ones, which included A. Smith.

Capitalism represents a new form of social and economic relations between subjects, citizens of the state, in which there is a redistribution of economic resources towards both large industrial and commercial owners. The legal basis for the capitalist system is the legislative consolidation of the right to private property and its inalienability for the state system.

In Russia, this process began much later than most European powers, the reason for this was the unpreparedness of society and the leadership of the state for fundamental changes, the general backwardness of the economy and the presence of archaic legislation regarding the property rights of industrialists and merchants, as well as the status of the main labor force - the peasantry.

Prerequisites for the formation of a progressive capitalist system

The prerequisites for the transition to a new model of economic development were both the political situation in the world and objective social and economic requirements. The latter include the presence of such a transition in the countries of Western Europe, which led to rapid economic growth, and, accordingly, Russia's strong lag in many indicators.

The transition was also due to purely political prerequisites. After the defeat in the government, the government realized the backwardness of the Russian economy from the leading world powers and made every effort to level this gap. An effective and fast way was the development of capitalist forms in the economy and public life.

Economic impact of the development of capitalism in the Republic of Ingushetia

The influence of capitalism on the country's economy was colossal. In fact, a complete transition led to the emergence of individual new sectors of the economy - the chemical, automotive, aircraft manufacturing industries, as well as a significant expansion of heavy industry in the overall "weight" of the economy.

The expansion of the nomenclature of the economy, as well as high growth rates, made it possible to improve the life of ordinary people. Over the 60 years of the development of the capitalist system, the natural increase in the country's population amounted to about 70 million people, which was impossible to achieve without improving the general standard of living.

During the period of formation and development of capitalism, the average annual growth of the Russian economy was about 7–10%, which ultimately allowed it to take first place in Europe in industrial production by the beginning of the 20th century.

Industrial sector

A significant component of all changes in the time period from the second half of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century took place precisely in the industrial sector, which constituted a kind of “locomotive” of the entire economy of the country. The consolidation of the basic rights of large owners and the ongoing changes have affected the number of industrial enterprises in certain industries:

Over 50 years of transformations, oil production has appeared and achieved significant success. In the production of petroleum products, Russia has become a world leader with a significant lead over its closest competitor, the United States;

The coal and metalworking industries together increased their production more than 16 times compared to the beginning of the transformation;

The construction of railway junctions and interchanges, as well as the organization of centralized road support, made it possible to reliably connect different parts of the largest country in the world. The most significant project of the tsarist government in this area was the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, which is still the longest single railway section in the world;

The birth of the chemical industry, as well as the development of machine tools, made it possible to achieve high rates of industrial production.

Agriculture

Unlike industry, the agricultural sector did not develop at such an active pace. This was due to the general lag of the industry throughout the historical development of Russia. It was unprofitable for large owners to invest in agriculture in the presence of a huge amount of free land and labor.

The introduction of modern technology and new methods of growing crops began to occur only at the beginning of the 20th century and at a slow pace. In comparison with industry, the average annual growth of agricultural production was about 1-3%.

Farming - the American way

The American way of developing agriculture in a capitalist society was to actively implement the farming model. Farmers were separate families, endowed with their own large land plots, processing them with modern agricultural means.

In Russia, the creation of farms and the Prime Minister's initiative to create such farms in Siberia became elements of this path. However, the initiative was not put into practice and, in fact, Russia did not go in agriculture to introduce elements of the American way.

The influence of the development of capitalism on the political organization of society

During the development of the capitalist system, the political life of the state also underwent changes. Due to the accumulation of significant capital, capitalists and manufacturers, representatives of big business, began to play an increasingly important role in the life of the state. In the convocations of the State Duma, it was the factory owners who played the leading role and had the greatest political power. The influence of the nobility steadily decreased.

The strengthening of the political power of manufacturers and bankers led to the February bourgeois revolution of 1917, when it was representatives of the capitalist system that played the leading role in removing the emperor from power.

Reasons for the progressive development of the system in the second half of the 19th - early 20th century

The reasons for the rapid introduction and development of this system in the country were:

• Availability of huge internal human resources;
• The presence of the entire range of natural resources and a large number of undeveloped territories;
• The political will of the top leadership of the state;
• Availability of untapped capital and foreign investment;
• The effectiveness of government reforms;
• Active support by society of the introduced forms of production.

"Prussian" way of capitalism

A distinctive model for the development of capitalism was the "Prussian" path, which was characterized by the absence of a rejection of many customs and traditions of the feudal system. Such relations were built into the new system as part of a single whole and had a significant impact in Russia.

The main sign of the presence of the features of such a path of development in Russia was the presence of a huge number of landless debtor peasants - farm laborers, who in fact were forced to agree to any working conditions, and did not have civil rights.

In addition, the nobility retained a significant influence on the economic and political processes in the country, which did not contribute to the development of fair competition and the rapid economic growth of the economy.

Reforms of S. Yu. Witte

The reforms of the tsarist prime minister were aimed at strengthening the monetary unit of the Empire - the ruble. As a result of the rigid peg of the ruble to the price of gold, the currency has significantly strengthened and has become in stable demand both domestically and abroad. This reform made it possible not only to increase the money supply of foreign loans, but also to accelerate the pace of industrial and economic growth.

Also, S. Yu. Witte was one of the main ideologists of the accelerated construction of railways and actively carried out reforms in the field of modernization of communication lines. These improvements also had a positive impact on economic growth and the development of capitalism in Russia as a whole.

Transition to capitalism

The main incentive and driving force for the transition to a capitalist society became, which affected almost all spheres of life. The manifesto changed the status of the largest group of the population - the peasantry, manufacturers and owners of industrial enterprises with the abolition of serfdom received huge labor resources at their disposal.

Zemstvo reform allowed representatives of the wealthy classes to directly participate in the political and public life of the provinces. The military reform streamlined the system of recruitment for military service, thereby freeing up additional labor resources for the development of industry. The judicial reform expanded the rights of judges to administer fair and legal justice and strengthened the rights of the new "bourgeois".

Features of the development of Russian capitalism

The main features and features of the formation and development of the capitalist system in Russia were:

High growth rates of certain industries (metallurgy, railway construction) to the detriment of other types of economy (modernization did not affect agriculture);

The use in the development of industry is often disenfranchised labor force in huge quantities;

The presence in public life of certain signs of a feudal society according to the "Prussian" model;

The consolidation of property rights for individual "bourgeois" and the actual formation of a new social group of factory owners and capitalists who previously did not belong to the nobility;

A significant reduction in the backlog from the leading world powers in all economic indicators, which subsequently led Russia to the place of the European economic leader.

The results of the development of the system up to the collapse of the Russian Empire

The result of the formation of the capitalist system in the Russian Empire was the presence of a relatively modern industry, a fairly developed network of railway communications. This backlog was actively used by the Bolsheviks in the future during industrialization.

However, by the time of the collapse of the Russian Empire, the growth rate slowed down significantly due to the revolutions and the ongoing World War I, and almost all the “reserves” for the development of the capitalist system were also used up. As a result, for the Empire, capitalism in economic terms turned out to be an absolute boon, which made it possible to improve the economy.

In the second half of the XIX century. in Russia, the socio-political movement, oppositional and even radical moods in society became more active. This was largely facilitated by the inconsistency of the internal political course of the government of Alexander II, the departure from the policy of liberal reforms, the high price of the accelerated modernization of the country, the main burden of which fell on the people's shoulders.

Other factors:

transitional nature of the economy and social structure of the 60-80s.

preservation of the rural community, autocracy, large landed estates

the forced development of capitalism, which was stimulated by the state, strengthened its negative aspects

The impoverishment of a part of the peasantry in the conditions of market relations was experienced by the radical intelligentsia as a national disaster, aroused the desire to save the peasantry from the horrors of capitalism, and created the conditions for the spread of socialist ideas.

the influence of theories penetrating the country from the West (ideas socialism and etc.)

AlexanderIII (1845 - 1894) ascended the throne in 1881, thirty-six years old, after the death of his father Alexander II from a terrorist bomb. The reactionary transformations of Alexander III were called counter-reforms.

The tsar's closest adviser was Alexander's former mentor K.P. During the reign of Alexander III, the famous reactionary journalist MN Katkov also enjoyed great influence. In the 1860s Katkov and Pobedonostsev participated in the preparation of the Great Reforms; by the 1880s they became their fierce enemies. Katkov proposed to completely eradicate the principles introduced by the reforms into Russian life, called for administrative and political restructuring. Pobedonostsev pinned more hopes on changes in the minds and souls of people, on strengthening the influence of the church.

In the early 1880s. the autocracy significantly improved its punitive policy, which allowed it to crush the internally weakened "Narodnaya Volya".

In August 1881, it was approved "Regulations on Measures to Preserve State Security and Public Peace". According to him, any locality could be declared in a state of emergency, the head of the province had the right to prohibit meetings, close press organs and educational institutions, arrest and exile objectionable persons without trial. Since 1883, they began to operate security departments(okhrana) - gendarmerie bodies that specialized in undercover activities.

In August 1882 were adopted Temporary rules on the press. From now on, the meeting of four ministers (internal affairs, justice, public education and the chief prosecutor of the synod) received the right to close any publications and prohibit objectionable persons from engaging in journalistic activities. In 1884, a new university charter appeared, which eliminated the election of professors, deans, and the rector, and sharply limited the rights of university self-government.

The government sought to give education a class character: tuition fees at universities were increased, and the Minister of Public Education issued in 1887 the so-called "circular about cook's children", ordering that children from the lower classes not be admitted to the gymnasium.

In the field of primary education, church schools were intensively introduced, to which Pobedonostsev sought to give a strictly protective character.

In 1889 was adopted law on zemstvo chiefs, concerning the local peasant administration. The class isolation of the peasant administration was preserved and consolidated, it was placed under the authority of zemstvo chiefs - special officials from among the local landlords, who combined judicial and administrative power in their hands.

In 1890 a new land position, significantly increased the power of the administration over local self-government. Elections to the zemstvo began to be held strictly on the basis of class, the representation of the nobility increased significantly. In 1892, a new city ​​position, significantly curtailed the independence of city self-government, reducing the number of city voters by three to four times.

Several times the government launched an attack on the judicial institutions, but it was not possible to carry out decisive changes here, it was necessary to confine ourselves to rather minor amendments. In the socio-economic sphere, the government sought to protect the interests of the nobility. For this, the Noble Bank was established, and the Provision on hiring for agricultural work, favorable for landowners, was adopted. The government tried to prevent the social stratification of the peasantry: the family divisions of the peasants were limited, and measures were taken against the alienation of peasant allotments.

The reactionary policy of the government of Alexander III proclaimed the establishment of national-original principles in the life of Russia. This was reflected in the deterioration of the position of non-Russian peoples, religious and national minorities. A number of restrictive measures were taken against the Jews, and Russification of the Baltic states was carried out. Measures of state coercion often reinforced the activities of Orthodox missionaries in different parts of the Empire - among the Lutherans of the Baltic states and the Uniates of Western Ukraine, Muslims of the Volga region and Buddhists of Transbaikalia, Old Believers and sectarians.

The first underground populist organizations arose in the late 1850s and early 1860s. "Land and freedom" (1861-1864) was the first major organization of Narodniks, numbering several hundred members. Its leaders were A.A. Sleptsov, N.A. Serno-Solov'evich, N.N. Obruchev, V.S. Kurochkin, N.I. Utin. The main goal of the organization was considered to be the creation of conditions for the revolution, which was expected in 1863, when the signing of the statutory letters was to be completed. For this, legal and illegal propaganda was used, leaflets were published.

In 1864, during the period of repression associated with the suppression of the Polish uprising, and as a result of the absence of the expected peasant uprisings, the organization dissolved itself.

Ishutins. In 1863-1866, a revolutionary organization headed by N.A. Ishutin ("Ishutins"). In 1866 a member of the organization D.V. Karakozov made an unsuccessful attempt on the life of Alexander II.

"People's massacre" was created in the late 60s. revolutionary fanatic S.G. Nechaev. Nechaev denied any ethics, believing that the end justifies the means. For the sake of the interests of the revolutionary cause, he even went to the organization of a criminal offense.

"Big Society of Propaganda" ("Chaikovites") existed in 1869-1874. It was headed by M.A. Natanson, N.V. Tchaikovsky, S.L. Perovskaya, S.M. Kravchinsky, P.A. Kropotkin. The Society was engaged in the study of socialist literature.

In 1874, the Chaikovites participated in the preparation of a mass action - the so-called. " going to the people"when hundreds of students, high school students, young intellectuals went to the village, some for agitation, and some for propaganda of the peasants. But, in the end, they could not be raised either to revolt or propagate in a socialist spirit.

"Land and Freedom" (1876-1879). The organization was led by M.A. Natanson, A.D. Mikhailov, G.V. Plekhanov, L.A. Tikhomirov. In an effort to rouse the people to the revolution, they considered it necessary:

Agitation in word and deed;

Actions to disorganize the state (i.e., recruiting officers, officials into their ranks, killing the most harmful representatives of power);

The landowners switched from flying agitation to settled propaganda, began to create populist settlements in the countryside. But the new circulation among the people also did not produce results, and in 1879 the party split into supporters of propaganda and the continuation of the struggle for socialist ideals ("villagers"), united under the leadership of G.V. Plekhanov to the party Black redistribution, and supporters of the political struggle and the achievement of political freedom, as a necessary condition for socialist propaganda, as well as the tactics of individual terror ("politicians"), who formed People's Will.

party "People's Will"(1879-1882) headed the Executive Committee, which included A.I. Zhelyabov, A.D. Mikhailov, S.L. Perovskaya, V.N. Figner, N.A. Morozov and others.

Narodnaya Volya set as their goal:

Revolutionary seizure of power;

Convocation of the Constituent Assembly;

Assertion of political freedoms;

Building, in the future, communal socialism.

The main means was recognized as a political coup with the help of the army and with the support of the people.

To disorganize power, individual terror was also used, which gradually involved all the forces of the party and became the main means of political struggle. Several attempts at regicide were made, in particular, prepared S.N. Khalturin an explosion in the Winter Palace in February 1880. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was killed, but the revolution or the mass demonstrations of the people expected by the Narodnaya Volya did not occur, and the organization was eventually crushed by the police.

"Black redistribution"(1879-1882). Its leaders are G.V. Plekhanov, P.B. Axelrod, L.G. Deutsch, V.I. Zasulich the purpose of their activities was the preparation of a peasant revolution - a revolt with the help of propaganda in the countryside.

In 1883, disillusioned with populism and finding themselves in exile, the Chernoperedelites, led by Plekhanov, switched to Marxist positions and created a group in Geneva " Emancipation of labor"- the first Russian social-democratic organization.

The assassination of Alexander II on March 1, 1881 - the highest peak of the activities of the populist revolutionaries - was the beginning of their decline: the death of the emperor did not cause, as the populists hoped, neither the destruction of the political system of the autocracy, nor the people's revolution. The police, with the help of persecution and provocation, destroyed the internally weakened "Narodnaya Volya"; by 1884 the main backbone of this organization ceased to exist. An unsuccessful attempt to revive the methods of the People's Will was the attempt on Alexander III by a group of St. Petersburg students led by A.I. Ulyanov (Lenin's elder brother) on March 1, 1887.

to the fore in the 1880s. liberal populism comes out, the ideologists of which were V.V. Vorontsov. I. I. Kablits and others. Having retained faith in the peasant community as the germ of socialism, the liberal populists focused primarily on cultural, educational measures. Views close to populist were expressed by the journal Otechestvennye Zapiski, led by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin and N.K. Mikhailovsky, and later by the journal Russkaya Mysl.

Russia's entry onto the path of capitalism was accompanied by an intensification of the working-class movement and the emergence of the labor question. In 1885, at the Nikolskaya manufactory in Orekhovo-Zuev, owned by T.S. Morozov, "Morozov strike". The strikers demanded the establishment of effective state control over the situation of the workers, and the adoption of legislation on the conditions of employment. The government was forced to ban the night work of women and children and to define more clearly the obligations of the manufacturers towards the workers.

An attempt to explain the new socio-economic realities was the activity of Russian Marxists. In 1883, populist emigrants who switched to the positions of Marxism - G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Zasulich, P.B. Akselrod and others - founded a group "Emancipation of Labor". She launched an active translation and publishing activity. Plekhanov in "Our Differences". "Socialism and the Political Struggle" proved that Russia had already embarked on the path of capitalism and the Narodniks' hopes of coming to socialism through the peasant community were groundless. The revolutionaries, Plekhanov declared, should orient themselves not towards the peasantry, but towards the proletariat - the only consistently revolutionary class.

Marxist circles also arise in Russia: the St. Petersburg groups of D.I. Blagoev (1884-1885) and M.I. Brusnev (1889-1892), the group of N.I. Fedoseev (1888-1889), in whose activities V. I. Lenin.

Social movement under AlexanderII (paragraph 24 - 26)

1.Conservative:

The main aspirations of the conservatives were attempts to protect the imperial power from the influence of liberal officials and, if possible, prevent reforms from infringing on the interests of the nobility. Representatives: Count P. A. Shuvalov and M. N. Katkov.

Conservatism as a political force is designed to give stability to society. It doesn't mean going back at all. But Russian conservatives did not seek to consolidate the changes that had taken place and were necessary for the country, but to revise many of them.

2.Liberal:

Representatives of the liberal current in the mid-50s. - K. D. Kavelin, B. N. Chicherin (Westerners). They published the first printed policy document of Russian liberalism, Letter to the Reader, its main provisions:

The Slavophiles made their contribution to the development of the liberal program: A. I. Koshelev in the “Russian conversation”, K. S. Aksakov (his formula: the power of power should belong to the tsar, but the power of opinion should belong to the people), A. A. Kraevsky in “Domestic notes ", A. V. Druzhinin in the "Library for Reading".

In Russia, the support of liberalism in society was rather weak. The development of liberalism in Russia was hampered by illiteracy and communal forms of life for the bulk of the population. Their major miscalculation was that at the time of the abolition of serfdom, they did not achieve the destruction of the community and the creation of a wide layer of small landowners who could become their support. They were unable to overcome the disunity of their ranks, develop a common program and achieve unity of action.

3.Revolutionary:

A) The ideological leader of the revolutionary movement in Russia in the late 50s - early 60s. became Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky. He advocated a peasant revolution, developed Herzen's ideas about "communal" socialism, and advocated the creation of a revolutionary organization.

B) The ideas of Chernyshevsky were developed by representatives of the radical intelligentsia - populists. They considered the people, above all the peasantry, as a real political force and saw their main task in making this force conscious and organized. They wanted to raise the peasants to the revolution, so that Russia would have the opportunity, bypassing the stage of capitalism, to immediately move to a new system based on the principles of equality and justice.

Three currents in populism:

The people's revolution required lengthy preparations.

Theory of reflection. The ideologist of anarchism, denying the state. He considered the state to be the highest evil and instead proposed to create a free organization, that is, an association of groups, communities, volosts, regions and peoples. A free society is a society in which the principle of self-government of the people would be implemented. Power should be swept away in a revolutionary way. It is necessary to destroy the isolation of the organization, to identify the leaders in them and to link them together, to establish ties between the peasant and urban workers. The revolution can use the energy of criminals and vagabonds. The transfer of land - the land of factories, plants to the capitalist workers' unions, the equalization of the rights of men and women, the abolition of the family, marriage, the upbringing of children in the spirit of atheism, that is, unbelief.

The Russian monarchy is deprived of a solid socialist foundation. It is not supported by all segments of the population (supported by the army and the bureaucracy). The peasantry is not capable of independently carrying out a revolution; for a coup, it is necessary to create a secret conspiratorial organization, whose members have passed a strict selection and are subject to iron discipline. Seizure of power. The conspiracy is the beginning of the revolution. But Tkachev considered the destruction of the state impossible, in his opinion, in the course of the revolution, the old state institutions should be replaced with new, revolutionary ones.

Tactics

Conduct propaganda and education among the people

The revolutionary youth must go among the people in order to rouse them to revolt.

Conspiracy and terror.

Revolutionary organizations:

On 1.1861, the organization "Land and Freedom" was founded in St. Petersburg. Among the organizers were P.A., , , .

Their program included:

1) convocation of parliament and the establishment of a democratic republic

2) broad local self-government

3) equality of women

4) the transfer of all land to the peasants and the unification of the rural and urban population into self-governing communities

Practical activities - the publication and distribution of revolutionary literature, assistance in the escape of revolutionaries from prisons, material assistance to the exiles.

1864 - a decision was made to dissolve itself.

2. 1863 - 1866 - the organization of N. A. Ishutin (Moscow) - I. A. Khudyakov (Petersburg) arose.

The main task is to prepare a revolutionary upheaval, the result of which would be the reorganization of society on the basis of collective security and collective labor.

In 1865, the Ad group appeared, which led the preparation of regicide as an impetus for the revolution.

In 1866, Karakozov made an attempt on Alexander II, after which the revolutionary was executed, the organization was crushed.

3. 1869 in Moscow, S. G. Nechaev founded the society "People's Reprisal". The main document is the Catechism of the Revolutionary.

He planned to cover Russia with a network of revolutionary organizations bound by iron discipline. Members of society are allowed everything that serves the cause of the destruction of the old society and the implementation of the revolution.

4. 1869 in St. Petersburg, N.V. Tchaikovsky founded a circle of "Tchaikovsky". A group of young people engaged in self-education and distribution of books by N. G. Chernyshevsky, P. L. Lavrov, K. Marx

5. 1873 in Moscow, A. V. Dolgushin founded a circle of Bakunin's supporters "dolgushentsy". Conducted propaganda among the people.

6. 1874 - "going to the people." Explanation to the peasants of the meaning of revolution and socialism.

7. 1876 in St. Petersburg, the organization "Land and Freedom" was founded. Its creators were M. A. Natanson, A. D. Mikhailov, G. V. Plekhanov, V. N. Figner, S. L. Perovskaya, N. A. Morozov, S. M. Kravchinsky.

The goal is the transfer of all land into the hands of the working peasantry, the organization of society on the principles of communal self-government, and the solution of the national question.

The goal can be realized "only through a violent revolution."

To prepare a popular uprising, it was supposed to use organizational (propaganda among the peasantry and workers) and disorganization (individual terror) methods of work.

In 1879, Land and Freedom split into two organizations:

- "Black Redistribution", supporters of the continuation of propaganda work, led by G. V. Plekhanov

- "People's Will", supporters of individual terror, headed by A. D. Mikhailov, A. I. Zhelyabov, N. A. Morozov, S. L. Perovskaya, V. N. Figner, M. F. Korolenko.

8. 1878 the "Northern Union of Russian Workers" was founded in St. Petersburg. The organizers of the "Union" were - D. N. Smirnov, A. E. Gorodnichiy, V. I. Savelyev, S. I. Volkov. The program of which contained demands for broad political freedoms - freedom of speech, press, assembly.

Conclusion: all organizations of revolutionaries were crushed, and their members were either hanged or sent to hard labor.