In the composition of any language there are not only native words, but also numerous borrowings from other languages. In one language there are more of them, in another less, but they are always there. In principle, borrowing is a positive process for a language. In this way, the vocabulary is enriched, new elements appear for, comes, belonging to the exact terminology. The number of borrowings in English is quite high compared to other languages. We calculated that on borrowings in English accounts for about 70 percent of the vocabulary, and the rest is native English words. The reason for such "absorption" of foreign vocabulary in English lies in. Numerous foreign conquests of the British Isles, the development of trade, the influence of the culture of continental countries - all this contributed to the emergence and consolidation of borrowings in the English language.
What words are borrowed in English?
In English, we can find words borrowed from Old French, Latin, Greek, Scandinavian and other languages. , are generally primordially Germanic. Trade and Christianization gave such borrowings from the Latin language as wine(wine), pepper(pepper), school(school), devil(devil), priest(priest), and in the sixteenth century the language was also enriched with Latin terminology - concept(concept, idea), access(access), commission(authority, power of attorney), complain(complaint), etc.
The raids of the Scandinavian Vikings from the end of the eighth century contributed to the introduction of Danish vocabulary into the English language. These are, for example, such words known to us: they(they), take(take), cut(cut), get(receive), ugly(ugly), husband(husband), shirt(shirt), wholesale(whole), wrong(wrong), leg(leg).
The most numerous is the group of borrowings in English from Old French. The year 1066 is familiar to us as the year of the conquest of England by the Normans. It was they who brought the French language to the islands, from the Norman dialect of which, over time, Anglo-Norman was formed, which later became the state language. This language survived until the end of the fourteenth century, although the native population continued to speak English. It is believed that these borrowings in English make up a fourth of all the most commonly used words. Here are some French borrowings rich in English: entrance(entrance), goddess(goddess), admirable(wonderful, excellent) flexible(flexible), difficult(difficult), disappointment(disappointment), movement(motion), solitude(solitude, loneliness) court(court), government(government), battle(battle), city(city) and many others.
COURSE WORK
in the discipline "Fundamentals of the theory of language learning"
Lexicology
Borrowings in English
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………...…3
1. DISCLOSURE OF THE CONCEPT OF LANGUAGE BORROWING. ITS DIFFERENT INTERPRETATIONS .............................................................. ............................………………………….…5
2.REASONS FOR BORROWING FOREIGN LANGUAGE WORDS. HISTORY OF STUDYING THE REASONS FOR BORROWING .............................................................. ............................................nine
3. LIVING ENGLISH AS CONSTANTLY DEVELOPING
PHENOMENON ….......................................……………………… .......................…………...fifteen
3.1. Examples of languages and borrowings that have influenced modern English .............................................................. ................................................. ..............................sixteen
4. RESULTS OF THE BORROWING PROCESS. THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE BORROWING IN THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE........................................................................... ................................................. ……………………….20
CONCLUSION.....……………………………………………………...………………..24
REFERENCES AND SOURCES USED………………………………………………………………...………...26
INTRODUCTION
Relevance of the topic: The presented work is devoted to the topic "Borrowings in the English language". The problem of this study has relevance in the modern world. This is evidenced by the frequent raising, and later the study of the issues of language borrowings, which extend their influence to the most diverse areas of activity, both of certain generations and the development of nations as a whole. No language is "pure" - there are admixture-borrowings in any. English is no exception. It coexists words from Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, Chinese, Japanese, Hindi and many other languages. And, therefore, the study of the above problem has been and will be relevant, due to the close connection of language borrowings with the general history of the past and the prospects for the development of languages in the future.
Target: The study of the topic "Borrowing in the English language" from the point of view of the latest domestic and foreign studies on similar issues of language borrowing as a process. Determining the role of language borrowing in the formation and development of the English language.
Based on this goal, the following Tasks :
To study the theoretical aspects and nature of language borrowings involved in the formation and development of the English language;
To determine the criteria and possibilities of language borrowings in speech;
To indicate the development trends of the subject "Borrowings in English".
object This study is the analysis and identification of the nature of language borrowings of the English language.
Subject research is the analysis of the conditions of language borrowings in English, the consideration of individual issues formulated as the objectives of this study,
1. DISCLOSURE THE CONCEPT OF LANGUAGE BORROWING. ITS DIFFERENT INTERPRETATIONS.
Borrowing- this is a process, as a result of which a certain foreign language element appears and is fixed in the language; also such a foreign language element itself. This is an integral part of the functioning and historical change of the language, one of the main sources of replenishment of the vocabulary; it is also a full-fledged element of the language, which is part of its lexical wealth, serving as a source of new roots, word-building elements and precise terms.
Borrowing in languages is one of the most important factors in their development. The process of borrowing lies at the very basis of language activity.
Sound and formal uniformity within the same language is a consequence of borrowing by some individuals from others; in the same way, elements of the lexicon of one language are borrowed by another language through the interaction of their speakers.
The share of borrowed elements in languages is large, although it is not possible to accurately calculate their number, both due to the constant increase in the number of foreign elements penetrating the language, and due to the assimilation process, which makes it difficult to establish the origin of the word.
In each language, the following layers can be distinguished: words inherent in all languages of the same family; words common to a group, subgroup of related languages; native words of a particular language; borrowed words. In English, it looks like this:
Indo-European words (common to many languages): mother , brother , daughter , wolf , meat , hear , hundred , be , stand ;
German words: bear, finger, say, see, white, winter ;
West German words: age, ask, give, love, south;
Proper English (Anglo-Saxon words): lady, lord, boy, girl ;
Borrowings:
From related languages: knight, low, flat, fellow, sale(from Old Norse) rummer, napper, fitter(from Dutch);
From another language system: Soviet, sputnik, steppe, taiga(Izrussian), judo, samurai, sumo(from Japanese) xylophone, epoch, echo(from Greek).
This is a generally accepted classification of the vocabulary of the English language. But it cannot be called unambiguously true. For example, words taken for Indo-European may well be borrowed from other proto-languages, because trade and other relations between peoples have existed since ancient times.
Words borrowed in the most ancient times and completely assimilated by the receiving language are not perceived as foreign, and establishing their origin is often difficult even for a linguist ( table- from French).
It is often difficult to establish which particular language from a group or subgroup is the source of a word (the word figures could have come directly from Latin figure, and through the French figures). Another difficulty is the distinction between the terms "origin of the word" and "source of borrowing".
Many words are borrowings of the second or more degree (for example, the word valley came into English from Latin through French).
Despite some inaccuracies, this classification demonstrates the magnitude of the phenomenon: we see that most words in the English language are borrowed - in an earlier or later era, from a close or distant language system.
Borrowing of words is a natural and necessary process of language development. Lexical borrowing enriches the language and usually does not harm its originality, since it retains its main vocabulary, and, in addition, the grammatical structure inherent in the language remains unchanged, the internal laws of language development are not violated. There can be many reasons for this process: military-political dependence, intensive language contacts associated with resettlement or geographical proximity; the spread of religion and culture or a high level of technical civilization inherent in another linguistic community; long-term purposeful language policy of one region in relation to another. As a rule, in the process of the influence of one linguistic community on another, the interaction of several of these factors is observed. But the most important driver of borrowing is the borrower's awareness of the fact that another language can bring values, achievement, or lifestyle that elicit recognition. In other words, another linguistic community is perceived as more progressive.
Borrowed words can be considered in different ways. The history of the English language, which studies the structure of the language, its phonetic, grammatical and lexical features in different epochs of the development of the language, studies the vocabulary of the English language in each given period of its development. Therefore, in the history of a language, borrowings from other languages are usually considered in relation to a given period of the existence of a language. In other words, all borrowings are considered simultaneously in this particular era. In this paper, examining the state of the vocabulary of the English language as a whole, borrowings are considered in the languages from which these borrowings came into the studied English, in all periods of their development. What is the purpose of the course work.
Borrowings in different languages affect vocabulary enrichment in different ways. In some languages, they did not have such an impact that could significantly affect the vocabulary of the language. In other languages, borrowing in different historical epochs had such a significant impact on the vocabulary of the language that even function words, such as pronouns, prepositions, borrowed from other languages, replaced the original function words. Since borrowings as a process are inherent in each language and integral to the lexical composition of the English language in particular, this topic is always important and relevant, it has enough material for consideration and research.
2. REASONS FOR BORROWING FOREIGN LANGUAGE WORDS. HISTORY OF STUDYING THE REASONS FOR BORROWING.
Many linguists have been studying the reasons for borrowing foreign words since the beginning of the 20th century. However, the identification of the reasons for borrowing was carried out without a sufficiently clear differentiation between linguistic and external, non-linguistic reasons. So, in the work of L.P. Krysin it is indicated that
E. Richter considers the main reason for borrowing words to be the need to name things and concepts. Other reasons are listed, different in nature - linguistic, social, mental, aesthetic, etc., the need for new language forms, the need for the division of concepts, for a variety of means and for their completeness, for brevity and clarity, for convenience and etc. The process of linguistic borrowing was considered by him inextricably linked with cultural and other contacts of two different linguistic societies, and as a part and result of such contacts.
Following L.P. Krysin, M.A. Breiter identifies the following reasons for borrowing:
1) The absence of a corresponding concept in the cognitive base of the receptor language. He noted cases when borrowings were used to designate concepts that are new to the receptor language and not available in the source language. Since this does not quite correspond to Breiter's first reason, it is clarified: in the language-receptor there is a need to designate an "actively pulsating" phenomenon in life; the exact word is not immediately found in one's own language, but in another language (in a foreign language) there are two units that, when combined, are suitable for a name (in English). That is, it is not so much a borrowing as the formation of a new English word from non-English elements. The author gives various examples that are understandable to native English speakers, but do not have an equivalent in another language (from where the borrowing came from). Here we can talk about the separate borrowing of two elements and combining them into a complex name in the receptor language. This model of composition is productive in various languages and corresponds to word-formation processes in others. The actualization of this word-formation model exists in languages at the so-called everyday level, words that are not used in scientific works, but are widespread in the daily life of a particular people. Such words are rarely used in official documents, but such wording of borrowings is widespread in the media, which indicates the special popularity of such words. The variability of their spelling does not always indicate the first stage of assimilation, since such variability may be the result of the illiteracy of the compiler of a particular document containing such a borrowed word.
2) The absence of an appropriate (more accurate) name (or its "losing" in competition with borrowing) in the receptor language.
M. A. Breiter notes that about 15% of the newest words are borrowed due to the lack of a corresponding name in the receptor language. It is noted that the line between this and the previous group is blurred, since in some cases it is difficult to say whether this concept is new for the receptor language. The author also refers to this group those borrowings that, for some reason (easier to pronounce, shorter, more transparent in their etymology, more specifically in semantics) have replaced (partially or completely) previously mastered or native language units. Sometimes we are not talking about displacement, but about the redistribution of semantic roles: in some situations, it is appropriate to use only a foreign word, in others - native English. The use of borrowings can be regarded as the result of overcoming the wide polysemy of the original word. In this case, you can use the wording of L. P. Krysin "the need for specialization of the concept."
The reason for borrowing often determines the function of a foreign word.
In the case of the coexistence of a borrowing and a native or previously mastered name, the function of the borrowed one is to designate the realities of a different culture or stylistic marking of the text, and the English equivalents are used to describe reality.
3) Providing a stylistic (emphatic) effect. The emphatic function can also be determined by homophony, which connects interlingual meanings. The effect of this factor is infrequent and is designed for a high degree of linguistic competence of the speakers.
4. Expression of positive or negative connotations that the equivalent unit in the receptor language does not have. The author points out that among the native speakers of the Russian language there is a widespread idea that, for example, Japanese technologies are more progressive than English ones, foreign banks are more reliable, foreign goods are of higher quality. This setting, according to the author, is widely used in advertising, where borrowings are used to update positive connotations.
It should be noted that the excessive use of borrowings in advertising and in the media causes a negative reaction from a rather large, and mostly "old" segment of the population, therefore, creating a positive connotation with the help of borrowings is a controversial issue at all times.
Referring to the list of reasons for borrowing proposed by L.P. Krysin, the above statements are confirmed. L.P. Krysin emphasizes the scope of using foreign vocabulary and, at the same time, social aspects:
1. The need to name a new thing, a new phenomenon, etc.
2. The need to distinguish between meaningfully close, but still different concepts.
3. The need for specialization of concepts - in a particular area, for certain purposes.
4. The trend that an integral object, not divided into separate components, should be designated "as a whole", and not as a combination of words.
5. Socio-psychological reasons and factors of borrowing: the perception by the whole group of speakers or part of it - of a foreign word as more prestigious, "scientific", "nice-sounding", as well as the communicative relevance of the designated concept.
In view of the foregoing, it can be seen that mainly intralinguistic reasons for borrowing are indicated. Also, external, extralinguistic reasons for borrowing foreign vocabulary were mentioned: activation of ties with other peoples, states, changes in the mentality of English-speaking people.
The borrowing of many historical periods, in part or in full, meets the reasons listed above.
The range of concepts and phenomena that have a purely English origin is limited. Therefore, it is considered simpler and more effective to borrow an already existing nomination along with the borrowed concept and subject.
In almost every thematic group, most of the borrowings are lexemes that appeared in the English language as a result of satisfying the need to name a new thing or concept.
Words forming quasi-synonymous rows have fairly easily identified semantic differences.
The terminology of computer technology that has developed on the basis of the English language is easily replenished with new terms of a foreign language origin. A similar process can be observed in sports terminology, as well as in the vocabulary of non-codified subsystems of the language, such as the slang of drug addicts, prostitutes, hippies, musicians, and others, where anglicisms or calques from English words predominate.
A tendency to establish a correspondence between the indivisibility of an object and single-element, single-lexemism is observed when an empty cell is filled, which corresponds to a certain meaning, but the denoting - in the form of a separate word - is absent (instead, a descriptive phrase is used). As mentioned above, this reason for borrowing is closely related to the first reason and almost always they should be considered together, although the second reason can be called narrow, more specific: the speaker saves speech effort, the language involves filling in some cell with a nomination.
Among the socio-psychological reasons influencing the process of borrowing is the increase in the number of people who speak and know different languages. A large flow of people leaving the country, living in other countries for a long time and returning back is the reason for frequent switching to other languages, the so-called "code-switching". In such cases, the speaker does not just use borrowings in speech, he moves from one language to another. The influence of emigration on the process of borrowing is not as high as a wide knowledge of various languages, which is essential for the process of borrowing.
Many linguists point to the not very frequent, but still prestige of a foreign word in some situations compared to English.
L.P. Krysin calls such a phenomenon "an increase in rank": a word that in the source language names an ordinary object, in the borrowing language refers to an object that is in one sense or another more significant, more prestigious, etc. The expressiveness of novelty is one of the persistent reasons for borrowings as more prestigious, significant, expressive. Borrowings have the advantage over English synonyms that they certify the speaker socially in certain areas more highly, emphasize the level of awareness and claim the superiority of a certain group (youth) using this vocabulary.
A powerful impetus for the development of the process of borrowing foreign vocabulary is its use in the speech of authoritative personalities during popular programs. Many well-known television programs in England also feature non-English speakers, after which the level of borrowing in English increases, especially among young people. Among the social and public reasons for the entry of borrowings into the English language, L.P. Krysina attributed the "communicative relevance of the concept" and the word corresponding to it. If a concept affects important areas of human activity, then the word denoting this concept naturally becomes common. Over time, the relevance of a word may be lost, and vice versa, a word borrowed at the beginning of the century may reach its peak of use at the end of the century.
So, the external reasons for borrowings "join" with the internal ones (for example, communicative relevance) through socio-psychological ones, this is especially noticeable in the shift of the "speaking / listening" antinomy in favor of the first in a pronounced tendency to replace the Russian descriptive phrase with one word. The number of English-speaking people who know foreign languages has increased significantly. It was often that in a speech situation a borrowed word becomes more prestigious than an English one, the expression of its novelty is attractive, it can emphasize the speaker's high level of information. The use of borrowings in the speech of an authoritative person (or in advertising) can be an impetus for his assimilation into English speech.
3 . LIVING ENGLISH AS A CONSTANTLY DEVELOPING PHENOMENON.
Since English is a living language, such a factor suggests that English as a phenomenon is constant and evolving. Something new comes, something superfluous disappears. The problem is that in the course of the long history of its development, the English language has adopted a significant number of foreign words that have entered the dictionary in one way or another. (See Appendix No. 1) Among these words there are both function words and word-forming morphemes. This speaks not only of the expansion and richness of English.
Such a large number of borrowed words in the English language has led some linguists to argue that the English language has lost its originality, that it is a "hybrid language". The English language adopted a large number of borrowings from the Scandinavian languages in the early Middle Ages (including such basic words as "skin" - skin and even "she" - she). The most massive stream of borrowings is medieval, after the Norman Conquest, from Old French; as a result, almost half of the English vocabulary has Romance roots. In modern times, a large number of scientific terms and new borrowings from continental languages entered the language. But these facts do not touch the doubts of linguists about the originality of the language. Most of the words in English have been and will remain native. With all this, the English language itself is the largest supplier of borrowings.
3.1. Examples of languages and borrowings that have influenced modern English.
Words from other languages are "loanwords".
The trend of borrowing foreign words does not stop to this day. They come from different languages of the world, often from the field of modern technologies (computer, Internet, biotechnology, sports, entertainment, business and social change).
Many words borrowed from other languages are words for various kinds of food. For example, latte (Italian for coffee with a lot of milk), taqueria (a type of restaurant in Mexican Spanish), and radicchio (from Italian; meaning a type of lettuce).
Words from American English.
The importance of American English is growing every day. This is due to America's dominant position in the economic marketplace and its enormous influence on other nations through film, music and other cultural fields. There are a number of words that are not new in the United States, but have recently become widely used around the world. For example, majorly (slang extremely) has received massive use, and thus entered the list of new English words (without the AmE mark) in some dictionaries. The borrowing of American words, referring mainly to the world of business, youth, pop music, the Internet and computers, is a very striking trend in the British language.
Aliens from French.
In 1066, the Normans conquered England, and French became the language of prestige and power. During this period, many words from French passed into English. Especially those that are connected with power (duke, duchess, count, countess), government (parliament, government) or law (accuse, attorney, crime). Other borrowings related to fashion (dress, apparel), art (music, poem) and moral qualities (courtesy, charity).
Words that existed in English to convey the same phenomena as borrowings did not necessarily disappear. Often they coexisted side by side with the French, but were used in a simpler context. For example, the lower classes of English society left such words as cow, sheep, swine in their lexicon (all of them are taken from the Old English period). At the same time, the French words beef, mutton, pork came into use to refer to these animals when it came to food (meat). This is due to the fact that meat was eaten mainly by rich people from high society, who were required to know French.
Borrowings from Latin.
Latin - the language of the church - has always played an important role. In some cases, English, French and Latin words with the same meaning exist side by side in English. For example, help (English), aid (French), assistance (Latin) or book (English), volume (French), text (Latin). Many Latin words were borrowed into English in the 16th and 17th centuries. Basically, they were part of the written language and were used in the field of intellectual work (species, specimen, tedium, squalor, antenna). Some of the words came into the language in their original form (see those listed above), but there were also those that adapted to the English spelling (history, maturity, polite, scripture). In the 17th century, English-speaking citizens became concerned that Latin words were flooding the English language. The playwright Ben Jonson satirized this trend in his play Poetastar (1601). One of her heroes produced words, many of which were supposed to be comic and exaggerated: barmy froth, chilblained, clumsy, clutched, conscious, damp, defunct, fatuate, furibund, glibbery, incubus, inflate, lubrical, magnificate, oblatrant, obstupefact, prorumpted, puffy, quaking custard, reciprocal, retrograde, snarling gusts, snotteries, spurious, strenuous, turgidous, ventositous.
Despite the fact that the words were invented to ridicule the then existing reality, many of them have become entrenched in the language and are still used in everyday speech. For example, clumsy, conscious, damp, defunct, puffy, reciprocal, retrograde, spurious, and strenuous.
In the 17th century, English was in contact with other significant European languages, and this was reflected in the variety of borrowings, for example, from French (colonel machine, cartridge), Spanish (armada, banana, galleon) and Italian (ballot, carnival, madrigal).
Celtic borrowings.
Borrowings from the Celtic languages in English are not numerous, and in most cases refer to dialect vocabulary or to the vocabulary of the lower strata of the population. Of interest is the counting system of British sheep breeders, derived from the numerals of the extinct Cumbrian language. The syntactic tracing paper from the Celtic languages is, in its origin, the system of Continuous tenses, which is absent in other Germanic languages.
Scandinavian borrowings.
From Danish as a result of the Scandinavian conquest (from about 870). This group of borrowings is not very numerous, but it includes very frequent words. Here are some examples: they, them instead of hie, hem (hem is preserved in colloquial expressions like I met "em yesterday); take, cut, get, instead of which English words would give in modern language *nim, *snide, *werth; are , fellow, gear, ill, happen, happy, husband, kick, law, leg, low, odd, rove, rug, scale, scalp, skill, skin, skip, skull, tight, ugly, wrong and others nay, fro, skirt, dike, sky, screech, for which the English parallels nay, from, shirt, ditch, welkin, shriek have been preserved; toponymic suffixes: -by, -beck, -thorp(e), -fell , -toft, -thwaite from the Scandinavian words byr "village", bekkr "stream", thorp "village", fjall "mountain", topt "estate", thveit "fenced area" and others; examples of names: Rugby, Welbeck, Scunthorpe, Micklefell, Lovestoft, Applethwaite; flock, mug and some others came through the Anglo-Norman language; nag, ombudsman, ski, skive, slalom, slam - words reflecting new realities for the British, entered from modern Scandinavian their languages in the XIX-XX centuries.
Scandinavian borrowings are difficult to distinguish from proper English words, since Danish and Old English were closely related languages. A characteristic difference is that in Danish words /k/, /g/, /sk/ were preserved, while in English they turned into hissing: /k/ and /g/ - under certain conditions, /sk/ - always.
European borrowings of the XX century.
In the first half of the 20th century, a large number of German words, including individual morphemes, such as eigen-, penetrated into the British natural science vocabulary. The infiltration of German vocabulary continues during World War II to refer to military terms and virtually ceases after the war.
Purist tendencies.
At various times, purists have tried to cleanse the English language of foreign words, replacing them with Anglo-Saxon ones. One linguistic nationalist said: “Avoid Latin derivatives; use concise expressive Anglo-Saxon monosyllabic words." (English Avoid Latin derivatives; use brief, terse Anglo-Saxon monosyllables). The irony is that the only Anglo-Saxon word in this saying is Anglo-Saxon.
4. RESULTS OF THE BORROWING PROCESS. THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE BORROWING IN THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
The phenomenon of borrowing has a great influence on the language, causing serious changes in it. As a result of this process, foreign elements appear in languages - words and parts of words - which for the most part do not clog the language (which, however, happens with thoughtless borrowings), but enrich the fund of its lexical and morphological possibilities. Often there are hybrid words - words, some of which are borrowed, and the other part - originally exists in this language (artless - borrowed root art-, dislike - borrowed suffix -like). Words related to barbarisms and exoticisms appear. There are mixed languages (Creole, Pidgin English). Numerous international and pseudo-international words appear, which will be discussed in more detail below. These are the most obvious results of the borrowing process. But there are others, less explicit, but no less significant.
One of the results is the emergence of a large number of doublets (words of identical origin) with different phonemic structure and meaning, as they were borrowed from different sources or in different historical periods, or are the result of a special development of the word in the language. In English, the main source of doublets are words of Latin origin, which came directly from Latin or through French (canal - channel, major - mayor, liquor - liqueur, fact - feat). Some doublets appeared as a result of borrowing from different dialects of the same language (assay - essay (from different dialects of French)) or from the same language at different periods of time (dish - earlier, disk - later borrowing from Latin). Also, doublet pairs arise when the connection between the meanings of a polysemantic word is lost; so the Latin persona became two English words: person and parson. There are also exceptional cases of etymological triplets: cattle - chattel - capital (all words come from the Latin capital).
Secondary borrowing is another result of this process. In this case, along with the previously borrowed and assimilated word, a new word appears in the language, which coincides in form with the previously borrowed word, but has a different meaning, up to homonymy. For example, along with the previously borrowed word pilot in the meaning of “specialist operating an aircraft”, at the end of the 20th century the word pilot appeared in the meaning of “athlete operating a high-speed sports vehicle”, also coming from French. Another new borrowing is the word pilot in the meaning of "trial issue of the printed edition." Also, a new meaning of the word may appear already in the receiving language as a result of the functioning of this borrowing in it; for example, the word format was borrowed from German through French in the meaning of "the size of a printed publication, sheet", and later acquired the meaning of "the form of organization and presentation of data in computer memory." In such cases, the question arises whether these words are homonyms or the meanings of a polysemantic word. To solve it, the traditional principle of the presence of common semantic components is used: if they exist, we can talk about the meanings of a polysemantic word (pilot as a pilot and pilot as an athlete), in the absence of homonymous relations (pilot as a trial issue of a printed publication in relation to other meanings of the word) .
Borrowings had a very important influence on the grammar of the English language. Due to the borrowing of the typical French structure of + Noun to express the relation of ownership (legofthetable), English has lost endings. Also, under the influence of borrowings, 2/3 of native English words were forced out of the language (Anglo-Saxon equivalents of the words face, money, war and others). Many original words have acquired a reduced stylistic connotation compared to borrowings (compare the English calf, pig, cow and the corresponding words of Scandinavian origin veil, pork, beef).
One of the consequences of the borrowing process are international and pseudo-international words. International words are words that have become widespread in many languages of the world as a result of simultaneous borrowing into several languages. These are mostly words of Greek-Latin origin (Greek: autonomy, system, analysis; Latin: principle, nation, volume, progress). Internationalisms also include words from other national languages (Italian sonata, façade, balcony; French etiquette, omelette, gallant; Arabic algebra, alcohol, coffee; Indian jungle, punch, verandah; Russian steppe, nihilist). National variants of internationalisms differ not only in spelling and pronunciation, but also in meaning, which should be taken into account when translating. So, in French and English, the word ambition has a neutral meaning of "striving for a goal", while the Russian ambition has a negative connotation; family (English), familia (Spanish), Familie (German) have the meaning of "family", the Russian word surname in this meaning is rarely used and is considered obsolete. Such cases often lead to the appearance of "false friends of the translator", or pseudo-international words - lexical units of two languages, similar in sound and spelling, but partially or completely diverging in meaning. Pseudo-international words can be divided into groups according to the degree of similarity:
1) words that have the same spelling and pronunciation, but completely different meanings (accurate - accurate, not neat; complexion - complexion, not complexion; magazine - a magazine, not a store);
2) words that, in addition to spelling and pronunciation, also coincide in some meanings, but not always in the most common ones (authority - power, less often - authority; pretend - pretend, less often - pretend; solid - solid, not just solid) ;
3) words that are close, but not identical in spelling and sound, and accordingly have different meanings (adapt - adapt, adopt - accept; data - data, date - date; later - later, the latter - the last of those listed, letter - letter, letter);
4) names of measures that are consonant, but not identical in quantity (pound (English from Latin through German) - 453.59 g, Pfund (German) - 500 g, pound (Russian) - 409.5 g, ; centner (English from Latin through German) - 45.36 kg, Zentner (German) - 50 kg, centner (Russian) - 100 kg.)
CONCLUSION.
Borrowing as a process is multifaceted; it has certain causes, types and results. The reasons for borrowing lie both within a particular language system and outside it. The need for borrowing a foreign language element that arises within the language is explained by the inaccuracy of the existing name or its absence due to the novelty of the designated object for the culture using this language. External reasons for the appearance of borrowings arise as a result of contacts between people who speak different languages. Borrowed words facilitate communication, and also often carry a socio-psychological burden in the form of connotations that are absent in the correspondences of the receiving language. Borrowing can occur between different languages, both close and distant in terms of kinship. The effects of this process on the receiving language are varied; they affect not only the lexical level of the language, but also grammar, which is clearly seen in the example of the English language, the grammatical system of which has radically changed as a result of the loss of cases caused by the influence of the French language.
Borrowing as an element of the language also has its own specifics: such elements exist at different levels of the language, but not in equal quantities. The largest number of them is at the level of words, the smallest - at the level of stable phrases.
Borrowings in English were considered and studied from the point of view of the latest domestic and foreign studies. The role of language borrowing in the formation and development of the English language is indicated in view of the fact that the process of borrowing gives the prospect and opportunity for the development of the language itself in the process of “building up” the vocabulary and its connection in the international arena with other languages. The tasks originally set for this course work have also been fulfilled, since, having familiarized themselves with the numerous works of scientists in the field of lexicology, it was found that, despite the high percentage of borrowings, English cannot be classified as a language of international origin or as one of the Romance languages. The local element contains a huge number of words, and the grammatical structure has remained intact. The criteria and possibilities of language borrowings in speech remain practically unchanged to this day.
The trends in the development of the topic "Borrowings in the English language" are just as relevant in view of the constant need to study both the history of the past and build prospects for the future on the state and development of the English language as an international language and use.
Thus, the modern vocabulary of the English language has changed and supplemented over many centuries and now has a large number of words in its stock. But, despite this, he did not turn into a kind of "hybrid" and in no way lost his originality. The English language remained the language of the Germanic group with all the characteristic features inherent in it throughout its development, and the changes that it underwent in connection with borrowings only enriched its vocabulary.
LIST OF LITERATURE AND SOURCES USED.
1. Breiter M.A. Borrowings in English: History and Perspectives: A Handbook for Foreign Students of Russian Studies. - Vladivostok: publishing house "Dialogue". 2003.
2. Vinokur G.O. Notes on English word formation. - Moscow, 1999.
3. Krysin L.P. Foreign words in modern life. English language of the late twentieth century. - Moscow, 1996.
4. Krysin L.P. Foreign words in English. - Moscow, 2006.
5. Rozen E.V. New words and set phrases in German. - Moscow, 1991.
6. Antrushina G.B., Afanas'eva O.V., Morozova N.N. "Lexicology of the English Language", Higher Education, Drofa, 2003.
7. Reutovich Yu.S. Lexical assimilation of German borrowings in English / Yu.S. Reutovich // Communication Theory. Language meanings. Issue 2. Sat. scientific articles: MSLU. - Moscow, 2002.
8. Cheremisina, T.I. The functional aspect of non-assimilated borrowings in modern English. - Moscow, 2001.
9. Kabakchi, V.V. English language of international communication/Cross-culturalEnglish. - St. Petersburg: Perm, 2004.
10. Vinokurova V.N. Patterns of development of the semantic structure of lexical borrowings in modern English, 2005.
11. Brunner I.V. Lexicology of modern English. - Moscow., 1999.
12. Sekirin V.P. Borrowings in English. - Moscow, 2004.
13 Atrashevskaya, O.T. Lexical fields with semantically correlative native and borrowed units. Theory of communication. – Moscow 2006.
14. Latyshev, L.K. Translation technology / L.K. Latyshev. - M.: NVI-TEZAURUS, 2001. - 280s.
16. Smirnitsky A.I. Lexicology of the English language. - Moscow, 2000.
15. Fadeev V.I. Russian words in English. - Novosibirsk, 1999.
16. Ozhegov S.I., Shvetsova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. - Moscow, 1995.
17. Muller, V.K./Big English-Russian Dictionary/ V.K. Muller, A.B. Shevnin, M.Yu. Brodsky. - Yekaterinburg, 2005.
18. Wikipedia - free encyclopedia: http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki.
19. For those who need English: http://www.study.ru/index.html.
20. Khomenko, S.A., Tsvetkova, E.E., Basovets, I.M. Fundamentals of the theory and practice of translation from English. - Moscow, 2004.
APPENDIX No. 1 "The composition of borrowings in the English language."
Learning English vocabulary is one of the main stages in learning a language. So many linguists say, that is, putting vocabulary on one side of the scale, and grammar on the other, they believe that the first will outweigh. Where is the truth?.. Let's see! Perhaps not in vain "in the beginning was the Word ...", and even if not in the most theological sense. And if you use logic, then you can build a deductive chain: for interpersonal communication and designation of objects, a person needed a tool - a word (lexeme) - this is the main unit of vocabulary. But when it became necessary to give an invisible series of sounds (the word spoken) a physical visible form, then writing was born, and then grammar. This is exactly what was required to be proved.
Analysis of English vocabulary by language sources
Now it is clear why linguistic teachers always devote more time to studying vocabulary. We will help you independently study and understand the basics of vocabulary, and then choose the language category that would best suit your goals and needs. In the Germanic group of languages, English settled in a dominant position due to the increased popularity and high degree of distribution throughout the globe. It is a very progressive, constantly changing language. English vocabulary is very colorful and multifaceted, so it is important to approach its study from the right side.
Two etymological groups of English vocabulary
Initially, it is necessary to designate the differentiation of vocabulary into two etymological subgroups, i.e., by origin, it is divided into:
- Native words - native (native) dictionary
- Loanwords (borrowings) - borrowed (borrowed) dictionary
Native lexicon - native (original) vocabulary consists of terms that came to us from Ancient British - ancient British, as well as Anglo-Saxon - Anglo-Saxon languages, including those that contain suffixes and prefixes, in addition to the original root of the word.
These languages in their geographical and temporal evolution inevitably collided with Old Norse (Old Norse), hence the partial similarity of some words in seemingly different languages. The native vocabulary subgroup is quite small and accounts for no more than 30% of the total vocabulary of the English dictionary. However, this same 30% is also the most common and frequently used in common English speech. In addition, native words have the highest valency (connective power) and range of use, and are more polysemantic (polysemantic), so they often form stable phrases and phrases.
Examples of words belonging to the original vocabulary
| abroad | abroad, away from home | drop | a drop | Hammer | the hammer |
| ache | pain | ear | ear | hunt | hunting, hunting |
| apple | Apple | moon | moon, lunar month | jerk | jerk, jerk |
| baby | child | job | work, service | fast | fast |
| calf | calf | feel | feel | lamb | lamb |
| chicken | chick | gate | gate, entrance | life | life, longevity |
| dairy | diary, diary | goose | goose | eldritch | spooky |
| narrow | narrow, cramped | stone | stone, hailstone, stone | tree | wood, shoe rack |
| Vixen | fox, vixen | woman | female | year | year, age |
Loanwords - borrowed words- these are words that came from any foreign language (source or primary source) and fitted to the model of native words of the recipient's language. Very often, without a thorough etymological analysis, it is almost impossible to identify a “foreign” word, especially if it was borrowed a long time ago. The most effective methods of borrowing words from another language is interaction, communication with representatives of other peoples. It is important to note that a borrowed word is not always native to the source language. Here it is important not to confuse the source of borrowing (the source of the loan) and the origin of borrowing (the primary source of the loan): in the original source, the word is born, and the word is borrowed from the source (i.e., the source also borrowed this lexeme at one time). And yet, the more similar the structure of two interacting languages, the easier it is for words from one to penetrate into another.
Methods of borrowing in English vocabulary
The stock of borrowed terminology is formed in three possible ways:
- Borrowing proper - direct borrowing
- Loan translation (calque) - literal translation of a phrase or expression from the source language into English
- Semantic loan- semantic borrowing, i.e. an already existing word in English is assigned the meaning of a word from the source language
For 16 centuries of formation, the English language has undergone tremendous changes. He was influenced by the warlike barbarian tribes of the Scandinavians, "running nearby", cunning Roman merchants, French neighbors - conquerors and fashionistas, highly developed friends the Germans and, of course, the first Greek philosophers and scientists. Greek borrowings and Latin (Latinisms) are closely intertwined, since these two languages are considered the progenitors of most European languages. However, Latin is still considered the main "donor" in this case.
First wave of English Latinisms
The first adstrat (layer) reflects the trade and merchant relations that existed between the ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons (from Central Europe) and Roman businessmen. These were mainly terms denoting goods, products, currency and related units of measurement.
| latin word | meaning | English word | translation |
| moneta | metal plates | mint | mint coins |
| Discum | disc, dish | dish | dish |
| uncia | ounce (measure of weight) | ounce | ounce |
| pondo | measure of weight | pounds | lb. |
| cysta | box, storage | chest | chest, wardrobe |
| vinum | wine | wine | wine |
| caseus | cheese | cheese | cheese |
| butyrum | butter | butter | butter |
| pipere | peppercorns | pepper | pepper |
| millia passu | distance (conditional thousand steps) | miles | mile |
| pyrum | pear | pear | pear |
| presicum | peach | peach | peach |
Later, words used in construction, marine terminology, units of length measurement were added to the first layer.
| latin word | meaning | English word | translation |
| portus | pier, harbor | port | port, city |
| ponto | ship, bridge | punt | flat-bottomed skiff, float |
| campus | camp, shelter | Camp (campus) | Camp (territory) of a college, school |
| colonia | settlement, conquered territory | colony | colony, village |
| strata via | road paved with stone | street | the street |
| Vallum | rampart, rampart | wall | wall |
| castra | fortress, military camp | chester* | names of a number of cities of the same name in the USA and England |
*chester is also included in the names of other cities - Rochester, Manchester, Cholchester, etc.
Second wave of English Latinisms
The second adstratum of Latinisms was formed during the formation of Christianity as the main religion among the English (VI-VII centuries AD). The language of church services and lessons in monastic schools was Latin, as a result of which many church and scientific terms migrated to English.
| latin word | meaning | English word | translation |
| candela | candle | candle | candle, shine through |
| scrinium | casket, tomb | shrine | tomb, crypt |
| episcopus | caretaker, bishop | bishop | 1.bishop 2. bishop (chess) |
| monachus | monk | monk | monk |
| presbyter | Priest | 1.priest 2.presbyter | 1. priest 2. presbyter, elder |
| nonna | nun | nun | nun |
| monasterium | monastery | 1.monastery 2.minster | 1. monastery 2. cathedral, monastery church |
| master | teacher | master | owner, master |
| school | school | 1. school 2. scholar | 1. school 2. philologist, student |
| Canon | canon | Canon | 1. criterion 2. church canon |
| versus | poems | 1.versus 2.verse | 1. against, in comparison with ... 2. verse |
| papirus | papyrus paper | 1.papyrus 2.paper | 1. papyrus (rast) 2. paper |
| grammar nota | grammar | grammar | grammar, basics |
| notarius | certifier of documents | notary | notary |
| theatrum | theatre | theater | theatre |
| rosa | the Rose | rose | rose, pink (color) |
| leo | a lion | lion | a lion |
Third wave of English Latinisms
The third and last wave of Latinisms stretched from the Renaissance to the times of the Scientific and Technical Revolution and embraced all areas of science, culture and everyday life, as well as literature, politics, philosophy and religion. Many words penetrated the literary (bookish) way, others - through oral communication. The volume of the third layer is very large and partly consists of internationalisms of Latin origin, so we will consider only its most widely used elements (lexemes).
| Latinisms of the third adstratum | |
| frequency | frequency, frequency |
| locution | expression, idiom |
| medium | way, means |
| memory | memory, remembrance |
| tower | tower |
| optimum | optimal value |
| quantum | size, quantity |
| oscillation | wobble, wobble |
| ratio | ratio, proportion |
| emit | release, throw away |
| folio | sheet, info |
| formula | formula |
| superior | senior, senior |
| detection | detection, discovery |
Below are examples of internationalisms:
| internationalisms | |
| appendicitis | appendicitis |
| insulin | insulin |
| aspirin | aspirin |
| pediatrics | pediatrics |
| energy | energy |
| atom | atom |
| calories | calorie |
| radius | beam, radius |
| antenna | antenna |
| stimulus | stimulus |
| ideas | idea |
| bonus | bonus |
| radiator | radiator |
| defect | defect |
Greek borrowings of English vocabulary
Initially, Greek lexemes penetrated into English through intermediary languages: Latin (bishop, abbot, angel, tragedy, devil) or French (fancy, idea, chronicle, catalogue). However, in the Renaissance, after mass cultivation, when Greek literature became more popular, many words from the sphere of art and culture migrated to English.
| Greek loanwords | translation |
| abacus | abacus, abacus |
| Academy | academy |
| aesthetic | aesthetics |
| agnost | agnostic, skeptic |
| agony | agony, torment |
| amphora | amphora, ancient vase |
| archetype | archetype, prototype |
| axiom | postulate, axiom |
| Baptist | Baptist, baptist |
| baryton | baritone |
| catharsis | catharsis, cleansing |
| dialect | dialect |
| Greek loanwords | translation |
| hero | hero |
| hedonism | love of life, hedonism |
| hyperbole | hyperbole, exaggeration |
| entropy | entropy, uncertainty |
| gloss | gloss, gloss |
| grams | gram |
| enigma | mystery, enigma |
| ephemeral | ephemeral, short-lived |
| epopee | epic |
| euphemism | euphemism (rudeness) |
| dialog | dialog |
Gallicisms (French loanwords)
In the 11th century and the following three centuries, northern England was under Norman occupation, which led to a massive "invasion" of Old French words into the English language - these were mainly administrative, legislative and military terms. Many common terms were also used. It must be remembered, as we noted earlier, that a large part of the French vocabulary consisted of Latin borrowings. So the French language served not only as the primary source, but also as an intermediary (source) between Latin, Old German and English.
It is clear that some words undergo the so-called assimilation (change of form, meaning, adjustment to the English template), while others retain their original form. French vocabulary still influences English today through many fashion trends. Next, we present a table of the most common Gallicisms:
| Words that have retained their original form | translation |
| apropos | by the way |
| beau | dandy, dandy, boyfriend |
| beret | beret |
| bonhomie | good nature |
| bourgeois | bourgeois, capitalist |
| chalet | chalet, country house |
| cordon bleu | master, skillful person |
| couture | sewing (high class) |
| espionage | espionage, surveillance |
| nee | nee (about married ladies) |
| penchant | location, love |
| chamois | suede, chamois |
| risk | risky, reckless |
Words modified:
| French word source | translation | English word | translation |
| atourner | appoint (to office) | attourney | lawyer, prosecutor, attorney |
| finer | complete (deal) with payment | finance | income, finance |
| gardener | store, protect | guard | security |
| jaiole | cell | prison | prison |
| jureejurer | to swear | jury | jury |
| lieu tenant | occupying place | lieutenant | lieutenant |
| medallie (lat.metallum) | medal metal | medal metal | medal metal |
| 1. solidus (lat) 2. soudier | 1. gold coin 2. payment for military service | soldier | soldier |
| parler (parliament) | speak | Parliament | parliament |
| traite (lat. tractum) | treaty | treatment | contract, agreement |
| aperitif aperire | aperitif open (start) | Aperitive | aperitif |
| bacon baho (back meat) | piglet back meat | bacon | bacon |
| boef | beef | beef | beef |
| cafe | coffee | coffee | coffee |
| menu | detailed list | menu | menu |
| jus | the juice | juice | the juice |
| omelette alumette | omelette blade (associative) | omelette | omelette |
| pique-nique | eating in nature | picnic | picnic |
| 1. salade 2. salar (lat) | 1. salad 2. salt (season) | salad | salad |
| restaurant restaurateur | health improvement restaurant | restaurant | restaurant |
| soupe suppa (lat) | add soup, top up | soup | soup |
| salsicia/salsus (lat) saussiche (norms) | saline | Saussage | sausage, sausages |
| espice species (lat) | spice flavor | spices | spices |
Spanish loanwords
The Spanish adstratum of borrowings began to form as early as the 16th century due to colonization and trade relations, and later due to the military conflict that arose. Some lexemes passed from Spanish to English through French. Also, Spanish became the source of some early loanwords from Arabic. As a result, English has received a very diverse source of new words. A few examples follow:
| English word | Russian translation | word source | Russian translation |
| adios | parting | adios | goodbye |
| adobe | adobe, clay mixture | tobe | brick |
| alfalfa | alfalfa | al-fasfasah (arabic) | alfalfa |
| alligator | alligator, crocodile | el lagarto | lizard |
| armada | armada | armada | armed man |
| banana | banana | banana (african) | banana |
| avocado | avocado | ahuacatl (Nahuatl adverb) | avocado |
| barbeque | B-B-Q, | barbacoa | barbecue, meat on the fire |
| bizarre | strange | bizarro | gallant |
| booby | dunce, boobie | bobo | stupid, selfish |
| bravo | 1.Bravo! 2. bandit, gangster | bravo | brave |
| burrito | burrito | burrito | little donkey |
| chili | chilli | Chile, chilli | from the island of Chile |
| chocolate | chocolate | xocolati | chocolate |
| corral | paddock | corral | corral for livestock |
| dorado | dorado (fish) | dorado | dorado |
| embargo | embargo, ban | embargo | blockade, ban |
| fajitas | fajitas (Spanish roast) | faja | belt |
| feast | party | fiesta | festival |
| jerky | jerky | ch'arki | jerky |
| macho | man, male | macho | the male |
| machete | big knife | machete | machete |
| matador | matador | matador | murderer |
| mustang | wild Horse | mestengo | wandering, wandering |
| patio | courtyard, patio | patio | terrace, patio |
| pecadillo | sin, rubbish | pecado | sin |
| quadroon | quarteron, a quarter of the Negro race | cuateron | quarter |
| rodeo | rodeo | rodeo | rodeo, cowboy competition |
| savanna | savannah | zabanna | plant land, green edge |
| tobacco | tobacco | Tabaco (caribb) | tobacco |
| vinegarroon | scorpion species | vinagron | sour wine, chatter |
| Wrangler | debater | cabalerango | groom |
We have considered the types of the most massive borrowings, although in reality the English language is much more diverse, and we still have to learn many words that have come from Persian, Arabic, Indian, Dutch, Portuguese, Italian, Russian and other languages. But despite all the many non-native words, English does not lose its originality, it develops and becomes even more interesting every day and successfully continues to adopt the words you like from its “relatives”, “neighbors”, etc.
The original core of vocabulary
nag, ombudsman, ski, skive, slalom, slam- words reflecting new realities for the British, entered from modern Scandinavian languages in the 19th-20th centuries.
Scandinavian borrowings are difficult to distinguish from proper English words, since Danish and Old English were closely related languages. A characteristic difference is that in Danish words /k/, /g/, /sk/ were preserved, while in English they turned into hissing: /k/ and /g/ - under certain conditions, /sk/ - always.
French loanwords
In 1066, England was conquered by the Normans. Normandy was a French duchy; it acquired its name after the French king Charles the Simple, being unable to cope with the Vikings, gave them this territory under the agreement of 912. By 1066, the Vikings had long adopted the French language and assimilated into the local population. They came to England as carriers of the French language (Norman dialect), French culture and the French feudal system. After the Norman Conquest, power was completely in the hands of the Normans; Duke William the Conqueror also deposed the English priests and replaced them with Norman ones. The indigenous population continued to speak English, but from the Norman dialect the Anglo-Norman language was formed, which became the state language and lasted until the end of the 14th century. During this time, English learned a huge number of French words. Of the 80,000 most common words in the English language, approximately 22,500 are French borrowings (of all periods of history).
Especially clearly the borrowings reflect the Norman influence in the field of public administration, in military affairs, in the organization of the church and in urban life:
- court, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village (yard, servant, guard, prince, vassal, government, serf, village);
- army, battle, banner, victory (army, battle, banner, victory);
- religion, chapel, prayer, to confess (religion, chapel, prayer, confess);
- city, merchant (city, merchant).
Craftsmen who lived in the countryside retained English names, while the townsmen began to be called by French words: butcher "butcher", mason "mason", tailor "tailor". Animals are called English words, but their meat is French: beef "beef", mutton "mutton", pork "pork", veal "veal".
Norman borrowings: 11th-13th century A.D.
Parisian borrowings: the Renaissance period.
The third layer of Latin borrowings
Terminology, 16th century.
European borrowings of the 20th century
In the first half of the 20th century, a large number of German words, including individual morphemes, such as eigen-, penetrated into the British natural science vocabulary. The infiltration of German vocabulary continues during World War II to refer to military terms and virtually ceases after the war.
Purist tendencies
At various times, purists have tried to cleanse the English language of foreign words, replacing them with Anglo-Saxon ones. One linguistic nationalist said: “Avoid Latin derivatives; use concise expressive Anglo-Saxon monosyllabic words." (English) Avoid Latin derivatives; use brief, terse Anglo-Saxon monosyllables ). The irony is that the only Anglo-Saxon word in this saying is Anglo-Saxon.
Notes
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .
See what "Borrowings in English" is in other dictionaries:
Purism in English is the idea that native English words should take precedence over borrowed ones (which come mainly from Romance languages, but also Greek and Latin). Under the "primordial" can be understood as ... ... Wikipedia
Rusism is a word of Russian origin that has entered another language. Contents 1 In German 2 In English 3 In Serbian 4 ... Wikipedia
A verb in German is a part of speech denoting an action in time or a state and playing the syntactic role of a predicate and less often than other members of a sentence. According to grammatical functions, German verbs can be divided into full-valued ... ... Wikipedia
Borrowing is copying (usually incomplete and inaccurate) of a word or expression from one language to another. Borrowing is also called the borrowed word itself. Borrowing in languages is one of the most important factors in their development. In ... ... Wikipedia
Self-name: English, the English language Countries: distributed throughout the world ... Wikipedia
Cognates (lat. cognati lit. “related”) in linguistics, cognates are understood as words of the same root that have a common origin and similar sound in two or more independent languages. At the same time, the semantic similarity of cognates usually varies ... Wikipedia
This article lacks links to sources of information. The information must be verifiable, otherwise it may be questioned and removed. You can ... Wikipedia
This term has other meanings, see Dari (meanings). Dari Self-name: دری Dari Countries ... Wikipedia
Saints (Print House, 1646) ... Wikipedia
"Guests from other languages", or loanwords, permeate the entire English language. In the course of English history, thousands and thousands of words have passed from one language to another, mainly through constant invasions of invaders.
How is it that a country whose original inhabitants were the Celts gave way to the former language of what is now known to us as English? This happened due to the fact that the British Isles were subjected to repeated raids. Each people that invaded from the outer lands brought their own language, dialects and customs into the country.
As the invaders settled in the territories, they influenced the written and spoken language of the locals, who, in turn, adapted to the new situation by accepting borrowed words into their lexicon.
Otto Jespersen, in his book The Development and Structure of the English Language, notes that English is a "chain of borrowings" that resulted from the conquest of Britain by numerous invaders. Foreigners brought their language into the country, but could not fully impose it on the British.
Instead, foreign languages were mixed, as in one pot, with the original speech. Thus, various groups influenced the development of written and spoken English, as we know it today, to varying degrees.
The first were the Romans - under them, part of the inhabitants of Britain encountered Latin. During the time that the Celts coexisted with the Romans and the continental Germans, only a couple of hundred Latin words penetrated into the Old English language, which, according to Jespersen, was quite self-sufficient.
After the German invasion in 450 AD. e. the Celtic language was forced into the foggy confines of the island of Ireland. But the inhabitants of Britain needed to communicate with new neighbors, and the process of borrowing words began.
The Christianization of the country in the 6th century forced a much larger number of inhabitants to adopt Latin words and phrases. And yet, Latin borrowings were used mainly by the upper strata of society.
In those days, "every educated Englishman spoke and wrote Latin as easily as his mother tongue," as James Bradstreet Greenough and George Lyman Kittredge write in their book Words and Their History in the English Speech. Educated people could use borrowed words both in conversation and in writing.
When the Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes invaded Britain and drove out the Celts, the language began to develop simultaneously with the settlement of new peoples. Celtic influence declined sharply, and more "strong" loanwords began to gain a foothold in the language.
At first, the tribes spoke their Germanic languages, but as they mixed with the natives, their languages began to lose their former appearance and also merge with each other.
Of course, the language of the period will be barely recognizable to most, if not all, modern readers (except etymologists). And yet, although the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes gave us the basis of the English language, its Germanic foundation was heavily influenced by French.
The history of the English language and its borrowings rests on three conquests: German, Scandinavian (Vikings) and, most importantly, Norman, which took place under the leadership of the Duke of Normandy in 1066.
The Germanic and Scandinavian invasions markedly affected the native language, but it was the French-speaking Normans, under the leadership of William the Conqueror, who introduced into English, as Jespersen writes, the widest and most firmly established range of loanwords.
The Norman occupation lasted much longer than the northern one and, unlike the Scandinavians, who coexisted with the conquered people, the Normans suppressed the British. The British status quo was broken when the Normans transformed all of England's structures, from the legal system to the religion, becoming full rulers of the island.
The Normans also, in a way, imposed a linguistic class struggle on the British. When a foreign language is imposed on the inhabitants of the conquered lands, it can be assumed that it will spread from top to bottom through all sections of the population. The "losing" language will thus disappear.
However, this did not happen after the arrival of the Normans. The aristocracy adopted the French model, but the peasants retained the Germanic language, which created class and linguistic divisions that persisted until the languages and loanwords merged into a single Middle English language.
But the incorporation of French words and phrases into English was not simply a concession of the vanquished. Writers such as Chaucer, diplomats, members of the royal family, senior military officials, and large merchants familiar with French culture (helped by the proximity of the borders) readily adopted and adapted words from French. Often this was dictated by the simple need for communication.
The Norman Conquest transformed every aspect of English life, influencing legislation, religion, medicine and the arts. Since speakers of French and Latin were the dominant force, the British had to borrow words if only to understand the new rulers, who "eliminated" part of the local lexicon.
Some new words were able to supplant their English counterparts that had existed for several centuries and gain a foothold thanks to connections with the source. The Anglo-Saxon words king (king) and queen (queen) escaped French influence, but with the Normans came such titles as duke (duke) and duchess (duchess). The British had to learn the meaning of these words and accept them, if not in everyday, then in frequent use.
According to Jespersen, many Britons borrowed French words not only out of necessity, but also because it was considered "fashionable" to imitate the ruling class.
That the British borrowed words that were not in their native language, such as majesty (majesty, majesty) and mayor (mayor), is quite understandable. However, it may seem mysterious why they replaced the indigenous swin (pig) with the French porc...
To understand this, one has to consider how English farmers and French aristocrats dealt with livestock. Of the two, the Germanic swin was the more down-to-earth, while the French porc was considered the more refined.
Swin evolved into modern swine, which was bred by English peasants, and porc or pork, which was eaten by French aristocrats. This created a contrast between animal and food and, again, raised the social status of the English, who used the French word.
Sometimes, as Greenough and Kittredge illustrate, a foreign word such as divide became more popular than the original cleave. Also, one word could displace another, and the original was discarded altogether, as happened with the word ey (egg), which was replaced by the Scandinavian egg.
The influence of the French language introduced other concepts that the British might consider more abstract definitions of their native words. Examples are English child (child) versus French infant or English freedom (freedom) versus French liberty.
What is surprising about the transformation and evolution of the English language is how receptive the inhabitants of the country turned out to be to external languages, especially French and Latin. The invaders seemed to sow the seeds of the language, and the British nurtured them.
But unlike the French, who were content with one linguistic "plant", the British (perhaps because of their love of gardening) tried to grow as many synonyms as possible. Continuing the same horticultural analogy, Jespersen notes that in many cases "English soil has proved more fertile than French" for foreign words.
Why be content with one native word, like the French, when you can take a lot of borrowed ones and create synonyms from them, like the English do? Or, as University of Minnesota professor and author of The Origin of Words and What We Know About Them, Dr. Anatoly Lieberman, asks in his lecture: “Which is better, two nostrils or one?”
With many similar words available, the English seem to have adopted the "two nostrils" theory, sometimes using both native and borrowed words equally.
Borrowings have also affected the size of English dictionaries. The impressive dictionaries of English, compared with those of French, German or Dutch, owe their volume to loanwords. Borrowings could be said to have given a new meaning to the phrase "size matters" if the British were concerned about this issue regarding their language.
While we primarily looked at the Norman Conquest of 1066 and the seismic shift it brought about in the language world, there were other languages that could have affected English borrowings had they met at the right time.
Among them are Spanish and Italian, but, as Greenough and Kittredge note, "although their influence on English literature was great, these languages did not have a significant effect on vocabulary." The fact is that the Normans reached the goal first, and by that time the British had borrowed all the words and phrases that they needed.
The growth of England as a superpower led, in a sense, to the expansion of linguistic boundaries. The emergence of colonies introduced people to things they had never seen before and for which they needed new words. The British could only borrow them, as there were not enough original words to describe what they met.
There were no kangaroos or boomerangs in England, so when the British encountered them, instead of inventing new words, they borrowed Australian ones. Elephants, leopards, panthers were also not found in England, and again the British adopted their local names. Even tomatoes, which were unknown in the country before they were brought from the New World, had to be given a name. The British decided to use the Spanish tomate.
Although these words were new to the English and diversified their vocabulary, they did not affect the structure of their speech. They became "simply accepted names for particular things," according to Greenough and Kittredge.
The Renaissance brought many classic words, in particular French and Italian, increasing the Latin influence on the English language. But Italy, like Spain, did not make many borrowings, since English was almost fully formed by that time.
New words and phrases have enriched the British language, but Jespersen believes this has a side effect as well. Due to the numerous invasions, the British began to eventually "move away from the conscious creation of new words from the original material." This thought brings us back to the "physical mobility and mental laziness" aspect of borrowing.
Many once unusual words now easily fly off the language of English speakers. Everyone knows what kindergarten (kindergarten), which came from German, means. Most are familiar with the French baguette (baguette) or croissant (croissant). And, staying on the topic of baking, bagel, which comes from Yiddish (originally beygl), is also familiar to many English speakers, especially New Yorkers.
But are all foreign and exotic words easy to borrow and introduce into the English language? In The Lexicographer's Dilemma, Jack Lynch mentions the Arabic word "jihad" and asks if it should be considered an English word. Before September 11, 2001, hardly many people heard about it, but in one day it became as clear as the word "bread".
Lieberman, in one of his lectures, gave examples of borrowed words such as sputnik and perestroika. At various times they thundered all over the world. However, it is unlikely that the current English student knows what sputnik is, and imagines how quickly this word entered the English language.
The same fate awaited "perestroika". In the mid-80s, this word filled the pages of world newspapers. But there is hardly any mention of Gorbachev's initiative in a modern English-language newspaper.
If borrowed words are viewed as "the result of contact between languages in a particular place at a particular time," as Lieberman writes in The Origin of Words, these two Russian words fit perfectly into this definition. But they failed to gain a foothold, primarily because they did not form links with other words. Like many borrowed words from the past that did not last long, they may soon disappear from the English language altogether.
So, word borrowing illustrates that when two languages compete for dominance over each other, adaptability and receptivity play a key role. The Celts did not understand this, and their language was forced out. We read further:
12969
In contact with
