Peoples' Friendship University of Russia

Faculty of Philology

Abstract on the topic:

Nicolas Boileau-Depreo "The Art of Poetry"

Country Russia

Group: FZhB-13

Completed by: Shcherbakova Natalia

Teacher: Chistyakov A.V.

Moscow 2012

1. Introduction
2. Canto One
3. Canto two
4. Song Three
5. Canto Four
6. Conclusion

Introduction.

Nicolas Boileau-Despréaus (November 1, 1636 – March 13, 1711) was a French poet, critic and classicist theorist. Boileau received a thorough scientific education, at first he studied jurisprudence and theology, but then exclusively indulged in belles-lettres. In this field, he already early gained fame for his Satyrs. In 1677, Louis XIV appointed him his court historiographer, retaining his favor with Boileau despite the audacity of his satyrs. But Boileau owes his outstanding importance in the history of French literature to his didactic poem in 4 songs: "L'art poétique" (Poetic Art), which is the most complete expression of the provisions of the false or new classical school. The work of Boileau, who summarized in his poetics the leading trends in the national literature of his time, fell on the second half of the 17th century. During this period, the process of formation and strengthening of centralized state power in France is completed, the absolute monarchy reaches the apogee of its power. This strengthening of centralized power, carried out at the cost of cruel repression, nevertheless played a progressive role in the formation of a single national state and in the formation of a nationwide French culture and literature. In the words of Karl Marx, in France, the absolute monarchy acts "as a civilizing center, as the founder of national unity."

So, the most famous work of Boileau - a treatise poem in four songs "Poetic Art" (French "L'art poétique") - is a summing up of the aesthetics of classicism. In the poem, Boileau proceeds from the conviction that in poetry, as in other areas of life, reason should be placed above all else, to which fantasy and feeling should obey. Both in form and content, poetry should be generally understandable, but ease and accessibility should not turn into vulgarity and vulgarity, the style should be elegant, high, but at the same time, simple and free from pretentiousness and crackling expressions. Rationalistic analysis and generalization help to single out the most persistent and natural in the surrounding complex world, they are abstracted from the random, secondary for the sake of the natural and the main thing - this is the historical merit and deeply progressive role of classical aesthetics, its value for us. But at the same time, classical art, in search of the universal, lost its connection with concrete life, with its real, historically changeable forms.

If Aristotle in his poetics explains the living norms of art to which it obeys, makes demands on literary creativity, then Boileau fights against literary trends hostile to classicism, criticizing them in the genre of satire. One of the currents hostile to classicism was the so-called "precision" - a phenomenon that relates as much to the history of literature as to the history of morals. It was the pretentious poetry of aristocratic salons, which consisted of lyrical epigrams, riddles, all sorts of poems "in case", usually of love content, as well as a gallant psychological novel. Neglecting any deep content, precision poets excelled in the originality of language and style, widely used descriptive paraphrases, intricate metaphors and comparisons, play on words and concepts. The unprincipledness and narrowness of the subject, the focus on a small select circle of "initiates" led to the fact that the pretentious turns that claimed to be sophistication and originality turned into their own opposite - they became stereotyped clichés, formed a special vulgar parlor jargon. Another trend hostile to classicism was the so-called burlesque literature. In contrast to the precision, it met the interests of a much wider, democratic circle of readers, often merging with political and religious free-thinking. If precision literature sought to take the reader into a fictional world of refined, elevated feelings, estranged from all reality, then burlesque deliberately returned him to real life, reduced and ridiculed everything sublime, reducing heroism to the level of everyday life, subverted all authorities and, above all, the time-honored authority of antiquity. . A favorite genre of burlesque authors was a parody of high works of classical poetry, such as Virgil's Aeneid. By forcing the gods and heroes to speak in a simple and crude language, the burlesque poets, in fact, sought to belittle the classical tradition - that "unshakable", "eternal" ideal of the beautiful, which the supporters of the classical doctrine called for to imitate. And Boileau in his "Poetic Art" often combines in his assessments folk farce, medieval poetry and modern burlesque, considering all this to be manifestations of the same "plebeian" principle that he hates.

Boileau began his literary career as a satirist. Having posed general moral and ethical problems in his poetic satires. He dwells, in particular, on the moral character and social position of the writer and illustrates it with numerous references to contemporary poets. This combination of general problems with acutely topical, specific assessments of modern literature remained a characteristic feature of Boileau's work until the very last years of his life and was reflected with particular brightness and completeness in his main work, The Poetic Art.

Song one.

Creating his aesthetic theory, Boileau had in mind, first of all, his contemporaries - readers and authors; he wrote for them and about them. In the first part of the Poetic Art, Boileau opposes the new trend, the new fashion for poetry. He says that not everyone who considers himself a poet is worthy of this title, since this requires talent, the poet must be endowed with a gift from above:

"Looking at Parnassus, in vain rhymer

In the art of verse, reach heights,

If it is not illuminated from heaven by an invisible light,

When the constellations he is not born a poet:

Talent is constrained by poverty every hour.

Boileau also calls for weighing "mind and strength" before taking up poetry, since this is a difficult, thorny path.

In the first part, Boileau expresses the main requirement - to follow reason - common to all classical aesthetics of the 17th century. To follow the mind means, first of all, to subordinate the form to the content, to learn to think clearly, consistently and logically:

“So let the meaning be dearest to you,

Let only he give brilliance and beauty to poetry!

You need to think about the idea and only then write.

While it is not clear to you what you want to say,

Do not look in vain for simple and precise words ... "

Passion for an exquisite form as something self-sufficient, the pursuit of rhyme to the detriment of meaning lead to obscuring the content, and therefore deprive the poetic work of value and meaning:

“Whether in tragedy, eclogue or ballad, But rhyme should not live in discord with meaning;
There is no quarrel between them and there is no struggle: He is her master, she is his slave.

The organizing guiding role of the mind should also be felt in the composition, in the harmonious ratio of different parts:

“The poet must deliberately place everything,

Beginning and end into a single stream merge

And, subordinating the words to his indisputable power,

Skillfully combine disparate parts "

In Boileau, everything is subject to content, reasonable meaning, unnecessary trifles that distract from the main idea or plot, descriptions overloaded with details, pompous hyperbole and emotional metaphors - all this contradicts the rationalistic clarity and harmony characteristic of classical art:

"Beware of empty listings,

Unnecessary little things and long digressions!

Excess in verse and flat and funny:

We are fed up with it, we are burdened by it.

Without curbing himself, the poet cannot write.

Also in Canto One, Boileau denounces burlesque and rebels against its vulgarity:

“Avoid the low: it is always ugliness;

In the simplest style, there should still be nobility.

Reason contrary style areal, burlesque,

Captivating with novelty, blinding, showed us brilliance;

Fruiting the bad taste of their vulgar witticisms,

The jargon of the bazaar rows broke into Parnassus"

At the end of the first song, Bual returns to the theme of the poet's talent. Emphasizes that the poet must speak a beautiful language (“Not knowing the language, the most worthy poet looks like a hack, there is no other word”) and slowness, because poetry requires work and painstakingness: “Create, slowly, even though they drive you by order,

Do not boast that the verse will be born to you at once:

Running hurried lines, random union rhymes

They do not show talent, but only bad taste.

Song two.

In the second song, Boileau dwells in detail on the stylistic and linguistic side of such forms as idyll, elegy, ode, sonnet, epigram, ballad, and only touches on their content, which he takes for granted and traditionally determined once and for all.

“An elegy is strong only with an unfeigned feeling.
The ode strives upward, to the distant steeps of the mountain,

And there is full of daring and courage,
She speaks to the gods as an equal.

Let in the Ode of the fiery bizarre thought move,
But this chaos in it is a ripe fruit of art.

The Brilliant Sonnet is rebellious to poets:
Either too tight or too spacious.

The Epigram's verse is concise, but the rules are easy:
It sometimes has only a sharpness in two lines.

With the intricacy of rhymes, we like the Ballad "

He makes an exception only for the genre closest to himself - for satire, to which the most space is devoted in the second song and whose content he considers.

And it is not surprising: of all the lyrical genres he listed, satire is the only one that has an objective social content. The author appears here not as a spokesman for his personal feelings and experiences - which, according to Boileau, are of no significant interest - but as a judge of society, morals, as a bearer of objective truth:

“Not malice, but good, trying to sow in the world,

Truth reveals its pure face in Satire"

As you can see, Boileau deviates from the traditional classical hierarchy of genres, according to which satire is among the "low", and ode is among the "high". The solemn ode, praising the military exploits of heroes or the triumphs of victors, in its content stands outside the main ethical issues that are primarily important and interesting for Boileau in literature. Therefore, it seems to him a genre less necessary for society than satire, which castigates "lazy bums" and "puffy rich people."

Song three.

The third part, the most extensive, is devoted to the analysis of tragedy, epic and comedy. Boileau analyzes these genres from the point of view of rendering the moral and ethical influence of literature on people. He writes that the charm of tragedy should be in the fact that the suffering that is shown in it, she touches people to the quick. Her characters should "like" and "touch". After all, only such heroes who evoke sympathy, “like” the viewer, despite their tragic guilt, can truly excite and touch. Heroes should evoke compassion, awaken bright feelings in the reader. And, as Aristotle wrote in his poetics, a tragedy that evokes compassion cleanses from vices. Boileau addresses the creators of tragedies:

“But if the valiant and noble ardor
Pleasant horror did not capture the heart
And did not sow living compassion in them,
Your labor was in vain and all your efforts were in vain!”

By means of the most subtle “psychological analysis, the poet can and should, according to Boileau, reveal to the viewer the spiritual guilt of the hero, who is exhausted under her burden. But this analysis should reduce the most frantic, monstrous passions and impulses to simple, universal, generally understandable, bring the tragic hero closer to the viewer, making him an object of living, immediate sympathy and compassion. The ideal of such a “tragedy of compassion”, based on psychological analysis, was for Boileau the tragedy of Racine.

The problem of figurative embodiment of reality is central to Boileau's aesthetic theory. In this regard, the question of the relationship between real fact and fiction is of particular importance, a question that Boileau solves as a consistent rationalist, drawing a line between the categories of truth and plausibility):

“The incredible is incapable of touching.

Let the truth always look believable ... "

Whether it be in tragedy, in an eclogue or in a ballad, But rhyme should not live in discord with meaning. There is no quarrel between them and there is no struggle: He is her master, she is his slave. If you learn to look for her stubbornly, She will humbly come to the voice of reason, Willingly submit to the usual yoke, Bringing wealth as a gift to your master. But just give her the will - she will rebel against duty, And the mind will have to catch her for a long time.

So let the meaning be dearest to you, Let it alone give brilliance and beauty to poetry! Another scribbles poetry as if seized with delirium: Order is alien to him and common sense is unknown.

With a monstrous line, he is in a hurry to prove, What to think like everyone else, his soul sickens. Don't follow him. Let's leave the Italians Empty tinsel with its false gloss. What matters most is the meaning; but in order to come to him, We'll have to overcome the obstacles on the way, Stick to the marked path strictly: Sometimes the mind has only one road. Often the writer is in love with his subject.

What wants to show it from all sides: Praise the beauty of the palace facade; He will begin to lead me along all the alleys of the garden; Here the turret stands, the arch captivates the eye; Sparkling with gold, the balconies hang; On the stucco ceiling he will count circles, ovals: “How many garlands are here, what astragalus!”

Flipping through ten or two pages in a row, I long for one thing - to leave this garden. Beware of empty enumerations, Unnecessary trifles and long digressions! Excess in verse is both flat and ridiculous: We are fed up with it, it burdens us. Without curbing himself, the poet cannot write.

N. A. SIGAL.
"POETIC ART" BOILAULT

The work of Boileau, the greatest theoretician of French classicism, who summarized in his poetics the leading trends in the national literature of his time, falls in the second half of the 17th century. During this period, the process of formation and strengthening of centralized state power in France is completed, the absolute monarchy reaches the apogee of its power.

This strengthening of centralized power, carried out at the cost of cruel repression, nevertheless played a progressive role in the formation of a single national state and - indirectly - in the formation of a nationwide French culture and literature. In the words of Marx, in France the absolute monarchy acts "as a civilizing center, as the founder of national unity."

Being by its nature a noble power, French absolutism, at the same time, tried to find support in the upper strata of the bourgeoisie: throughout the 17th century, royal power consistently pursued a policy of strengthening and expanding the privileged, bureaucratic stratum of the bourgeoisie - the so-called "nobility of the mantle". This bureaucratic character of the French bourgeoisie is noted by Marx in a letter to Engels dated July 27, 1854: “...immediately, at least from the moment of the emergence of cities, the French bourgeoisie becomes especially influential due to the fact that it organizes itself in the form of parliaments, bureaucracy, etc. etc., and not as in England, thanks to trade and industry alone. At the same time, the French bourgeoisie in the 17th century, in contrast to the English bourgeoisie, which was making its first revolution at that time, was still an immature, non-independent class, incapable of defending its rights in a revolutionary way.

The tendency of the bourgeoisie to compromise, its submissiveness to the power and authority of the absolute monarchy, was especially clearly revealed in the late 40s and early 50s of the 17th century, during the period of the Fronde. In this complex anti-absolutist movement, which first arose among the opposition feudal nobility, but received a wide response among the peasant masses, the top of the urban bourgeoisie, which constituted the Parisian parliament, betrayed the interests of the people, laid down their arms and submitted to royal power. In turn, the absolute monarchy itself, in the person of Louis XIV (reigned 1643-1715), deliberately sought to draw into the orbit of court influence the top of the bureaucratic bourgeoisie and the bourgeois intelligentsia, opposing it, on the one hand, to the remnants of the opposition feudal nobility, on the other, to the broad the masses of the people.

This bourgeois stratum at court was supposed to be a hotbed and conductor of court ideology, culture, aesthetic tastes among the wider circles of the urban bourgeoisie (just as in the field of economic life, the minister of Louis XIV Colbert, the first bourgeois in the history of France as a minister, performed a similar function).

This line consciously pursued by Louis XIV was, as it were, a continuation of the “cultural policy” that was launched by his political predecessor, Cardinal Richelieu (reigned 1624-1642), who for the first time placed literature and art under the direct control of state power. Along with the French Academy founded by Richelieu - the official legislator of literature and language - the Academy of Fine Arts, the Academy of Inscriptions, later the Academy of Music, etc., were founded in the 1660s.

But if at the beginning of his reign, in the 1660s-1670s, Louis XIV played mainly the role of a generous patron of the arts, striving to surround his court with outstanding writers and artists, then in the 1680s his interference in ideological life takes on a purely despotic and reactionary character. , reflecting the general turn of French absolutism towards reaction. Religious persecution of the Calvinists and the Catholic Jansenist sect close to them begins. In 1685, the Edict of Nantes was canceled, which ensured the equality of Protestants with Catholics, their forcible conversion to Catholicism, the confiscation of property of the recalcitrant, and the slightest glimpse of opposition thought began. The influence of the Jesuits, the reactionary churchmen, is growing.

The literary life of France is also entering a period of crisis and calm; the last significant work of brilliant classical literature is La Bruyère's Characters and Morals of Our Century (1688) - a nonfiction book that captures a picture of the moral decline and degradation of French high society.

A turn towards reaction is also observed in the field of philosophy. If the leading philosophical trend of the middle of the century - the teachings of Descartes - included, along with idealistic elements, materialistic ones, then at the end of the century, the followers and students of Descartes develop precisely the idealistic and metaphysical side of his teachings. “The whole richness of metaphysics was now limited only to mental entities and divine objects, and this is just at such a time when real entities and earthly things began to concentrate all interest on themselves. Metaphysics has become flat." In turn, the tradition of materialistic philosophical thought, presented in the middle of the century by Gassendi and his students, is going through a crisis, being exchanged for small coins in aristocratic free-thinking circles of disgraced nobles; and only one major figure embodies the heritage of French materialism and atheism - this is the emigrant Pierre Bayle, who is rightly considered the spiritual father of the French Enlightenment.

The work of Boileau, in its consistent evolution, reflected these complex processes that took place in the social and ideological life of his time.

Nicola Boileau-Despreo was born on November 1, 1636 in Paris, in the family of a wealthy bourgeois, a lawyer, an official of the Parisian parliament. Having received a classical education in the Jesuit college, which was usual for that time, Boileau entered first the theological and then the law faculty of the Sorbonne (Paris University), however, not feeling any attraction to this profession, he refused the first court case entrusted to him. Caught in 1657; after the death of his father, financially independent (his father's inheritance provided him with a decent life annuity), Boileau devoted himself entirely to literature. From 1663, his small poems began to be printed, and then satires (the first of them was written back in 1657). Until the end of the 1660s, Boileau published nine satires, provided, as a preface to the ninth, with a theoretical Discourse on Satire. In the same period, Boileau becomes close to Molière, La Fontaine and Racine. In the 1670s, he wrote nine Epistles, "A Treatise on the Beautiful", and the heroic-comic poem "Naloy". In 1674, he completed the poetic treatise The Art of Poetry, conceived on the model of Horace's Science of Poetry. During this period, the authority of Boileau in the field of literary theory and criticism is already generally recognized.

At the same time, the implacable position of Boileau in the struggle for progressive national literature against the reactionary forces of society, in particular, the support he rendered in his time to Molière and later to Racine, a resolute rebuff to third-rate writers, behind whose backs sometimes very influential persons hid, created a lot of criticism. dangerous enemies both among the literary clique and in the aristocratic salons. The bold, “free-thinking” attacks in his satires, directed directly against the highest nobility, the Jesuits, high society hypocrites, also played a significant role. So, in the V satire, Boileau stigmatizes "an empty, vain, idle nobility, boasting of the merits of their ancestors and other people's valor", and contrasts the hereditary noble privileges with the third-estate idea of ​​\u200b\u200b"personal nobility".

The enemies of Boileau did not stop at nothing in their struggle against him - the enraged aristocrats threatened to punish the impudent bourgeois with stick blows, church obscurantists demanded that he be burned at the stake, insignificant writers excelled in insulting lampoons.

Under these conditions, the only guarantee and protection from persecution could only be given to the poet by the patronage of the king himself, and Boileau considered it prudent to use it, especially since his combative satirical pathos and criticism never had a specifically political orientation. In his political views, Boileau, like the vast majority of his contemporaries, was a supporter of absolute monarchy, in relation to which he had long had optimistic illusions.

From the beginning of the 1670s, Boileau became a man close to the court, and in 1677 the king appointed him, together with Racine, his official historiographer - a kind of demonstrative gesture of the highest goodwill to the two bourgeois, largely addressed to the old, still in opposition tuned nobility.

To the credit of both poets, it must be said that their mission as historians of the reign of the "Sun King" remained unfulfilled. The numerous military campaigns of Louis XIV, aggressive, ruinous for France, and from the 1680s also unsuccessful, could not inspire Boileau, this champion of common sense, who hated war as the greatest absurdity and senseless cruelty, and branded in VIII satire angry words, the conquering mania of monarchs.

From 1677 to 1692, Boileau creates nothing new. His work, which has so far developed in two directions - satirical and literary-critical - is losing its ground: modern literature, which served as the source and material of his criticism and aesthetic theory, is experiencing a deep crisis. After the death of Molière (1673) and the departure from the theater of Racine (due to the failure of Phaedra in 1677), the main genre of French literature - dramaturgy - was beheaded. Third-rate figures come to the fore, at one time Boileau was interested only as objects of satirical attacks and struggle, when it was necessary to clear the way for truly great and significant writers.

On the other hand, the formulation of broader moral and social problems became impossible under the oppressive despotism and reaction of the 1680s. Finally, Boileau's long-standing friendly ties with the ideological leaders of Jansenism, with whom, unlike Racine, Boileau never broke, must have played a certain role in this period of religious persecution. Far from any religious sectarianism and hypocrisy in his way of thinking, Boileau treated with undeniable sympathy for some of the moral ideas of the Jansenists, appreciated in their teaching a high ethical adherence to principles, which stood out against the backdrop of the corrupt mores of the court and the hypocritical unscrupulousness of the Jesuits. Meanwhile, any open speech in defense of the Jansenists, even on moral questions, was impossible. Boileau did not want to write in the spirit of the official direction.

Nevertheless, in the early 1690s, he breaks his fifteen-year silence and writes three more epistles and three satires (the last of which, XII, directed directly against the Jesuits, was first published only sixteen years later, after the death of the author). The theoretical treatise “Reflections on Longinus” written in the same years is the fruit of a long and sharp controversy, which was launched in 1687 at the French Academy by Charles Perrault in defense of new literature and was called “The Dispute of the Ancients and the New”. Here Boileau appears as a strong supporter of ancient literature and point by point refutes the nihilistic criticism of Homer in the works of Perrault and his followers.

The last years of Boileau were overshadowed by serious illnesses. After the death of Racine (1699), with whom he was associated with many years of personal and creative closeness, Boileau was left completely alone. Literature, in the creation of which he took an active part, became a classic, his own poetic theory, born in an active, intense struggle, became a frozen dogma in the hands of pedants and epigones.

The new paths and destinies of native literature were only vaguely and implicitly outlined in these first years of the new century, and what lay on the surface was depressingly empty, unprincipled and mediocre. Boileau died in 1711, on the eve of the speech of the first enlighteners, but he belongs entirely to the great classical literature of the 17th century, which he was the first to appreciate, raise to the shield and theoretically comprehend in his Art Poetic.

1. "The desire to rhyme" is not a talent.

2. The meaning must be in agreement with the rhyme.

3. The main thing in the poem is a bright sharp thought.

4. Avoid unnecessary, empty verbosity.

5. Quantity does not equal quality.

6. Low is always ugly, even in low style "there must be nobility."

7. Graceful style, its severity, purity and clarity - a model for the poet.

8. The thought in the poem should be clear and precise.

9. The poet must have a good command of the language, stylistic errors are unacceptable.

10. You should write slowly and thoughtfully, and then carefully "polish" your

work.

11. The idyll is simple and naive, it does not tolerate ponderous expressions.

12. The elegy is dull and sad, the tone is high.

13. Ode is stormy and "crumpled".

14. The sonnet is strict in form (two quatrains at the beginning, in which eight times - two

rhymes, at the end - six lines, divided by meaning into tercetes). Sonnet not

suffers misses (repetitions of words, weaknesses of style).

15. The epigram is sharp and simple in form, although playful. For an epigram

a brilliance of thought is needed.

16. The ballad is whimsical in rhymes.

17. Rondo has a simple yet shiny vintage warehouse.

18. The madrigal is simple in rhyme, but elegant in style.

19. Satire is immodest, but sweet.

20. Empty words without feelings and thoughts are boring for the reader.

21. The work must have a fascinating, exciting plot.

22. It is necessary to observe the unity of place and time.

23. The intrigue should grow gradually and be resolved at the end.

24. Do not make all the heroes "sugary shepherds", the hero should not

be small and insignificant, but he must have certain weaknesses

be present.

25. Each hero has his own customs and feelings.

26. Accuracy in descriptions (places, people, eras, etc.) should be observed.

27. The image must be logical.

28. A poet in his works should be generous with good feelings, smart,

solid, deep, pleasant and intelligent. The syllable should be easy, the plot -

intricate.

29. The epic is a space for the poet's fantasy, but fantasy must also be concluded

within certain boundaries.

30. A good hero is bold and valiant, even in weaknesses he looks like a sovereign.

31. You can not overload the plot with events. You should also avoid unnecessary

32. A good story is "mobile, clear, concise, and magnificent in descriptions,

33. For comedy, simple but lively images that match the characters are important.

language, simple style, adorned with graceful, appropriate jokes, truthfulness

storytelling.

34. Mediocrity in poetry is a synonym for mediocrity.

35. You should listen to the advice of others, but at the same time distinguish 36.

reasonable criticism from empty and stupid.

37. Combine the useful with the pleasant in verses, teach the reader wisdom. Poems

should be food for thought.

38. A poet should not be envious.

39. Money shouldn't be everything for a poet.

40. How many feats worthy of praise!

41. Poets, to sing them properly,

42. Forge a verse with special care!

3. Goethe I.V. "A simple imitation of nature. Manner. Style"

1) Goethe in the article "A simple imitation of nature. Manner. Style" suggests

trichotomy - a threefold division of the methods of art. "Simple imitation" -

it is a slavish copying of nature. "Manner" - subjective artistic

language "in which the speaker's spirit impresses and expresses itself

directly". "Style", however, "rests on the deepest strongholds of knowledge,

on the very essence of things, since it is given to us to recognize it in the visible and

tangible images" (the highest, according to Goethe).

2) An artistically gifted person sees the harmony of many objects,

which can be placed in one picture only by sacrificing details, and

it is annoying for him to slavishly copy all the letters from the great primer of nature; is he

invents its own way, creates its own language. And so a language arises in which the spirit of the speaker imprints and expresses itself directly. And just as opinions about things of a moral order in the soul of everyone who thinks independently are outlined and

fold up in their own way.

3) When art, through the imitation of nature, through the effort to create for

a single language, thanks to an accurate and in-depth study of the object itself

finally acquires more and more precise knowledge of the properties of things and of

how do they arise when art can freely look around the rows of

images, compare various characteristic forms and convey them, then

the highest step it can reach is style, the step

on par with the greatest aspirations of man.

4) If simple imitation is based on the calm affirmation of beings, on

his loving contemplation, the manner - on the perception of the phenomena of the mobile and

gifted soul, then style rests on the deepest strongholds of knowledge, on

the very essence of things, since it is given to us to recognize it in the visible and

tangible images.

5) The pure concept must be studied only on the examples of nature itself and works of art. It is easy to see that these three methods of creating works of art, given here separately, are in close affinity, and one almost imperceptibly develops into the other.

6) Simple imitation works, as it were, on the eve of style. If simple

imitation is based on the calm affirmation of beings, on its loving

contemplation, manner - on the perception of phenomena by a mobile and gifted soul, then

style rests on the deepest strongholds of knowledge, on the very essence of things,

because it is given to us to recognize it in visible and tangible images"

7) The more conscientious, thorough, purer the imitator will approach the matter, than

calmer to perceive what he sees, than to reproduce it more restrainedly,

the more you get used to thinking at the same time, which means the more you compare

similar and isolate the dissimilar, subordinating individual objects to a common

concepts, the more worthy he will cross the threshold of the holy of holies.

8) Manner - the middle between simple imitation and style. The closer she will be with her lightened

approach to careful imitation, and, on the other hand, than

more zealously grasp the characteristic in objects and try to express more clearly

him, the more she associates these properties with pure, lively and

active individuality, the higher, larger and more significant it will become.

9) We use the word "manner" in high and

respectful sense, so that the artist, whose work, in our opinion

opinion, fall into the circle of manners, we should not be offended. We just

there was an expression for the highest degree that ever

reached and ever will reach art. Great happiness at least

only to know that degree of perfection, the noble pleasure of conversing

about it with connoisseurs, and we want to experience this pleasure more than once in

further.

4. Lomonosov M.V. "A Concise Guide to Eloquence"

1) In the introduction, Lomonosov writes: “Eloquence is the art of any given

matter to speak eloquently and thereby incline others to his own opinion about it ...

To acquire it, the following five means are required: the first is natural

talents, the second - science, the third - imitation of the authors, the fourth -

an exercise in composition, the fifth is knowledge of other sciences.

2) On the pages of "Rhetoric" - various rhetorical rules; requirements,

presented to the lecturer; thoughts about his abilities and behavior in public

speeches; numerous illustrative examples. O

main provisions:

“Rhetoric is the doctrine of eloquence in general... This science offers

rules of three kinds. The former show how to invent it, what about

the proposed matter should speak; others teach how invented

decorate; still others instruct how it should be disposed, and therefore

Rhetoric is divided into three parts - invention, decoration and

location".

3) Lomonosov says that the speech should be logically built,

well written and presented in good literary language. He emphasizes

the need for careful selection of material, its correct location.

Examples should not be random, but should confirm the idea of ​​the speaker. Them

must be selected and prepared in advance.

When speaking in public (“spreading the word”), “it is necessary to observe: 1)

in order to use in a detailed description of the parts, properties and circumstances

chosen words and run away (avoid - V.L.) very vile, for they do not take away

much importance and power and in the best spreads; 2) ideas should

good to believe ahead (if the natural order allows it),

which are better, those in the middle, and the best at the end so that the strength and

the importance of dissemination was already sensitive at first, and after

joy and fear, complacency and anger, rightly believing that emotional

the impact can often be stronger than cold logical constructions.

“Although arguments are satisfied to the satisfaction of justice

proposed matter, but the writer of the word must, in addition to that, hearers

make passionate for it. The best evidence is sometimes so powerful

do not have to stubbornly bend to their side when another opinion in

rooted in his mind ... So, what will help the rhetor, although he has his own opinion and

will prove thoroughly if he does not use methods to arouse passions in

your side?

And in order to put this into action with good success, it is necessary to

to know human manners... from what conceptions and ideas each passion

excited, and to know through moralizing the whole depth of hearts

human...

Passion is called a strong sensual desire or reluctance ... In arousal

and quenching passions, firstly, three things should be observed: 1) the state

the rhetor himself, 2) the state of the listeners, 3) the most exciting employee

action and power of eloquence.

As for the state of the rhetorician himself, it contributes a lot to

excitation and quenching of passions: 1) when the listeners know that he

kind-hearted and conscientious person, and not a frivolous caresser and

sly; 2) if people love him for his merits; 3) if he himself is the same

has a passion that he wants to excite in his listeners, and not pretending to

intends to do passionate things.

5) To influence the audience, the lecturer must take into account the age

listeners, their gender, upbringing, education and many other factors.

“With all these, time, place and circumstances must be observed. So,

a reasonable rhetorician, when inciting passions, should act like a skillful fighter:

to be able to go to the place where it is not covered.

6) When pronouncing a word, it is necessary to comply with the topic of the speech, emphasizes

Lomonosov. In accordance with the content of the lecture, it is necessary to modulate

sad to the deplorable, pleading to the touching, high to the magnificent and proud,

to pronounce an angry tone in an angry tone ... It is not necessary to rush very much or excessive

length to use, so that from the first word it happens to listeners

indistinct, but boring from the other.

7) In the second part of the Guide to Eloquence, Lomonosov talks about decorating

speech, which consists "in the purity of the calm, in the flow of the word, in the splendor and

the strength of it. The first depends on a thorough knowledge of the language, on frequent

reading good books and from dealing with people who speak clearly.

8) Considering the smoothness of the flow of the word, Lomonosov draws attention to

duration of verbal periods, alternation of stresses, impact on

hearing of each letter and their combinations. The decoration of speech is facilitated by the inclusion in

her allegories and metaphors, metonymy and hyperbole, proverbs and sayings,

popular expressions and excerpts from famous works. And all this is necessary

use in moderation, the scientist adds.

9) The last, third part of the "Guide" is called "On the location" and

talks about how to place the material so that it produces the best,

the strongest impression on the audience. “What good is there in a great

many different ideas if they are not arranged properly?

The art of the brave leader consists not in one choice of kind and courageous

warriors, but no less dependent on the decent establishment of the regiments. And further

Lomonosov explains what has been said using numerous examples.

5. Hegel V.F. "Lectures on Aesthetics"

SETTING BORDERS AND PROTECTING AESTHETICS

1) Artistic beauty is superior to nature.

For the beauty of art is beauty born and reborn on the soil of the spirit, and insofar as the spirit and

his works are higher than nature and its phenomena, just as beautiful in

art above natural beauty. Having expressed the general truth that the spirit and the artistically beautiful associated with it are higher than the beauty in nature, we, of course, still have nothing or almost

they didn't say anything, because "higher" is a completely vague expression. It

suggests that the beautiful in nature and the beautiful in art are

as if in the same space of representation, so that between them

there is only a quantitative and therefore external difference. However

the highest in the sense of the superiority of the spirit (and the beauty generated by it

work of art) over nature is not a purely relative

concept. Only the spirit represents the true as an all-encompassing principle, and

everything beautiful is truly beautiful only insofar as it

participated in the higher and was born by him. In this sense, beauty in nature is only

a reflex of the beauty that belongs to the spirit. Here before us is imperfect,

incomplete type of beauty, and from the point of view of its substance, it is itself contained in

2) Refutation of some of the arguments put forward against aesthetics

First of all, let's touch on the question of whether artistic creativity is worthy.

scientific analysis. Of course, art can also be used for easy

games, it can serve as a source of fun and entertainment, can decorate

the environment in which a person lives, to make the external environment more attractive

side of life and highlight other items by decorating them. On this way

art is really not independent, not free, but

office art. We want to talk about free art as with

both from the point of view of the goal and from the point of view of the means to achieve it. Not one

only art can serve alien ends as a secondary means

It shares this property with thought. But, getting rid of this subordinate

roles, thought, free and independent, ascends to the truth, in the sphere

which it becomes independent and filled only with its own

3) Purpose of art

In works of art, peoples have invested their

serves as a key, and for some peoples the only key, for understanding their

wisdom and religion. Art has this purpose on a par with religion and

philosophy, but its originality lies in the fact that even the most

it embodies sublime objects in a sensual form, making them closer to

nature and character of its manifestation, to sensations and feelings.

embodiment. The task of art is to mediate these two sides,

combining them into a free, reconciled whole. This means, firstly,

the requirement that the content to be made the subject

artistic image, would possess in itself the ability to become

the subject of this image.

2) The second requirement follows from this first requirement: the content of art is not

must be abstract in itself, and not only in the sense that it

must be sensuous and therefore concrete in contrast to everything

spiritual and conceivable, which seems to be simple and

abstract. For everything that is true both in the realm of the spirit and in the realm of nature

concretely within itself and, in spite of its universality, possesses in itself

subjectivity and specificity.

3) Since art appeals to direct contemplation and has its own

task to embody the idea in a sensual image, and not in the form of thinking and in general

pure spirituality, and since the value and dignity of this incarnation

are in accordance with each other and the unity of both sides, the idea and its

image, then the height achieved by art and the degree of superiority in

achievement of a reality commensurate with his concept will depend on the degree

internal unity, in which the artist managed to merge with each other the idea and

her image.

4) The idea of ​​beauty in art, or ideal

The idea as artistically beautiful is not an idea as such, an absolute

idea, as it should be understood by metaphysical logic, but an idea that has passed to

deployment in reality and entered into direct contact with it

unity. Although the idea as such is truth itself in and for itself, yet

it is truth only from the side of its not yet objectified universality.

The idea, however, as artistically beautiful, is an idea with that specific

property that it is an individual reality, expressed

otherwise, it is an individual formation of reality, possessing

the specific property of expressing an idea through itself. We have already expressed this

the requirement that the idea and its shaping as concrete

reality were brought to full adequacy of each other. Understood

Thus, the idea as a reality that has received a corresponding

concept of form, there is an ideal.

5) There is an imperfect art, which in technical and other

relation may be quite complete in its particular sphere, but

which, when compared with the concept of art and with the ideal, appears

unsatisfactory. Only in the highest art is the idea and embodiment truly

correspond to each other in the sense that the image of the idea within itself

is a true image in and for itself, because the very content of the idea,

which this image expresses is true. This requires, as we have already

indicated above that the idea in and through itself be defined as

concrete wholeness, and thereby possess in itself the principle and

measure of their special forms and certainty of revelation.

IDEAL AS SUCH

1) Great personality

Art is called upon to comprehend and depict external being in its appearance as

something true, that is, in its conformity with the proportionate to itself, the existent

in and for itself content. The truth of art, therefore, is not

should be bare correctness, which limits the so-called

imitation of nature. The external element of art must be consistent with

internal content, which is consistent with itself and precisely

due to this, it can be found in the outer element as the

2) The ideal is selected from the mass of singularities and accidents

reality, since the inner principle is manifested in this external

existence as a living individual. For individual

subjectivity, bearing within itself a substantial content and

forcing it to manifest itself outwardly in itself, occupies the middle

position. Substantial content cannot yet appear here

abstract in its universality, in itself, but remains closed in

individuality and appears to be intertwined with a certain existence,

which, for its part, liberated from ultimate conditioning,

merges in free harmony with the inner life of the soul.

3) Paphos forms the true focus, the true realm of art; his

embodiment is central both in the work of art and in

perception of the latter by the viewer. For pathos touches the string that finds

response in every human heart. Everyone knows a valuable and reasonable beginning,

contained in the content of genuine pathos, and therefore he recognizes it.

Paphos excites, because in itself and for itself it is powerful

the power of human existence.

4) Character is the true focus of the ideal artistic

images, since it combines the aspects discussed above into

as moments of its integrity. For the idea as an ideal, that is, as

embodied for sensory representation and contemplation acting and

the idea that realizes itself in its activity, forms in its

certainty, a self-related subjective singularity. However

truly free individuality, as required by the ideal, must show itself

not only by universality, but also by a specific feature and a single

mediation and interpenetration of these parties, which for themselves

themselves exist as a unity. This constitutes the integrity of character, the ideal

which consists in the rich power of subjectivity unifying itself within

myself. In this regard, we must consider character from three angles:

firstly, as a holistic individuality, as a wealth of character within

secondly, this integrity should act as a feature, and the character

must appear as a certain character;

thirdly, character (as something united in itself) merges with this

certainty as with itself in its subjective being-for-itself and

through this he must realize himself as a character firmly within himself.

6. Belinsky V.G. "Division of poetry into genera and types"

1) Poetry is the highest kind of art. Poetry contains all the elements

other arts, as if using suddenly and inseparably all means,

given separately to each of the other arts. Poetry is

the whole integrity of art, all its organization and "embracing all of its

side, contains clearly and definitely all its differences.

I. Poetry realizes the meaning of the idea in the external and organizes the spiritual world in

quite definite, plastic images. This is epic poetry.

II. Every external phenomenon is preceded by a motive, a desire, an intention,

in a word - thought; every external phenomenon is the result of activity

internal, secret forces: poetry penetrates this second, internal

side of the event, into the interior of these forces, from which the external

reality, event and action; here poetry appears in the new,

the opposite kind. This is lyric poetry.

III. Finally, these two different kinds copulate into an inseparable whole:

the internal ceases to remain in itself and goes outward, is revealed in

action; internal, ideal (subjective) becomes external, real

(objective). As in epic poetry, here also develops;

definite, real action emerging from various subjective and

objective forces; but this action no longer has a purely external character. This is

the highest kind of poetry and the crown of art is dramatic poetry.

2) Epic and lyric poetry are two abstract extremes

the real world, diametrically opposed to one another;

dramatic poetry is a fusion (concretion) of these extremes

into a living and independent third.

A) epic poetry

Epos, word, legend, conveys the object in its external appearance and in general

develops what an object is and how it is. The beginning of the epic is everything

saying, which in concentrated brevity grasps in some

given subject, the fullness of what is essential in this subject,

which is its essence.

The epic of our time is a novel. In the novel, all generic and essential

signs of an epic, with the only difference being that other

elements and other colors.

To epic poetry belong an apologist and a fable, in which

prose of life and practical everyday wisdom of life.

B) Lyric poetry

The lyrics give a word and an image to mute sensations, bring them out of their stuffy confinement.

close chest to the fresh air of artistic life, gives them a special

Existence. Therefore, the content of a lyrical work is not

already the development of an objective incident, but the subject itself and everything that passes

through him.

The types of lyric poetry depend on the relationship of the subject to the general content,

which he takes for his work. If the subject is immersed in

element of general contemplation and, as it were, loses its

individuality, then are: hymn, dithyramb, psalms, paeans.

Subjectivity at this stage, as it were, does not yet have its own

there is little isolation, and the general, although it is imbued with the inspired feeling of the poet,

however, it appears more or less abstractly.

C) Dramatic poetry

Drama presents an event that has taken place as if taking place in the present.

time, before the eyes of the reader or viewer. Being a reconciliation of the epic with

lyroy, drama is neither one nor the other separately, but forms a special

organic integrity.

The essence of tragedy, as we said above, lies in the collision, then

is in the clash, clash of the natural inclination of the heart with the moral

debt or simply with an insurmountable obstacle. With the idea of ​​tragedy

the idea of ​​a terrible, gloomy event, a fatal denouement, is combined.

Comedy is the last form of dramatic poetry, diametrically

the opposite of tragedy. The content of the tragedy is the world of great moral

phenomena, its heroes are personalities, full of substantial forces of spiritual

human nature; the content of the comedy is accidents, devoid of reasonable

necessity, the world of ghosts or seeming, but not really existing

reality; comedy heroes - people who have renounced

substantive foundations of their spiritual nature.

There is also a special kind of dramatic poetry, which occupies the middle between

tragedy and comedy: this is what is properly called drama. Drama leads

originated from melodrama, which in the last century made the opposition inflated and

unnatural tragedy of that time and in which life found itself

the only refuge from the deadly pseudoclassicism.

These are all kinds of poetry. There are only three of them, and there are no more and cannot be. But in

piitiks and literatures of the last century, there were several more genera

poetry, between which didactic, or

instructive.

Poetry does not speak in descriptions, but in pictures and images; poetry does not describe

does not write off the object, but creates it.

7. Veselovsky A.N. "Historical Poetics"

1) The history of literature resembles a geographical strip, which international

right sanctified as res nullius<лат. - ничья вещь>where they go to hunt

cultural historian and esthetician, erudite and researcher of social ideas.

2) Romanticism: the desire of the individual to throw off the shackles of oppressive social

and literary conditions and forms, the impulse to other, freer ones, and the desire

base them on legend.

3) At a certain stage of national development, poetic production is expressed

songs of a semi-lyrical, semi-narrative nature, or purely

epic. Conditions for the emergence of great folk epics: a personal poetic act without

consciousness of personal creativity, raising folk poetic self-consciousness,

requiring expression in poetry; continuity of the previous song

legends, with types capable of changing content, in accordance with

the demands of social growth.

4) This epic is based on animal fairy tales widespread everywhere with

typical faces - beasts.

5) A literary fable could be one of the first reasons to write down a folk

animal story.

6) Drama is an internal conflict of a personality, not only self-determined, but also

decomposing itself by analysis.

7) We are all more or less open to the suggestiveness of images and impressions; poet

more sensitive to their small shades and combinations, apperceives them more fully; So

it complements, reveals ourselves to us, updating old stories with our

understanding, enriching familiar words and images with new intensity, captivating

us for a time into the same unity with ourselves in which the impersonal poet lived

unconsciously poetic era. But we've been through too much apart, our

the requirements of suggestiveness have grown and become more personal, more diverse; moments

unifications come only with epochs of calmed, deposited in general

consciousness of vital synthesis. If great poets become rarer, we

most answered one of the questions that we asked ourselves more than once: why?

8) Poetics of plots

A) The task of historical poetics, as it seems to me, is to determine the role and

boundaries of tradition in the process of personal creativity.

B) Motive - a formula that at first answered the questions of the public,

which nature placed everywhere for man, or fixed especially bright,

seemingly important or recurring impressions of reality. sign

motive - its figurative one-term schematism; such are the indecomposable further

elements of lower mythology and fairy tales.

The simplest kind of motive can be expressed by the formula a-\-b. Each part

formulas can be modified, especially subject to increment b\ tasks

maybe two, three (favorite folk number) or more.

a) Motif - the simplest narrative unit that figuratively responded to

different requests of the primitive mind or everyday observation.

f) Aesthetic perception of internal images of light, form and sound - "and

the game of these images, corresponding to the special ability of our psyche:

art creation.

b) Plot - a topic in which different positions-motives scurry about.

C) Plots are complex schemes, in the imagery of which well-known acts are generalized

human life and psyche in alternating forms of everyday

reality, the evaluation of the action is already connected with the generalization,

positive or negative.

9) The history of the poetic style deposited in the complex of typical

images-symbols, motifs, turns, parallels and comparisons, repetition

or whose commonality is explained either a) by the unity of psychological

processes that have found expression in them, or b) historical influences.

8. Likhachev D.S. "The inner world of a work of art"

1) The inner world of a work of verbal art (literary or

folklore) has a certain artistic integrity. Separate

elements of reflected reality are connected to each other in this

inner world in some definite system, artistic unity.

2) The mistake of literary scholars who note various "fidelities" or

"infidelity" in the artist's depiction of reality lies in the fact that

that, crushing the integral reality and the integral world of artistic

works, they make both incommensurable: they measure by light years

apartment area.

3) Approximate "real" time of events is not equal to artistic time.

4) The moral side of the world of a work of art is also very important and

has, like everything else in this world, a direct "designing"

meaning. The moral world of works of art is constantly changing from

the development of literature.

5) The world of a work of art reproduces reality in a certain

"abbreviated", conditional version.

6) The space of a fairy tale is unusually large, it is limitless, infinite, but

closely related to action. Thanks to the features

artistic space and artistic time in a fairy tale

exceptionally favorable conditions for the development of action. Action in

fairy tale is accomplished more easily than in any other genre of folklore.

7) Storytelling requires that the world of a work of art be

"easy" - easy, first of all, for the development of the plot itself.

8) Studying the artistic style of a work, author, direction, era,

should pay attention first of all to what kind of world in which

immerses us a work of art, what is its time, space,

social and material environment, what are the laws of psychology and movement in it

ideas, what are the general principles on the basis of which all these separate

elements are linked into a single artistic whole.

9. Shklovsky V. "Art as a technique"

1) Figurative thinking is not, in any case, something that unites all types of

art, or even only all types of verbal art, images are not

that, the change of which is the essence of the movement of poetry.

Thus, a thing can be: a) created as prosaic and perceived,

as poetic, b) created as poetic and perceived as

prose.

2) The poetic image is one of the means of poetic language. Prosaic

the image is a means of distraction.

3) The purpose of art is to give the feeling of a thing as a vision, not as

recognition; the method of art is the method of "eliminating" things and the method

difficult form, increasing the difficulty and length of perception, since

the perceptual process in art is an end in itself and must be extended;

art is a way to experience the doing of a thing, and what is done in art is not

4) Poetic speech - speech-construction. Prose is ordinary speech: economical,

light, correct (dea prorsa, - the goddess of correct, easy childbirth,

"direct" position of the child).

10. Tynyanov Yu. "On literary evolution"

1) The position of the history of literature continues to be among the cultural

disciplines by the position of the colonial power.

2) The connection between the history of literature and living contemporary literature is an advantageous and

necessary for science - is not always necessary and beneficial for

developing literature, whose representatives are ready to accept history

literature for the establishment of certain traditional norms and laws and

the "historicity" of a literary phenomenon is confused with "historicism" in relation to

3) Historical research falls into at least two main types

by observation point: a study of the genesis of literary phenomena and

study of the evolution of the literary series, literary variability.

4) The main concept of literary evolution is the change of systems, and the question of

"traditions" is transferred to another plane.

5) The existence of a fact as a literary fact depends on its differential

qualities (i.e., from correlation either with literary or with

non-literary series), in other words - from its function.

6) Outside the correlation of literary phenomena, there is no consideration of them.

7) The function of verse in a certain literary system was carried out by a formal

meter element. But prose differentiates, evolves, at the same time

the verse also evolves. The differentiation of one related type entails

itself, or, rather, is connected with the differentiation of another correlated

8) The correlation of literature with the social series leads them to a great verse

9) The system of the literary series is, first of all, the system of functions of the literary

series, in continuous correlation with other series.

10) Life is correlated with literature primarily by its speech side. Same

correlation of literary series with everyday life. This correlation of literary

a number of everyday things takes place along the speech line, in literature in relation to

everyday life has a speech function.

Generally: the study of the evolution of literature is possible only in relation to

literature as a series, a system correlated with other series, systems,

conditioned by them. Consideration should go from constructive function to

literary functions, from literary to speech. It must find out

evolutionary interaction of functions and forms. Evolutionary study should

go from the literary series to the nearest correlated series, and not further,

albeit the main one. The dominant importance of the main social factors is not

only not rejected, but must be clarified in full, precisely in

the question of the evolution of literature, while the direct establishment

"influence" of the main social factors replaces the study of evolution

literature by studying the modification of literary works, their deformation.

11. Lotman Yu.M. "Semiotics of culture and the concept of text"

I. Formation of the semiotics of culture - a discipline that considers interaction

differently structured semiotic systems, internal unevenness

semiotic space, the need for cultural and semiotic

polyglotism - has largely shifted the traditional semiotic

representation.

II. The social and communicative function of the text can be reduced to the following

processes.

1. Communication between the addresser and the addressee.

2. Communication between audience and cultural tradition.

3. Communication of the reader with himself.

4. Communication of the reader with the text.

5. Communication between text and cultural context

A particular case will be the question of communication between text and metatext.

III. The text appears before us not as a realization of the message on any one

language, but as a complex device that stores a variety of codes, capable of

transform received messages and generate new ones, as information

a generator with intellectual personality traits. Concerning

the perception of the relationship between the consumer and the text is changing. Instead of a formula

"consumer decrypts text" perhaps more precise - "consumer communicates

with text.

12. Bakhtin M.M. "The problem of text in linguistics, philology and other

Humanities"

1) Two points that define the text as a statement: its intention (intention) and

implementation of this intention.

The problem of the second subject, reproducing (for one purpose or another, including

including research) text (foreign) and creating a framing text

(commenting, evaluating, objecting, etc.).

2) From the point of view of the non-linguistic goals of the statement, everything linguistic -

just a remedy.

3) To express oneself means to make oneself an object for another and for

himself (the "reality of consciousness"). This is the first stage of objectification.

4) With deliberate (conscious) multi-style between styles, there is always

there are dialogic relations. You can't understand these relationships.

purely linguistically (or even mechanically).

5) The text is the primary given (reality) and the starting point of any

humanitarian discipline.

6) The word (any sign in general) is interindividual. Everything said, expressed

is outside the "soul" of the speaker, does not belong only to him. The word is impossible

give to one speaker.

7) Linguistics deals with the text, but not with the work. The same as her

speaks of a work, smuggled in and out of pure

linguistic analysis does not follow.

8) Each large and creative verbal whole is a very complex and

multifaceted system of relationships.

full and final will to cash or close recipients (after all,

immediate descendants may err) and always assumes (more or less

less awareness) some higher instance of reciprocal understanding,

which can move in different directions.

10) Units of verbal communication - whole statements - are unreproducible (although they

can be quoted) and are connected with each other by dialogical relations.

15. Lotman Yu.M. "Mass Literature as a Historical and Cultural Problem"

The concept of "mass literature" is a sociological concept. It does not concern

as much the structure of a text as its social

functioning in the general system of texts that make up a given culture.

The concept of "mass literature" implies as a mandatory

antitheses of some summit culture.

The same text should be perceived by the reader in a double light. He

should have signs of belonging to the high culture of the era and in

certain reading circles equated to it:

First of all, mass literature will include the works of self-taught writers,

amateurs, sometimes belonging to the lower social strata (work,

created on the basis of high literature, but not corresponding to it in terms of

However, other types of texts also find their way into popular literature. high

literature rejects not only what is too full, too

consistently implements its own norms and, therefore,

seems trivial and student, but the fact that these norms in general

ignores. Such works seem "incomprehensible", "wild".

Speaking about those works whose belonging to mass literature

conditional and characterized by negative rather than positive signs,

two cases must be distinguished. The first one we have already talked about is

works so alien to the prevailing literary theory of the era,

which, from her point of view, are incomprehensible. Contemporary criticism

evaluates them as "bad", "untalented". However, another type is also possible.

rejection - one that combines with high appreciation and even sometimes its

implies.

Mass literature is more stable in preserving the forms of the past and almost always

is a multilayer structure.

The dominant literary theory is always a rigid

system. Therefore, with the transition of literature to a new stage, it is discarded, and

a new theoretical system is not created in the order of evolutionary development

out of the old, and rebuilt on new foundations.

Theoretical self-assessment of literature has a dual role: in the first stage

of a given cultural epoch, it organizes, builds, creates a new system

artistic communication. On the second - slows down, fetters development. Exactly at

this era, the role of mass literature is activated - an imitator and critic

literary dogmas and theories.

Acting in a certain respect as a means of destroying culture,

mass literature can simultaneously be drawn into its system, participating in

construction of new structural forms.

16. Lotman Yu.M. "The structure of a literary text"

1. Art is one of the means of communication.

Poetic speech is a structure of great complexity. It is much more complicated in relation to natural language. And if the amount of information contained in poetic (poetry or prose - in this case it does not matter) and ordinary speech were the same6, artistic speech would lose its right to exist and, no doubt, would die.

Possessing the ability to concentrate huge information on the “area” of a very small text (cf. the volume of Chekhov’s story and a psychology textbook), a literary text has one more feature: it gives different readers different information - to each according to his understanding, he also gives the reader a language, on which you can learn the next piece of information when you read it again.

2. The problem of meanings is one of the fundamental ones for all the sciences of the semiotic cycle. Ultimately, the goal of studying any sign system is to determine its content.

The equivalence of the semantic units of a literary text is realized in a different way: it is based on a comparison of lexical (and other semantic) units, which at the level of the primary (linguistic) structure may obviously not be equivalent.

If we take a text such as a lyric poem and consider it as one structural segment (provided that the poem is not included in the cycle), then syntagmatic meanings - for example, referring the text to other works of the same author or his biography - will acquire the same the nature of the structural reserve, which semantics had in music.

3. Apparently, it will be convenient to put the following definitions at the basis of the concept of text: expressiveness, delimitation, structuredness.

4. Both in the reader's and in the research approach to a work of art, two points of view have long competed: some readers believe that the main thing is to understand the work, others - to experience aesthetic pleasure; some researchers consider the goal of their work to be the construction of a concept (the more general, that is, abstract, the more valuable), while others emphasize that any concept kills the very essence of a work of art and, by logicalizing, impoverishes and distorts it.

Each detail and the entire text as a whole are included in different systems of relations, resulting in more than one meaning at the same time. Exposed in metaphor, this property is more general.

The path to knowledge - always approximate - of the diversity of a literary text goes not through lyrical talk about originality, but through the study of originality as a function of certain repetitions, the individual as a function of regularity.

5. When generating a correct phrase in any natural language, the speaker performs two different actions:

a) connects words so that they form correct (marked) chains in a semantic and grammatical sense;

b) chooses from some set of elements one used in this sentence.

The connection of identical elements in chains is carried out according to other laws than the connection of heterogeneous ones - it is built as an addition and in this sense reproduces the main feature of the overphrasal construction of a speech text. At the same time, the following is essential: the repetition of the same element muffles its semantic significance (cf. the psychological effect of repeated repetition of the same word, which turns into nonsense). Instead, a method of connecting these elements that have lost their meaning is being put forward.

For intratextual (that is, when abstracting from all extratextual links) semantic analysis, the following operations are necessary:

1) Splitting the text into levels and groups by levels of syntagmatic segments (phoneme, morpheme, word, verse, stanza, chapter - for a verse text; word, sentence, paragraph, chapter - for a prose text).

2) Splitting the text into levels and groups by levels of semantic segments (such as "images of heroes"). This operation is especially important in the analysis of prose.

3) Selection of all pairs of repetitions (equivalences).

4) Selection of all pairs of adjacencies.

5) Selection of repetitions with the highest equivalence power.

6) Mutual superposition of equivalent semantic pairs in order to highlight the differential semantic features and main semantic oppositions operating in the given text on all main levels. Consideration of the semantization of grammatical constructions.

7) Evaluation of the given structure of the syntagmatic construction and significant deviations from it in pairs by adjacency. Consideration of the semantization of syntactic constructions.

6. In the hierarchy of movement from simplicity to complexity, the arrangement of genres is different: colloquial speech - song (text + motive) - "classical poetry" - artistic prose.

The mechanism of influence of rhyme can be decomposed into the following processes. First, rhyme is repetition. The second element of the semantic perception of rhyme is the juxtaposition of the word and the one that rhymes with it, the emergence of a correlating pair.

Textual coincidence exposes a positional difference. The different position of textually identical elements in the structure leads to different forms of their correlation with the whole. And this determines the inevitable difference in interpretation. And it is the coincidence of everything, except for the structural position, that activates positionality as a structural, semantic feature. Thus, the “full” repetition turns out to be incomplete both in terms of expression (difference in position), and, consequently, in terms of content (cf. what was said above about the chorus).

7. Repetitions at different levels play an outstanding role in the organization of the text and have long attracted the attention of researchers. However, the reduction of the entire artistic construction to repetitions seems to be erroneous. And the point here is not only that repetitions, especially in prose, often cover an insignificant part of the text, and the rest remains outside the field of view of the researcher as supposedly not aesthetically organized and, therefore, artistically passive. The essence of the question lies in the fact that the repetitions themselves are artistically active precisely in connection with certain violations of repetition (and vice versa). Only taking into account both of these opposite tendencies makes it possible to reveal the essence of their aesthetic functioning.

8. The same words and sentences that make up the text of a work will be divided into plot elements in different ways, depending on where the line is drawn that delimits the text from the non-text.

The frame of a literary work consists of two elements: the beginning and the end. The special modeling role of the categories of the beginning and end of the text is directly related to the most common cultural models. So, for example, for a very wide range of texts, the most general cultural models will give a sharp emphasis on these categories.

The coding function in the modern narrative text is referred to the beginning, and the plot-“mythologising” function is referred to the end. Of course, since rules exist in art to a large extent in order to create the possibility of their artistically significant violation, then in this case, too, this typical distribution of functions creates the possibility of numerous variant deviations.

9. Any artistic text can fulfill its social function only if there is aesthetic communication in its contemporary collective.

By introducing precise criteria and learning to model anti-artistic phenomena, the researcher and critic receive a tool for defining true artistry. For a certain stage of science, the criterion of the artistry of contemporary art may have to be formulated as follows: a system that is not amenable to mechanical modeling. It is clear that for many really existing and even successful texts it will prove fatal in the near future.

The comparison of art with life has long been launched. But only now it becomes clear how much of this once-metaphorical juxtaposition of exact truth. It can be said with certainty that of everything created by human hands, the artistic text reveals to the greatest extent those properties that attract cybernetics to the structure of living tissue.

1) Obviously, this has always been the case: if something is told for the sake of the story itself, and not for the sake of a direct impact on reality, that is, ultimately, outside of any function other than symbolic activity as such, then the voice breaks away from its source, death occurs for the author, and this is where writing begins.

2) In the mediastinum of the image of literature that exists in our culture, the author reigns supreme, his personality, the history of his life, his tastes and passions ...

3) From the point of view of linguistics, the author is just the one who writes, just as "I" is just the one who says "I"; language knows the "subject", but not the "personality", and this subject, defined within the speech act and containing nothing outside of it, suffices to "contain" the whole language in itself, to exhaust all its possibilities.

4) The removal of the Author is not just a historical fact or the effect of writing: it completely transforms the entire modern text, or, what is the same, the text is now created and read in such a way that the author is eliminated at all its levels.

5) Now we know that the text is not a linear chain of words expressing a single, as it were, theological meaning (the “message” of the Author-God), but a multidimensional space where different types of writing combine and argue with each other, none of which not original; the text is woven from quotes referring to thousands of cultural sources.

6) When the Author is eliminated, all claims to "decipher" the text become completely in vain. To assign an Author to a text means, as it were, to stop the text, to endow it with a final meaning, to close the letter.

7) The reader is the space where every single quote is imprinted, from which the letter is composed; the text acquires unity not in its origin, but in its destination, only the destination is not a personal address; the reader is a person without history, without biography, without psychology, he is just someone who brings together all those strokes that form a written text.

8) To ensure the future of writing, it is necessary to overthrow the myth about it - the birth of the reader has to be paid for by the death of the Author.

19. Gadamer H.G. "Truth and Method. Fundamentals of Philosophical Hermeneutics"

1) Philosophical hermeneutics includes the philosophical movement of our century, which has overcome the one-sided orientation to the fact of science, which was taken for granted both for neo-Kantianism and for the positivism of that time.

2) In fact, the absolutization of the ideal of "science" is a great blindness, which every time again leads to the fact that hermeneutic reflection is generally considered to be pointless. The narrowing of perspective that follows the thought of method seems difficult for the researcher to understand. He is always already oriented toward justifying the method of his experience, that is, he turns away from the opposite direction of reflection.

3) Hermeneutics not only plays the role in science that is being discussed, but also acts as a person's self-consciousness in the modern era of science.

4) How "ontologizing" language can appear in our formulation of the question, however, only when the question of the prerequisites for the instrumentalization of language is generally left without attention. It is indeed the problem of philosophy that the hermeneutic practice raises to uncover those ontological implications that lie in the "technical" concept of science and to achieve a theoretical recognition of hermeneutic experience.

5) In modern word usage, the theoretical turns out to be almost a privative concept. Something is only theoretical if it does not have the binding purpose of guiding our actions. And vice versa, the theories developed here are determined by a constructive idea, that is, theoretical knowledge itself is considered from the point of view of conscious mastery of the existent: not as an end, but as a means. Theory in the ancient sense is something completely different. Here, the existing order as such is not simply contemplated, but theory means, moreover, the participation of the contemplator in the most integral order of being.

6) The human experience of the world in general has a linguistic character. How little (the world) is objectified in this experience, just as little is the history of influences an object of hermeneutical consciousness.

20. "Literary manifestos from symbolism to the present day"

I. "Mitki"

The Leningrad group of artists and writers "Mitki" was formed in the early 80s. In 1985, the program book "Mitki" was written and drawn, which can be considered as an extended manifesto of the movement (published only in 1990). The group included Dmitry Shagin (b. 1957), Vladimir Shinkarev (b. 1954), Alexander Florensky (b. 1960), Olga Florenskaya (b. 1960), Viktor Tikhomirov (b. 1951). Later, the group expanded significantly.

"Mitki" is a long-awaited phenomenon of purely folk Russian urban laughter culture. The countless references to the general alcoholism of the Mitki should be regarded as an artistic device, and not as the harsh everyday life of the movement.

"Order of Courtly Mannerists"

According to the founder of the order, the poet V. Stepantsov, the "Order of Courtly Mannerists" was created in Moscow on December 22, 1988 in the restaurant of the All-Russian Theater Society (WTO). The association originally included Vadim Stepantsov (b. 1960), Victor Pelenyagre (b. 1959), Andrei Dobrynin (b. 1957) and Konstantin Grigoriev (b. 1968). Of these, three - V. Stepantsov, V. Pelenyagre and K. Grigoriev - graduates of the Literary Institute. Gorky. The main manifesto of the courtly mannerists is placed at the end of their joint collection with the characteristic title "The Red Book of the Marquise" (M., 1995) - an allusion to the famous pre-revolutionary erotic "Book of the Marquise" by Konstantin Somov. But even earlier, in 1992, in the collective collection "The Favorite Jester of Princess Greza", the first manifesto "Russian Erata and Courtly Mannerism" was published.

II. "DOOS"

In 1984, three poets emerged from a Moscow group of metametaphorist poets and created a new group called the Voluntary Society for the Protection of Dragonflies. The meaning of the name was deliberately crafty - to rehabilitate and protect Krylov's dragonfly jumper, which "sang everything", and to prove that singing is the same thing as the work of an ant. Purely phonetically, DOOS resembles the Taoists, the Chinese philosophical school (4th-3rd centuries BC), which goes back to the teachings of Lao Tzu. This meaning was also originally present in the name of the group.

It included Konstantin Kedrov, Elena Katsyuba and Lyudmila Khodshskaya. Aleksey Khvostenko and the venerable Andrey Voznesensky declared their closeness to the DEP.

An anagram is very important for DOS participants, that is, the rearrangement of letters in a word in order to obtain a new word, for example, “Laughter Scheme”. Elena Katsyuba compiled the First Palindromic Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language (Moscow, 1999), published as a separate book, that is, a collection of words that read the same way from left to right and from right to left. To some, this may seem like child's play, but the meaning, like the Spirit, blows where it wants.

21. Vygotsky L.S. "Psychology of Art"

The fable belongs entirely to poetry. It is subject to all those laws of the psychology of art, which we can find in a more complex form in the highest forms of art.

The tendency of the poet is just the opposite of that of the prose writer. The poet is interested precisely in drawing our attention to the hero, arousing our sympathy or displeasure, of course, not to the extent that this is the case in a novel or a poem, but in an embryonic form, precisely those very feelings that a novel, a poem arouses and drama.

It is very easy to show that almost from the very beginning the poetic and prosaic fable, each of which followed its own path and obeyed its own special laws of development, each required different psychological methods for its processing.

Everywhere, when considering each of the elements of the construction of a fable separately, we were forced to come into conflict with the explanation that was given to these elements in previous theories. We tried to show that the fable, in its historical development and in its psychological essence, was divided into two completely different genres, and that all of Lessing's reasoning is entirely related to the prose fable, and therefore his attacks on the poetic fable indicate in the best possible way those elementary properties of poetry that have become to appropriate the fable as soon as it has become a poetic genre. However, all these are only scattered elements, the meaning and meaning of which we tried to show each one separately, but the meaning of which as a whole is still incomprehensible to us, just as the very essence of a poetic fable is incomprehensible. Of course, it cannot be deduced from its elements, so we need to turn from analysis to synthesis, to study several typical fables and already from the whole to understand the meaning of individual parts. We will again meet with the same elements that we dealt with before, but the meaning and meaning of each of them will already be determined by the structure of the whole fable.

POETIC ART

Canto One

There are writers - there are many of them among us -

That they amuse themselves with the dream of climbing Parnassus;

But, know, only to those who are called to be a poet,

Whose genius is illuminated by an invisible mountain light,

Pegasus subdues and Apollo listens:

It is given to him to ascend the impregnable slope.

O you who are attracted by the flinty path of success,

In whom ambition kindled an unclean fire,

You will not reach the heights of poetry:

A versifier will never become a poet.

Test your talent both soberly and severely.

Nature is a generous, caring mother,

Knows how to give everyone a special talent:

He can outshine everyone in a prickly epigram,

And this one - to describe love mutual flame;

Rakan sings his Philides and shepherds,

Malerbe - high deeds and feats of flight.

But sometimes a poet, not too strict with himself,

Having crossed his limit, he goes astray:

So Fare has a friend who has been writing so far

On the walls of the tavern are nonsense dressed in verse;

Inopportunely emboldened, he wants to sing now

Exodus of the Israelites, their wanderings in the wilderness.

He zealously pursues Moses, -

To sink into the abyss of waters, like an ancient pharaoh.

Whether in tragedy, eclogue or ballad,

But rhyme should not live in discord with meaning;

There is no quarrel between them and there is no struggle:

He is her master. she is his slave.

If you learn to look for her persistently,

Willingly submit to the habitual yoke,

Carrying wealth as a gift to his lord.

But just give her the will - she will rebel against duty,

And the mind will take a long time to catch it.

So let the meaning be dearer to you.

Let only he give brilliance and beauty to poetry!

Another scribbles poetry, as if seized with delirium:

Order is alien to him and common sense is unknown.

With a monstrous line, he is in a hurry to prove

What to think like everyone else, sickens his soul.

Don't follow him. Let's leave it to the Italians

Empty tinsel with its false gloss.

What matters most is the meaning; but to come to him,

We'll have to overcome the obstacles on the way,

Follow the marked path strictly:

Sometimes the mind has only one path.

Often a writer like this is in love with his subject,

What wants to show it from all sides:

Praise the beauty of the palace facade;

He will begin to lead me along all the alleys of the garden;

Here the turret stands, the arch captivates the eye;

Sparkling with gold, the balconies hang;

On the stucco ceiling he will count circles, ovals:

“How many garlands are here, what astragalus!”

Flipping through ten or two pages in a row,

I long for one thing - to leave this garden.

Beware of empty listings

Unnecessary little things and long digressions!

Excess in verse and flat and funny:

We are fed up with it, we are burdened by it.

Without curbing himself, the poet cannot write.

Fleeing from sins, he sometimes multiplies them.

You had a languid verse, now it cuts the ear;

I have no embellishment, but I am immensely dry;

One avoidance of length and clarity lost;

The other, in order not to crawl, hid in the misty heights.

Monotony run like the plague!

Easily smooth, measured lines

All readers are put into a deep sleep.

The poet who endlessly mumbles a dull verse,

He will not find admirers among them.

How happy is that poet whose verse, lively and flexible,

He knows how to embody both tears and smiles.

We have such a poet surrounded by love:

Barben sells his poems immediately.

Flee vile words and gross ugliness.

Let the low style keep both order and nobility

At first, everyone was attracted by unbridled burlesque:

We had a novelty of his unbearable crack.

The poet was called the one who was dexterous in witticisms.

Parnassus spoke in the language of merchants.

Everyone rhymed as best he could, not knowing obstacles,

And Apollo became like Tabarin.

Everyone was infected with a disease, dangerous and pernicious, -

The bourgeois was sick of them, the courtier was sick of them,

The most insignificant wit went for a genius,

And even Assousi was praised by another eccentric.

Then, satiated with this extravagant nonsense,

He was rejected by the court with cold contempt;

He distinguished a joke from a jester's grimaces,

And only in the province "Typhon" is in use now.

Take as a model the verses of Maro with their brilliance

And beware of staining poetry with burlesque;

Let the crowd of onlookers from Pont Neuf amuse them.

But let Brebeuf not serve as an example to you.

Believe me, there is no need in the battle of Pharsalus

So that "mountains of dead bodies and the wounded groan."

Tell your story with graceful simplicity

And learn to be pleasant without embellishment.

Try to please your readers.

Remember the rhythm, do not stray from the size;

Divide your verse into half lines

So that the meaning of caesura is emphasized in them.

You must make special efforts

To prevent gaping between vowels.

Merge consonant words into a harmonious choir:

We are disgusted by consonants, a rude argument.

Poems where thoughts are. but the sounds hurt the ear,

When Parnassus emerged from the darkness in France,

Arbitrariness reigned there, unstoppable and wild.

Having bypassed Caesura, streams of words sought ...

Rhyming lines were called poetry!

An awkward, rude verse of those barbaric times

For the first time leveled and cleared Villon.

From under the pen of Maro, gracefully dressed,

Ballads and triplets flew merrily;

With a correct refrain, he could flash in a rondo

And in rhymes he showed the poets a new path.

Ronsard wanted to achieve something completely different,

I came up with the rules, but confused everything again.

Latin, Greek, he littered the language

And yet he achieved praise and honors.

However, the hour has come - and the French understood

The funny sides of his learned muse.

Having fallen from a height, he is reduced to nothing,

Serving as an example Deportam and Berto.

But Malherbe came and showed the French

A simple and harmonious verse, in all pleasing to the muses,

He commanded harmony to fall at the feet of reason

And by placing the words, he doubled their power.

Having cleansed our tongue of rudeness and filth,

He formed a demanding and faithful taste,

The lightness of the verse was closely followed

And the line break was strictly prohibited.

Everyone recognized him; he is still a counselor;

Love his verse, polished and concise,

And pure clarity of always graceful lines,

And the exact words, and exemplary syllable!

It is not surprising that drowsiness tends to us,

When the meaning is indistinct, when it drowns in darkness;

From idle talk we quickly get tired

Another in his poems so obscure the idea,

That a dull veil of mist lies over her

And the rays of reason cannot break it, -

You need to think about the idea and only then write!

While it is not clear to you what you want to say,

Do not look in vain for simple and precise words

But if the plan in your mind is ready

All the right words will come at the first call.

Obey the laws of the language, humble,

And firmly remember: they are sacred to you.

The harmony of the verse will not attract me,

When the turn is alien and strange to the ear.

Foreign words run like an infection,

And build clear and correct phrases

You must know the language: that rhymer is ridiculous,

That, on a whim, he will begin to scribble poetry.

Write slowly, contrary to orders:

Excessive speed does not approve of the mind,

And the hurried syllable tells us that.

That our poet is not endowed with intelligence.

More dear to me is the stream, transparent and free,

Flowing slowly along the fertile fields,

Than an unbridled, overflowing stream,

Whose muddy waves rush sand with them.

Hurry slowly and, triple your courage,

Finish the verse, not knowing peace,

Grind, clean, while you have patience:

Add two lines and cross out six.

When verses are teeming with mistakes without counting,

In them, the brilliance of the mind to look for who will hunt?

The poet should place everything thoughtfully,

Beginning and end, merge into a single stream

And, subordinating the words to his indisputable power,

Artfully combine disparate parts.

No need to interrupt events smooth flow,

Captivating us for a moment with the sparkle of witticisms.

Are you afraid of the verdict of public opinion?

Only a fool should always praise himself.

Ask your friends for harsh judgment.

Direct criticism, nit-picking and attacks

They will open your eyes to your shortcomings.

Arrogant arrogance does not suit the poet,

And, listening to a friend, do not heed the flatterer:

He flatters, and behind the eyes blackens in the opinion of the world.

A good friend is in a hurry to please you:

He praises every verse, exalts every sound;

Everything was wonderfully successful and all the words are in place;

He cries, he trembles, he pours streams of flattery,

And a wave of empty praise knocks you off your feet, -

And the truth is always calm and modest.

That true friend among the crowd of acquaintances,

Who, without fear of the truth, will point you to a mistake,

Pay attention to weak verses, -

In short, he will notice all sins.

He will severely scold for the lush emphasis,

Here the word will emphasize, there the pretentious phrase;

This thought is dark, and this turnover

It will confuse the reader...

Thus will the zealot of poetry speak.

But the intractable, stubborn writer

Protects his creation so

It's like he's not a friend, but an enemy.

"I find this expression to be rude."

He immediately answered: “I pray for indulgence,

Do not touch him". - Stretch this verse

Plus it's cold." - "He's better than everyone else!" -

"Here the phrase is unclear and asks for clarification." -

“But it is she who is praised to the sky!”

Whatever you say, he will immediately enter into an argument,

And everything remains as it was until now.

At the same time, he screams that he listens to you eagerly,

And asks to be judged mercilessly...

But these are all words, memorized flattery,

A trick to read your poems to you!

Satisfied with himself, he walks away in the hope

What will throw dust in the eyes of a naive ignoramus, -

And now in his networks there is already some fat ...

Our century is truly rich in ignoramuses!

With us they are teeming everywhere with an immodest crowd -

At the prince at the table, at the duke in the waiting room.

Worthless rhymer, court poet,

Of course, among them will find fans.

To end this song, we will say in conclusion:

A fool always inspires admiration for a fool.

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