Developmental psychology as a subject studies the natural changes of a person over time and the related facts and phenomena of mental life. Almost all researchers agree that development can be defined as change over time: the idea of change and its flow over time is undeniable. Another thing is to answer questions about what changes and how. This is where the differences begin. (Sapogova E.E., 2001)
Development as growth. Such an understanding is almost never found in modern science. Growth is understood as the process of quantitative change (accumulation) of the external features of an object, measured in height, length, width, thickness, weight, etc. This means that, firstly, growth is just one of the aspects of development, i.e. others remain; secondly, that growth is only an external indicator of development, saying nothing about its essence; thirdly, growth can only be a quantitative characteristic of development.
Development as maturation. This definition of development is used primarily in everyday thinking. Maturation is understood as a reduction, curtailment of development to morphological changes occurring under the direct control of the genetic apparatus. This means that such a definition exaggerates the significance of biological heredity and, accordingly, underestimates the significance of other aspects of development.
Development as improvement. This definition is often used in pedagogy and is teleological in nature, i.e. it initially assumes the presence of a goal (teleo), which is a certain “perfect”, i.e. the best, exemplary, ideal form of development. In this case, firstly, it is not clear who can set such a goal: whether it is externally (God, upbringing, external environment) or internally set (through the hereditary apparatus). And, secondly, it is not clear why exactly this form of development should be considered as the best, perfect, and not some other (who sets the criteria for "perfection"?).
Development as a universal change. As one of the criteria for determining development, the requirement of generality, universality of the ongoing changes is put forward. This means that the same changes should take place in people of different cultures, religions, languages, levels of development. With clear evidence of this requirement, it turns out to be unfeasible. First, it is impossible to really establish which changes are classified as general, universal, and which ones are considered as private. And, secondly, with such an approach, a large mass of particular changes will be generally denied to be considered the subject of developmental psychology.
Development as a qualitative, structural change. The definition of development through qualitative changes is connected with the understanding of an object as a system. If a significant improvement (deterioration) of its structure is taken as the basis for the definition, then we thereby return to the definition of development through improvement, while maintaining its shortcomings. The only difference is that the subject of improvement narrows. If there is no question of improvement (deterioration), then it is not clear where development is directed. And finally, if earlier it was about improving the object as a whole, now it is only about improving only its structure. In other words, the quantitative measure of improvement is excluded and only the qualitative measure is preserved.
Development as a quantitative and qualitative change. In the previous case, the qualitative nature of the changes was taken as a basis, and the quantitative nature was leveled. However, the very idea of their connection is present in all variants of definitions. For example, growth can be viewed as a quantitative change, but some qualitative transitions stand out in it. Maturation is closer to a qualitative change, but it also contains a quantitative aspect. By limiting ourselves to quantitative changes, we are taking an unconditional step back in understanding development. However, by excluding quantitative changes from the definition of development, we lose the opportunity to establish what caused these qualitative changes themselves.
Development as a change that entails new changes. Dissatisfaction with the existing definitions of development stimulated the search and emergence of new ideas. So, G.-D. Schmidt postulates the presence of a close, existential connection between the changes that follow one after another. A. Flammer writes that development should be considered only such changes that entail new changes (“an avalanche of changes”). This definition carries the idea of evolutionary continuity of changes.
Changes occurring in development can be: 1) quantitative/qualitative, 2) continuous/discrete, spasmodic, 3) universal/individual, 4) reversible/irreversible, 5) purposeful/non-directed, 6) isolated/integrated, 7 ) progressive (evolutionary) / regressive (involutionary). In addition, development can be considered in different temporal dimensions, forming changes at the phylo-, anthropo-, onto- and micro levels.
For a general integral characteristic of development processes, categories are used that do not relate to individual features, but to development as a whole. These are the categories of growth, maturation, differentiation, learning, imprinting (imprinting), socialization (cultural sociogenesis).
studfiles.net
The formation and development of man - how they differ
Human life has many processes that in different time periods in one way or another exert their influence. The presence of certain properties of these events can affect the development and formation of a person, his life and character. Both categories belong to the concepts of the general scientific direction. Development and formation is often applied in the context of philosophical, social, political, economic and pedagogical categories.
The essence of formation as a concept
Formation is the process of becoming a person's personality under the influence of a certain number of factors of the external and internal environment. Such factors include:
- Social.
- Political.
- Economic.
- Financial.
- Ecological.
- Pedagogical.
- Intrapersonal.
Education, as a process that is part of almost every environment, can play a key role in the process of personality formation, as such. The end result of the formation means the completion of the process, the readiness of the individual, the absence of a high degree of perception of external and internal stimuli.
Achieving a certain level, task, completion of a long project or work can also be considered a formed process that has an outcome, completeness, maturity, and completeness. Most often, the concept of formation is used in relation to psychology and pedagogy as sciences that closely shape the personality and society as a whole.
From the point of view of pedagogical dogmas, the category of formation does not have clearly defined rules and norms. The final influence of factors on personality has not yet been formed, since the process of evolution continues to this day. The meaning of the concept is constantly changing, its interpretation can be excessive and cover a huge degree of related concepts or mean the development of a particular quality sparingly.
Pedagogical literature perceives the concept of "formation" as the action of external factors emanating from the social environment, which carry out wild, spontaneous, uncontrolled influences on a person. The street environment and surroundings most often shape the personality from the stage of early childhood and further through life.
Development, the essence of the concept
Development is a concept that also does not have a specific designation, but in a generalized form from the point of view of pedagogy is interpreted as the result of changes occurring to a person in relation to qualitative and quantitative differentiations. The development process does not have a final stage and occurs with the personality in the form of constants:
- Stable and regular changes.
- Metamorphoses of various events.
- Differentiation from simple to complex states and skills.
- Climbing from the lowest category of skills to the highest.
Development is a process that clearly demonstrates the theory of mutual transition, which says that a person throughout his life makes the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones and vice versa, depending on the current situation or age parameters.
Development consists of several categories that directly exert their degree of influence:
- Motion. Development is a constant process of movement, regardless of age parameters.
- Source. The presence of a knowledge base stimulates the generation of the process.
- Conditions. The process is impossible in a state of complete isolation, it is necessary to influence from outside.
- Factors. This category includes genetic predisposition, family charter, degree of upbringing.
- Dialectics. It is expressed in a metamorphosis from quantitative to qualitative.
What is the difference between formation and development?
The mutual qualities of development and formation are the result of external and internal factors that make certain metamorphoses with a person's personality. Based on the definition, both development and formation are synonymous with respect to personality characteristics. The source of development, as well as formation, is always outside the personality. Development differs in that it comes directly from the impact of loved ones, family and friends.
The process of development can only take place in a living person, while at the same time society and society as a whole are subject to molding. At the same time, the development-state that occurs with personal activity and desire, at the same time, the formation can occur without consent and occur passively from outside influence.
Development implies the presence of a qualitative result after the impact of certain actions, and the formation requires only the fulfillment of a certain task and goal, without a specific positive effect.
vchemraznica.ru
The concept of development
In Hegel's philosophy, development is clearly understood as a movement from the lower to the higher, from the simple to the complex. At the same time, in his philosophy we do not find a sufficiently rigorous analysis of the concepts of development, higher and lower, simple and complex. This reflected the state of natural science and social disciplines of the first third of the 19th century, which did not yet provide sufficient material for the formation of scientific philosophical concepts. Concepts operated by natural science and social disciplines of the last century,
did not yet have sufficient structure and elaboration in depth. In modern dialectical materialism, which has gone through a century and a half of analysis and discussions based on the generalization of the constantly growing material of particular sciences, the latest scientific achievements, the concept of development and its constituent categories have received a clearly developed and “well-reflected” form in the foundations.
In Soviet philosophical science for many decades, development was interpreted as an endless movement from the lowest to the highest, from the simple to the complex. At the same time, in the 50-60s. this interpretation of development is criticized and a new concept of development is put forward as an endless chain of cycles. This interpretation of development, as already noted, arises in connection with a “new reading” of the works of Engels, who believed that natural science data on the inevitable extinction of the Sun force us to recognize the eternal cycles in which matter moves. “The time of the highest development,” wrote Engels, “the time of life and thinking life is measured in matter “extremely meagerly.” Based on these thoughts of Engels, a number of well-known Soviet philosophers (33) developed the concept of development as a cycle, which can be reduced to the following main provisions.
First of all, the definition of development as a movement from the lowest to the highest was declared erroneous and was replaced by the definition of development as an eternal cycle. The cycle, from these positions, is composed of "ascending" and "descending" branches, which are often identified with progress and regress. The ascending branch was seen as vitally preparing the inevitable descending branch. Often the concepts of progress and regress were supplemented by the concept of development “on the same plane”, or, in the words of B.C. Tyukhtin, “neutral development”, ᴛ.ᴇ. development without increasing or decreasing complexity. Idioadaptation (according to A.N. Severtsov) was considered the only more or less definite example of such development.
The central place in the concept was assigned to the principle, which we defined as the principle of equivalence, or balance, progress and regress in the world. It has been argued that in the very foundation of the world nothing - neither progress nor regression - prevails. As a justification for this principle, M.N. Rutkevich introduced the assertion that if progress prevails in our part of the Universe, then regress must (!) prevail in other parts.
An analysis of the theoretical consequences of the concept of circulation leads to a number of strange conclusions that logically follow from its most important
provisions. First of all, the idea of regress as a natural result of progress makes us believe that the more intensive the development of human society, the person, the closer the latter are to their death, their end. In Engels' concept of the cycle, however, the latter was deduced not from some kind of internal extreme importance, but from the limited external conditions for the development of mankind, from the inevitable extinction of the Sun. As for the nature of man and society, Engels considered them capable of infinite progress, the infinite development of labor and knowledge.
From the standpoint of the concept of circulation, it was necessary to recognize the fundamental internal limitations of man and society. At the same time, none of the supporters of such a concept could detect any internal vices of human nature. The concept of cycles has clearly not been "reflected" to its foundations and consequences;
The concept of circulation, further, inevitably led to the conclusion about the finiteness of the world, the finite diversity of the world and, consequently, about its ‣‣‣ creation. It is clear that if the development of matter (its diversity) has a ‣‣‣ limit “above”, beyond which it cannot go in principle, then ‣‣‣ one should recognize the limit “below”, ᴛ.ᴇ. the initial simplest state or level of matter.
Engels, criticizing E. Dühring in Anti-Dühring, brilliantly noted that if infinity is limited on one side, then it must be limited on the other. It is clear, further, that the recognition of the finiteness of the diversity of the world means that with infinite time everything in the world must repeat itself endlessly, including our dispute about development with supporters of the concept of circulation.
The concept of circulation, therefore, inevitably leads to the denial of the endless process of development, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ caused the collapse of Hegel's philosophy and for which the latter was severely criticized by Marxism. Engels, therefore, did not notice that he had fallen into a kind of trap similar to that in which Hegel's philosophy found itself.
At the same time, we experience real intellectual charm when we plunge into the central principle of the concept of circulation - the equivalence or balance of progress and regress. Let's start with the fact that this principle has no empirical and theoretical justification. All modern science testifies that progress undoubtedly prevails in the visible part of the Universe - from a singular (more precisely, “near-singular”) state to the modern extremely
diverse and complex visible universe. In the principle of equivalence, further, it turns out that its logical meaning or construction is a situation of “Buridan's donkey”, in principle unsolvable. This situation, the description of which is attributed to the philosopher of the XIV century. J. Buridanu, - the position of a hungry donkey, to the right and left of which there are identical bundles of hay at equal distances. The logic of the situation is obvious: the donkey will not be able to make a choice.
True, by introducing some modern ideas, it would be possible to complicate the situation of matter, in the foundation of which there are two equivalent opposite tendencies of progress and regress: it is possible to give each of the opposite tendencies the strength of a random fluctuation. At the same time, it is too primitive to explain the most complex structure of the part of the world known to us with its mass of already discovered laws by a random fluctuation of progress.
Finally, if we “reflect” the principle of the equivalence of progress and regression “into itself”, one cannot fail to discover the post of lgpa that clearly emerges in it. balance of opposites. This postulate, explicitly introduced by the nineteenth century metaphysical equilibrium theory, is the theoretical quintessence of metaphysics, a way of thinking opposite to dialectics, rooted in the absolutely immobile being of Parmenides. Since much is already clear with regard to the assessment of the metaphysical type of intellect, we will no longer disturb this shadow of the past.
Let us note, however, a peculiar recurring paradox of the development of Soviet philosophy in the 1950s-1980s: this is not the first time that we have seen how belated shoots of obsolete types of intellect suddenly break through the canvas of the dialectical-materialistic type of intellect (which, however, is not sufficiently established). It is noteworthy that often these pale sprouts were presented as the achievements of “true Marxism”. Without going further into their analysis, we note that these sprouts arose every time when attention to the most fundamental problems of scientific philosophy weakened in the undoubtedly lively creative stream of development of Soviet philosophy. Nor will we exaggerate the inevitable errors in the creative process of thought development.
Engels' concept of circulation was a consequence of the still rather limited theoretical possibilities of natural science in the 19th century. If it followed from the spirit of natural science of the last century that development is extremely important
understood as an endless process, then from the concrete facts of natural science, testifying to the inevitable extinction of the Sun, it followed that the death of mankind is inevitable. In the 19th century dialectics, an organic product of the epoch, met with the strongest objection; only K.E. Tsiolkovsky, the founder of the scientific idea of cosmism, managed to remove ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ in principle. 19th century science did not yet provide a completely sufficient, complete, adequate basis for dialectical materialism. One of the most important results of the scientific and technological revolution of the XX century. was the creation of a completely adequate basis for a new type of intellect - dialectical materialism.
In the 70s and 80s. the concept of circulation is noticeably supplanted by the interpretation of development as irreversible qualitative changes. The authors of this concept, as well as the previous one, do not accept the interpretation of development as a movement from the lowest to the highest, or integral progress. The rejection of the idea of integral progress, which includes regression as its subordinate moment, gives the impression of the existence of some strange “underground” tendency to exclude at all costs the idea of the natural progress of the world and human society. The real direction and significance of this trend became clear only in the early 1990s.
From the standpoint of the concept under consideration, development is a transition from one to another, which have nothing to do with simple and complex, lower and higher. The stages of development in relation to each other are simply different. Development in this sense was interpreted as "neutral" in relation to progress, lower and higher. The theoretical “fatigue” from the logic of progress, the intellect of progress shines through here quite definitely. Finally, this concept accepted the thesis about the balance of progress and regress in the world, although the concept of “neutral development” now came to the fore.
The theoretical level of the concept of neutral development is regrettable. Its authors did not notice that their logic was stuck at the level that Hegel passes as a very simple slice of being. This is the level of existence, quality; But Hegel further follows a deeper and more differentiated interpretation of something and the other from the standpoint of quantity as diversity, measure, nodal line of measures, and then - at the level of a very differentiated and multifaceted essence, and, finally, the concept, at the level of which Hegel finally introduces the concept of development. Hegel rightly noted that the development in his
The concept of irreversible qualitative changes did not contain the slightest theoretical possibility of explaining the transition from one to the other, because these initial and insignificant concepts cannot explain why one turns precisely into a given other. The concept of irreversible qualitative changes is clearly formulated at the pre-Hegelian level. Let us also note that this meaningless “anti-progressive” conception of development was transferred to a social philosophy of a certain sort, where it served as the basis for rejecting the idea of social progress and socialism.
The concepts of circulation and irreversible qualitative changes did not take into account the achievements of former philosophical systems, former types of intellect.
The concept of development as a movement from the lowest to the highest has undergone its critical test in the discussion with two other interpretations of development and has been further developed in modern philosophical thought. It included all the positive achievements of the development concepts that competed with it. The development process includes, as a subordinate moment, cycles, is characterized by a certain irreversibility, although it involves moments of return movement, or regression. Within the framework of this concept, the main categories of development theory were developed, and the deep aspects of the integral development process were revealed.
The most important categories of development theory are the concepts of lower and higher. It turned out that the definition of these categories involves the introduction of a whole sequence of categories. The lower and the higher are simple and complex. Οʜᴎ are united, therefore, by the generalized concept of complexity. In its minimal sense, the concept of complex means complexity from the simplest. At the same time, this elementary additive meaning does not exhaust the concept of the complex and is supplemented by a sign of non-additive - a qualitative difference between the higher and the lower.
The concepts of lower and higher are further disclosed with the help of the concept of content, interpreted in the broadest sense of the word, which can be defined using the phrase: everything that is contained in the subject. Content is a collection of various moments or
“signs”: properties, qualities, form and content, phenomena and essence. laws and patterns, etc. At this semantic level, the highest is that which has a great variety of content, a great richness of content. In this regard, development should be defined as an increase in the richness of content, an increase in the diversity of content. This interpretation of development permeates the entire philosophical system of Hegel from beginning to end.
The integral concept of complexity should be further defined as diversity and unity, or integrated diversity. This should be symbolically represented as a fraction, in the numerator of which is diversity, and in the denominator - unity: C \u003d M / E. Water is more complex than the physical gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, since these elements are “integrated” into a single whole. A person is more complex than an animal organism, because it combines, “packs” an incomparably greater variety of content. The highest socio-economic formation integrates a greater variety of material and spiritual life of people.
The concept of diversity smolders universal in nature, denotes everything that exists in the world, and, therefore, potentially contains all the categories of philosophy and private sciences. Thanks to this, the concept of development covers all forms and manifestations of the real world, all the diversity of the content of the world and, therefore, reveals its universal character. Posted on ref.rfThe concept of development thus reveals the systemic connection between the categories of scientific philosophy. The elucidation of this real systemic connection of categories, in contrast to the largely scholastically far-fetched systemic connection of Hegel's philosophy, is one of the merits of modern scientific philosophy.
Complexity, like diversity and unity, implicitly contains the concepts of contradiction and organization, or self-organization. Diversity is based on differences, and the latter, as was shown by Hegel, contain contradictions. This most interesting and the meaningful categorical line, unfortunately, should not be considered further by us.
referatwork.ru
Development is a scientific concept - The Big Encyclopedia of Oil and Gas, article, page 1
Development - scientific concept
Page 1
The development of scientific concepts begins in the realm of awareness and arbitrariness and continues further, growing down into the realm of personal experience and concreteness. The development of spontaneous concepts begins in the realm of concreteness and empiricism and moves towards the highest properties of concepts: awareness and arbitrariness. The connection between the development of these two oppositely directed lines undoubtedly reveals its true nature: it is the connection between the zone of proximal development and the actual level of development.
In this respect, the study of the development of scientific concepts, which, on the one hand, are real concepts, and, on the other hand, are being formed almost experimentally before our eyes, becomes an indispensable means for solving the methodological problem outlined above. Scientific concepts form a special group, undoubtedly belonging to the real concepts of the child, which persist for the rest of his life, but they, in the very course of their development, are extremely close to the experimental formation of concepts and thus combine the merits of the two currently existing methods, making it possible to apply an experimental analysis of birth and development. a real concept that actually exists in the mind of the child.
The history of mechanics shows that a continuous development of scientific concepts was necessary until the concept of mechanical force acquired its modern form.
For the sake of clarity, I will allow myself to schematically represent the path of development of spontaneous and scientific concepts in the form of two lines that have the opposite direction. At the same time, spontaneous concepts in a certain respect develop from the bottom up. Consequently, spontaneous concepts and their first genesis are nevertheless connected with the direct confrontation of the child with certain things. True, with such things that at the same time meet with an explanation from adults, but still real.
There is every reason to assume that there are completely analogous relations between the development of everyday and scientific concepts.
Thus, we see that the curve of development of scientific concepts does not coincide with the curve of development of spontaneous ones, but at the same time, and precisely because of this, it reveals the most complex relationship with it. These relationships would be impossible if scientific concepts simply repeated the history of the development of spontaneous concepts. The connection between these two processes and the enormous influence exerted by one on the other is possible precisely because the development of both concepts follows different paths.
For the sake of clarity, we could schematically represent the path of development of the child's spontaneous and scientific concepts in the form of two lines having opposite directions, one of which goes from above to below, reaching a certain level at the point to which the other approaches, going from below upwards. If we conditionally designate the earlier maturing, simpler, more elementary properties of the concept as lower, and the later developing, more complex properties of the concept associated with awareness and arbitrariness as higher, then we could conditionally say that the spontaneous concept of the child develops from the bottom up, from more elementary and lower properties to higher ones, and scientific concepts develop from top to bottom, from more complex and higher properties to more elementary and lower ones. This difference is connected with the different relation of the scientific and everyday concepts to the object mentioned above.
This leads us to the hypothesis of a somewhat special development of scientific concepts. This path is due to the fact that the primary verbal definition acts as a defining turning point in its development, which, under the conditions of an organized system, descends to the concrete, to the phenomenon, while the tendency for the development of everyday concepts proceeds outside a certain system - it goes upwards, to generalizations.
It seems to me that this could be called a symptomatology of the development of spontaneous and scientific concepts. And it should also be noted that the weakness of worldly concepts and the weakness of children's scientific concepts affect in different ways. The child knows excellently what a brother is, his knowledge is saturated with great experience, but when he needs to solve the abstract problem of brother brother, sister brother, to count them, the child gets confused. He experiences difficulties when the concept of brother should be taken in its pure meaning. When a child learns a scientific concept, for example, a revolution, the difficulty lies not in the fact that he is very weak in the sphere of such concepts (often, when it is necessary to talk about the causes of the revolution, the child answers quite well), but in the sphere where the concept of brother is strong . In other words, where the child's experience stands behind the concept, which guarantees him that the word brother is not a verbal designation of some phenomenon, the child's scientific concept turns out to be weak.
Let's start with a problem that plays a very important role: the development of a spontaneous and scientific concept in the child's thinking. The concept has a very long history of development. The concept of a child develops long before a child enters school. It has been traced by various scientists, and we can say that we have some approximate idea of this process. But there is very little coverage of another aspect of the problem. The fact is that the very arrival at school means for the child an extremely interesting and new way of developing his concepts. The child learns at school in the process of learning a number of concepts and subjects - natural science, arithmetic, social science. However, the development of the scientific concept has hardly been studied, while the study of the fate of these concepts is an important task for the pedologist.
Only the disclosure of these more complex relationships that exist between learning and the development of scientific concepts can help us find a way out of the contradiction in which Piaget’s thought is entangled, who saw nothing out of all the richness of these relationships but the conflict and antagonism of both these processes.
In the light of this central significance of the system introduced into the child's thinking by the development of scientific concepts, the general theoretical question of the relationship between the development of thinking and the acquisition of knowledge, between teaching and development, becomes clear. Piaget, as you know, breaks both; the concepts learned by the child at school are of no interest to him from the point of view of studying the peculiarities of the child's thought.
If we dismiss, as we did above, the idea that completely excludes the existence of the development of scientific concepts, our research will be left with two tasks: to verify the correctness of the opinion that scientific concepts in their development repeat the path of formation of everyday concepts, and to verify the truth of the proposition that scientific concepts have nothing in common with the development of spontaneous concepts and are incapable of telling us anything about the activity of children's thought in all its originality. We must assume in advance that the study will give a negative answer to both of these questions. It actually shows that neither the first nor the second assumption is justified from the factual side and that in reality there is something third, which determines the true, complex and two-sided relationship between scientific and worldly concepts.
But the same applies entirely to our main problem - the problem of the development of scientific concepts at school age. As we have already seen, the features of this development are that its source is school education. Therefore, the problem of training and development is central in the analysis of the origin and education scientific concepts.
But this work, as research shows, does not form the end, but the beginning in the development of a scientific concept and not only does not exclude its own development processes, but gives them new directions and puts the processes of learning and development in new and most favorable relations from the point of view of the final tasks of the school. .
Pages: 1 2 3 4
www.ngpedia.ru
The theory of concept development and its meaning - MegaLectures
The formation and development of concepts in the methodology of teaching biology has long received much attention. The main provisions of the theory of the development of biological concepts of the school subject include the following:
ü the subject "Biology" is a system of basic concepts of science and practice;
ü the content of the subject "Biology" is expressed in concepts;
ü concepts play a leading role in the process in the process of developing thinking and educating students;
ü concepts are not given to students in finished form, they are developed in the learning process;
ü the formation and development of biological concepts occurs in a phased process;
ü there are types of concepts: special, local and general biological;
ü complex concepts are formed in the process of their development by generalizing simple concepts, merging, integrating and in interconnection with the concepts of other academic disciplines;
ü concepts are introduced: intersubject and intrasubject communications, perspective and retrospective lines, development of concepts;
ü intersubject and intrasubject communications are important conditions for the development of concepts, their means are “synchronistic maps of the educational process”;
ü there are different types of development of concepts: continuous, intermittent, through and confined to small segments of educational material and the time of its study;
ü with the continuous formation and development of concepts, their successive and more conscious assimilation occurs;
ü the movement of concepts in the school subject is accompanied by an increasingly complete reflection, adequate to the nature of things and phenomena.
Concepts are divided into simple and complex. In school biology, there are special concepts developed within one course (botany, zoology), and general biological concepts developed in all courses of the subject.
In the course of botany, from topic to topic, concepts are developed on the elements of the foundations of this science: morphology, anatomy, histology, physiology - about the respiration of organs, nutrition (water, mineral, air), the movement of nutrients in a plant.
In the course of zoology, the concept of each animal combines the concept of its morphology, anatomy, physiology and ecology. At the same time, the concept of the evolutionary complication of organisms is developing.
In the course of human anatomy, physiology and hygiene, simple concepts give in aggregate a complex concept about the anatomy of each organ, for example, the heart, lung, brain, etc. This concept is closely related to the concept of functional processes occurring in cells, tissues, the whole organ and in throughout the system to which it belongs. The concept of an organ is gradually being transformed into a more complex anatomical and physiological concept of an organ system. With further study of the human body, there is an even greater deepening of the concept of the system, consideration of the relationship with other systems.
Special concepts are those that develop within the same course. Among them are local concepts. Developing only within the theme or individual lessons. General biological concepts are considered to be the concepts of biological laws that apply to all living organisms and generalize the special concepts of individual biological courses: the cell as a unit of life, the unity of the structure and function of organisms, the relationship of the organism and the environment, the body as a self-regulating system, metabolism and energy transformation, self-reproduction of organisms, evolutionary development of the world, biological system and level of organization of living matter. These concepts are formed from special concepts and are developed in all courses of school biology on the material of each of them.
The task of teaching is the systematic formation and development of concepts. Each concept in its development must be assimilated by students so that they can freely operate with it.
12. Methodology for the formation of biological skills
The content of education in each academic subject should be based on specially selected and developed skills that are priority for each topic, course. Among them, for example, the ability to find facts, ask questions, realize and choose the right ways to solve problems. The activity content of education as an obligatory component of the general and subject content of education is included in the programs.
In modern methods of biology, the idea of actively influencing the student through the active inclusion of him in the educational process has received recognition and development.
A systematic approach to the learning process implies the inclusion of students in a multifaceted educational activity, characterized by a system of methods of cognition, types of educational activities that are organized by the purposeful activity of the teacher, as well as the level of students' receptivity to new knowledge and skills.
All qualities, personality traits, interests and desires, abilities are manifested in deeds, in various types of personal activities. In human activity, his goals, aspirations and personal characteristics are realized. Depending on what a person does, how he does it, on the organization and conditions of this activity, certain inclinations, abilities and traits of character, consciousness are formed, and knowledge is consolidated. That is why activity has become an important part of the content of schoolchildren's education.
Activity is expressed in a variety of human actions. To achieve the desired result, a person controls physical actions in a certain way, using various mental operations, selects the most appropriate methods, organizes them in the right sequence, performs them at the right pace and with the strength and direction that meets the goal. Any human activity requires the use of certain methods of action, that is, skills and abilities. There are different opinions about the place of skills and abilities in activity. Some researchers believe that skills precede skills, others that skills arise before skills.
Skills are the ability to successfully perform actions based on acquired knowledge, to solve tasks in accordance with specified conditions. The skill includes understanding the relationship between the purpose of this activity, the conditions and methods of its implementation. Each skill goes through a number of stages in its formation, each of them has its own psychological structure.
Table. Formation of skills
| Stage | Psychological structure |
| I - initial skill | Awareness of the purpose of the action and the search for ways to perform it, based on previously acquired (usually everyday) knowledge and skills; activities are done through trial and error |
| II - insufficiently skillful activity | Knowledge about how to perform an action and the use of previously acquired skills that are not specific to this activity |
| III - individual general skills | A number of individual highly developed skills required in various activities |
| IV - highly developed skill | Creative use of knowledge and skills in this activity; awareness of not only the goal, but also the motives for choosing, ways to achieve it |
| V - skill | Confident creative use of various skills and knowledge |
Skills in learning are usually simple actions with an object. Thanks to the repeated repetition of the same actions in the same conditions, skills are performed faster and faster, more and more perfectly and require less and less mental work, they become automated. Such actions. Those automated by repeated repetition are called skills. However, a skill cannot be understood as a completely automatic action, since at the right moment consciousness can intervene in the action and direct it.
Skill is the ability of a person to perform work productively, with due completeness and at the appropriate time in new conditions. The skill is formed on the basis of skills and knowledge, it also includes an understanding of the relationship between the purpose of this activity, the conditions and methods of its implementation. Therefore, the psychological structure of a skill includes not only skills, but also knowledge and creative thinking. Skills best determine the readiness of the student, become the characteristics of his personality. Skills are developed by repetition and destroyed when repetition stops. The reasons for the fading of skills and abilities are usually associated with long breaks in the application, but this may also be due to the forced acceleration of the pace of work, fatigue and stress.
Developing skills and abilities always interact with existing ones. The assimilation of a new skill or skill as a result of its interaction with previously formed ones is called the transfer of skills (skills).
Table. Skill building
| Stage | Features of performing an action |
| I - the beginning of understanding the skill | A clear understanding of the goal, but a vague understanding of how to achieve it. Gross errors when performing an action |
| II - conscious, but still inept execution | A clear understanding of how to perform an action, but inaccurate, unstable execution of it, despite the intense concentration of voluntary attention; a lot of unnecessary movements; no positive transfer of this skill |
| III - automation of skill through exercises | More and more qualitative performance of an action with sometimes weakening voluntary attention and the emergence of the possibility of its distribution; elimination of unnecessary movements; occurrence of positive skill transfer |
| IV - highly automated skill - skill | Precise, economical, sustainable performance of an action that has become a means of performing another, more complex action. Applies confidently to a new situation |
Each skill in the process of its formation to the state of a skill goes through a series of stages:
the beginning of understanding the skill;
conscious but inept execution;
the transition of skill through exercise into a skill;
application of a skill as a highly automated action.
In table. the features of stage-by-stage execution of motional actions are shown.
Depending on the types of actions, the following skills and abilities are distinguished: intellectual (thinking and memory), sensory (actions on perception) and motor. By the nature of the activity in the educational process, skills and abilities are distinguished: intellectual or mental (analysis, synthesis, generalization, abstraction), practical or labor (growing plants, caring for animals), special or subject (working with a microscope, germinating seeds, identifying the characteristics of plants and animals), general educational (working with a book, drawing up a plan, self-control).
Thus, skills and abilities are the ability of students to perform a variety of activities based on the knowledge they have acquired, and the skills and abilities developed by students contribute to the formation of new skills and abilities, the application of acquired knowledge in new situations.
There are a huge number of human activities, but the main types include communication, play, learning and work. For each age period, there is its own, most characteristic type of activity: in preschool age - play, in primary school - teaching, in secondary school - active mastery of various forms of communication. At senior school age, a form of educational activity becomes that is characterized by independent moral judgments and assessments of students. This does not mean. That at each age, students are engaged only in leading activities. It is important to constantly develop all the richness of activities, ensuring the comprehensive development of the personality of schoolchildren. However, knowledge of the leading activities allows the teacher to use and shape them more actively in the educational process.
13.Methods of teaching biology
Teaching methods is one of the significant and complex problems in the methodology of teaching biology. The development of teaching methods in biology is influenced by the methods of biological science and practice, trends in methodology, achievements in didactics and methods of biology. According to the definition of philosophy, the method in the most general sense - a way to achieve the goal in a certain way ordered activity. Pedagogy also defines throwing in the same way: “A method in the broadest interpretation is a way to achieve a goal, that is, a set of techniques and operations used to achieve a goal” (Yu. K. Babansky, 1977) This definition of a method is based on the relationship between the purpose and nature of the activities aimed at achieving it. The goal determines what the system of human action should be.
In the methodology of teaching biology, methods are most often defined by the keyword “method”.
N. M. Verzilin and V. M. Korsunskaya in the textbook on the methodology of teaching biology give the following definition: "The teaching method is a way of transferring knowledge by a teacher and at the same time a way of mastering them by students." V. A. Tetyurev in the book “Methods of Teaching the First Logic” (1960) defines methods as “the main methods of work of the teacher and students, used to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities”. The source of knowledge is determined by the content of the educational material, which is the leading one in the educational process, realizing the learning objectives.
The influence of sources of knowledge on teaching methods is expressed in their external forms of manifestation associated with the word, image and action. And the logic of mental activity, as the nature of the activity of students in the process of cognition, is the inner side of the methods.
In practice, various methods of teaching biology have developed. However, all their diversity can be grouped according to the most significant common features: the source of knowledge, the nature of the teacher's activity, the nature of the students' activity in the learning process. These features are the main ones in determining one or another method used in teaching. These signs reflect the unity of learning, teaching and the source of knowledge representing the content. Based on these features, three groups of teaching methods were identified: verbal (one source of knowledge - the word), visual (two sources of knowledge - the word and visualization) and practical (three sources of knowledge - the word, the object of study and practical examination of the subject).
The group of verbal methods includes a story, a conversation, an explanation, a lecture. Here the activity of the teacher is expressed in the form of a word, and the activity of the students - mainly in the form of listening, comprehension, oral or written answers.
A group of visual methods is represented by demonstrations of experiments and visual aids, showing objects and phenomena in their natural form or in an image (drawing, diagram, model, model). The teacher in a word organizes observation, consideration of the object being studied, and the students, observing, comprehend it, draw conclusions and in this way acquire knowledge.
The group of practical methods in biology is represented by work with the studied object or textbook. They are used during laboratory work in a lesson or practical exercises, on excursions, in a corner of wildlife, in a school educational and experimental site. In the classroom, working with handouts or with a textbook, students acquire knowledge through direct communication with the object being studied (examination, examination, measurement, submission or division into parts). As you can see, the word is involved in all groups of teaching methods, but in the verbal, its function is a source of knowledge, in visual and practical, the word is the organizer of observation and practical activity of students.
The extraordinary variety and combination of teaching methods, their variability are provided by various methodological techniques.
Any of the teaching methods is carried out with the help of techniques. Some methodologists consider them as separate actions of the teacher and students used in various teaching methods, others consider them to be a separate element of the method, due to only one type of educational operation and means of teaching. Most often, methodological devices are called elements of a particular method, expressing individual actions of the teacher and students in the learning process.
N.M.Verzilin and V.M. Korsunskaya (1966) divided methodological techniques into three groups: logical, organizational and technical and correlated them into groups of methods. From the whole variety of methods and teaching methods, they modeled an integral system of methods for teaching biology.
The named authors represent verbal, visual and practical groups of methods, or types of methods; conversation, story, lecture, demonstration, recognition, etc. - types of methods corresponding to one or another kind. Methodological techniques as varieties of methods complete the classification of methods.
The figure shows some of the most common methodological techniques in practice, and often the same techniques represent different methods. The authors of this system draw attention to the fact that in all groups of methods the same logical methods of intellectual activity are used: comparison, generalization, identification of signs, conclusions, formulation of the problem, proof, etc. This circumstance, in their opinion, very significantly reveals the possibilities all methods in the development of students' thinking and the formation of their independence in "work. Organizational techniques the teacher directs the attention, perception and work of students. Techniques include the use of various equipment, auxiliary tools and materials that improve the cognitive work of students. A wide variety of methodological techniques was the result of creative the work of teachers-biologists and methodologists The role of methodological techniques, as shown by many studies, is especially important in the development of thinking and cognitive activity.
The use of a variety of teaching methods in biology lessons, especially in their combination, testifies to the creative initiative and pedagogical skill of the teacher, that is, it serves as an indicator of the quality of his work.
In the practice of teaching biology, the system of methods created by N.M. Verzilin and V.M. Korsunskaya is quite widespread, but is not the only one.
In his classification, B. E. Raikov wanted to show the variety of methods and how they interact with each other, forming paired combinations. On this basis, he introduced the so-called binary nomenclature (double names) of methods. According to the nature of perception (the work of the sense organs and organs of movement), he singled out three groups of methods - verbal, visual and motor, and according to how the student acquired knowledge, he singled out two more groups of methods - illustrative and research. The first group of methods: students acquired knowledge in finished form from the teacher's words or from a book using visual aids; the second group of methods: the students themselves obtained knowledge directly from the objects of study. B. E. Raikov emphasized that the methods of teaching natural science, which ensure the educational process, will be combinations, combinations of these particular methods, while all methods can be carried out through all forms of education.
Raikov's system of methods formed the basis for the creation of N.M. Verzilin's system of methods.
At present, the question of the system of teaching methods is solved in the methodological literature ambiguously. This causes difficulties in the practical work of a teacher who uses different methodological recommendations in preparing for a lesson. The future teacher should know well on what basis this or that classification of teaching methods is built.
In many pedagogical works, a rather detailed review of various classifications of teaching methods is given. Therefore, here we only indicate the approaches on the basis of which the classifications of teaching methods were created: by didactic goals (M.A. Danilin, B.P. Esipov, M.M. Levina), by levels of cognitive activity (I.Ya. Lerner, M. .N. Skatkin), according to the activities of the teacher and the activities of students (B.V. Vsesvyatsky, V. A. Tetyurev, P. I. Borovitsky), according to the sources of knowledge (I. Ya. Go-land, S. G. Shapovalenko) , according to the sources of knowledge and the level of independent activity of students (E.P. Brunovt, I.D. Zverev, A.N. Myagkova), according to the sources of knowledge and the logical basis (N.M. Verzilin, N.A. Rykov, V. M. Korsunskaya), according to the sources of knowledge and methods of presenting ready-made knowledge and their search (B. E. Raikov).
Despite the widespread classification of methods by sources of knowledge, didactics and methodology continue to search for more advanced teaching methods focused on the development of the student's personality and his creative abilities, on strengthening humanistic and cultural approaches, and on eliminating the rigid authoritarian style of managing the cognitive activity of schoolchildren.
14. Forms of organization of teaching biology
Learning is the process of interaction between a teacher and students working on a certain content of educational material in order to assimilate it and master the methods of cognitive activity. To carry out the learning process, it is necessary to organize it. “Organization, according to the definition of philosophers, is the ordering, adjustment, bringing into the system of some material or spiritual object; arrangement, correlation, interconnection of parts of any whole object. Such parts or links of the educational process are personal forms of organization of education. They are an expression of the coordinated activity of the teacher and students, carried out in the prescribed manner and in a certain mode. To organize learning, they regulate the joint activities of the teacher and students, determine the ratio of individual and collective learning, the degree of student activity in cognitive activity and its management by the body (Yu.K. Babansky, 1983
According to the definition of N.M. Verzilin and V.M. Korsunskaya, the form of organization of education is the organization of educational and cognitive activity of students, corresponding to the various conditions for its implementation (in the classroom, an excursion into nature, etc.), used by the teacher in the process of educating education.
The process of assimilation of a certain system of knowledge and skills, education and development of students is realized in various forms of organization of the educational process. The following diverse forms have been established in the methodology of teaching biology: lessons and mandatory excursions associated with them, homework, extracurricular work and optional extracurricular activities (individual, group or circle and mass). All together they represent a system of forms of organization of teaching biology in secondary school, the connecting link in which is the lesson - the main form of education.
A lesson, an excursion, extracurricular and homework, extracurricular activities - they all solve certain problems: setting a goal, mastering the educational content, summing up the learning results, etc. Each organizational form solves both general and specific learning tasks in the educational process. The general ones are those that the whole process of biological education is aimed at solving. Specific - those that prevail in this particular form of the educational process. All forms of teaching biology are interconnected, complement and develop each other.
For example, if the task of learning is related to the use of a microscope or the study of the internal structure of the body, physiological processes, a number of theoretical provisions, then a lesson is obligatory, and when studying the biological diversity of species of the plant or animal world, it is advisable to conduct excursions to nature or a botanical garden, a zoo or, in extreme case in the corner of wildlife. If the tasks of teaching require students to become familiar with the methods of scientific research, the equipment of scientific laboratories, the nature of the activity, then it is preferable to conduct an excursion to a research institution or a breeding station.
The study of anatomical, physiological educational material can be successfully organized in the classroom, and the formation and development of environmental concepts cannot be carried out only in the classroom, excursions into nature, extracurricular activities, extracurricular activities (individual, group and mass) are necessary.
The choice of forms is influenced by the production and natural environment. For example, teaching is conducted in a rural school, and the teacher does not have the opportunity to conduct an excursion to a research institution. In this case, the demonstration of an educational film at the lesson makes it possible to acquaint students with the methods of cognition of living objects, with special devices and materials that help their study. In schools in large cities, it is not always possible to go to the forest (meadow, field, lake) for an excursion, so it is carried out in the school area, using lawns and squares.
The choice of the form of teaching biology is also influenced by the equipment of the educational process, the equipment of the classroom with natural and visual aids, and technical teaching aids. This especially affects the variety of types of lessons. So, a sufficient number of natural visual teaching aids contributes to laboratory and independent work in the classroom. The lack of natural objects can be compensated by visual visual means.
The program also lists summer assignments, practical work that the teacher uses when planning classes.
The choice of the form of organization of education is determined by the specifics of the contingent of students in a particular class. Very often there are several parallel classes in the school, and one differs from the other in the level of preparedness, independence and interests of students. When planning the educational process, the teacher usually takes into account all these features.
Thus, the choice of forms of organization of teaching biology is due to the interaction of several objective factors: goals, objectives and curriculum in biology, the specifics of the conditions of the educational process, the specifics of the contingent of students. The variety of forms of organization of educational activities makes it possible to make the educational process richer, to better understand wildlife.
The most important organizational form of learning is the lesson, since most of the teaching material in biology is studied in the classroom. However, it is impossible to study certain issues of biology only in the classroom, for example, long-term observations of the development of organisms, the coexistence of different groups of organisms over a small area in natural conditions, etc. Therefore, biology lessons complement other forms of education.
The lesson is most closely related to homework. It is an ethical continuation of learning from the lesson at home with a high degree of independence. Students complete tasks related to various activities. First of all, they finish the work started in the classroom, put on simple new experiments or repeat those that were done in the classroom, make observations in nature, get acquainted with additional literature, preparing reports and speeches.
On special assignments, students perform extracurricular work, which is mandatory. They can be given to individual students or a small group. The teacher gives assignments to students throughout the school year, many of them can be completed at any time, including in the summer (summer assignments). At the last lesson, the teacher reminds how and where to complete them, how to write a report on their implementation. Summer tasks have a certain system, since their results can be used in the manufacture of visual aids.
Excursions are one of the most important forms of organization of the educational process, they introduce students to objects, phenomena, patterns and laws, the main provisions of theories relating to wildlife, with the specifics of methods for studying it. The knowledge gained on excursions can introduce students to the study of a new topic, contribute to consolidating and clarifying what has been covered, help to deepen and generalize new concepts learned in the classroom. But there are excursions that affect the improvement of students' independent activities. Students receive group and individual tasks, during which it is necessary to apply the existing knowledge and naturalistic skills. On excursions, natural material is collected, fixed and arranged in the form of a herbarium or collection for use in the educational process.
Environmentally correct excursions into nature contribute to the accumulation of knowledge about local biogeocenoses, the diversity of plant and animal objects, allow the use of local natural material in the classroom, instill a love for nature, develop an aesthetic taste, and cultivate a respect for nature.
In teaching biology, such optional forms of organization of the educational process as extracurricular activities are of great importance. They are visited by schoolchildren seeking to deepen their knowledge in the field of biology. This form of education includes: individual work (research work, reading popular science literature), group work (electives, circles), mass campaigns (holidays)
15. Preparing a teacher for a biology lesson.
In preparation for the academic year, the teacher's attention should first of all be attracted by new editions of biology programs and textbooks, the least mastered sections and topics. It is important to familiarize yourself with the programs and textbooks of related subjects that will be in this class. It is useful to pay attention to the organization of independent work of students, taking into account a differentiated approach, to the development of technical teaching aids and new information technologies, to the connection between classroom, extracurricular and extracurricular work in biology.
The teacher studies the state of the material base in his subject and determines the need for its ordering and replenishment. Analysis of the conditions of the forthcoming work is the basis for planning educational work.
Distinguish between perspective and lesson plans. Perspective plans allow you to overview, in the form of large blocks, to present the annual course, section or topic. Over time, this plan will evolve and be detailed. The annual plan allows you to evenly distribute the material of the program during the academic year, provide for the advance bookmarking of long-term experiments, and plan the most important extracurricular activities. The traditional scheme of the annual plan includes the following items: topic, hours, deadlines, repetition, excursions, extracurricular activities.
- this is such a quantitative and qualitative change in material and ideal objects, which is characterized by direction, patterns and irreversibility.
This definition shows that the concepts of "development" and "movement" are not synonymous, they are not identical. If development is always movement, then not every movement is development. The simple mechanical movement of objects in space is, of course, movement, but it is not development. Chemical reactions such as oxidation are not development either.
But here are the changes that occur over time with a newborn child, of course, represent development. In the same way, the changes that take place in society at one or another historical period are also development.
Development in its direction can be progressive (transition from lower to higher, from simple to complex) or regressive (transition from higher to lower, degradation).
There are other criteria for progress and regression: the transition from less diverse to more diverse (N. Mikhailovsky); from systems with less information to systems with more information (A. Ursul), etc. Naturally, in relation to regression, these processes will take place in the opposite direction.
Progress and regress are not isolated from each other. All progressive changes are accompanied by regressive ones and vice versa. At the same time, the direction of development is determined by which of these two tendencies will prevail in a particular situation. With all the costs of cultural development, for example, a progressive tendency prevails in it. In the development of the ecological situation in the world, there is a regressive trend, which, according to many well-known scientists, has reached a critical point and can become a dominant in the interaction of society and nature.
The emergence in the material system of qualitatively new opportunities that did not exist before, as a rule, indicates the irreversibility of development. In other words, qualitatively different relations, structural connections and functions that have arisen at one or another stage of the system development, in principle, guarantee that the system will not spontaneously return to its original level.
Development is also characterized by the properties of novelty and continuity. Novelty is manifested in the fact that a material object, when passing from one qualitative state to another, acquires properties that it did not previously possess. Continuity consists in the fact that this object in its new qualitative state retains certain elements of the old system, certain aspects of its structural organization. The ability to preserve the initial state of a given system in a new state to some extent determines the very possibility of development.
Thus, it can be stated that these essential features of development in their totality make it possible to distinguish this type of change from any other types of changes, whether it be mechanical movement, a closed cycle, or multidirectional disordered changes in the social environment.
Development is not limited to the sphere of only material phenomena. Not only matter develops. With the process of progressive development of mankind, the consciousness of man develops, science develops, social consciousness as a whole develops. Moreover, the development of spiritual reality can occur relatively independently of its material carrier. The development of the spiritual sphere of a person can outstrip the physical development of a person or, conversely, lag behind him. A similar situation is also characteristic of society as a whole: social consciousness can "lead" material production, contribute to its progressive development, or it can slow down, restrain its development.
Thus, we can say that development occurs in all spheres of both objective and subjective reality, it is inherent in nature, society and consciousness.
Deep development of the essence of development and its various problems finds its expression in the doctrine, which is called dialectics. Translated from Greek, this term means "the art of conversation" or "the art of arguing." Dialectics as the ability to conduct a dialogue, argue, find a common point of view as a result of a clash of opposing opinions was highly valued in ancient Greece.
Subsequently, the term "dialectics" began to be used in relation to the doctrine of the most general patterns of development. It is still used in this sense today.
Dialectics in its current understanding can be represented as a certain system of categories associated with the basic laws of development. This system can be considered either as a reflection of the objective connections of reality, as a definition of being and its universal forms, or, conversely, as the basis, the beginning of the material world.
Dialectics is a theory and method of cognition of reality, used to explain and understand the laws of nature and society.
All philosophical theories of the beginnings of being in ancient Greece were built initially dialogically. The water of Thales, for all its irreducibility to ordinary water, nevertheless pulls together the diversity of beings to something definitely special. Anaximander, a student of Thales, speaks of apeiron - boundless and indefinable through any particular. In the beginning there was something that determines everything, but itself is not determined by anything - such is the meaning of his antithesis to the thesis of Thales. Anaximenes is trying in the air as a spirit that animates, nourishes all that exists (and thus forms it), to find as a synthesis something third, primordial, just as solid, but not as indefinite as apeiron, and not as definite as the water of Thales. Pythagoras uses paired categories and numbers, which, through the unity of their opposites to each other, form the harmony of the Cosmos. Heraclitus is convinced that the path of counter-movement of different states and forms of fire as the basis of the foundations of the physical world is destined by the logos - the creative word, i.e. the very meaning of being. Among the Eleatics, the discontinuous and the continuous, the part and the whole, the divisible and the indivisible, also claim to be the beginning of their interdetermination, their inseparability in a single foundation.
As one of the characteristics of ancient culture, one can consider the cult of the dispute, which revealed itself in theatrical and political creativity. Sophists honed in dialogue with students their ability to prove the truth of each of the opposites. During this period, the flourishing of a culture of meaningful dialogue in solving purely theoretical and, above all, philosophical problems falls.
Dialectics - the ability of cognitive thinking to argue with itself in the dialogue of thinkers - was realized precisely as a method of searching for a common generic principle for particular opposite meanings of one concept. Socrates considered dialectics as the art of discovering the truth through the clash of opposing opinions, a way of conducting a learned conversation, leading to true definitions of concepts. However, dialectics has not yet appeared as a natural and necessary form of theoretical thinking in general, which makes it possible to clearly express and resolve contradictions in the content of what is conceivable by searching for their common root (their identity), their common gender. Although the philosophers of antiquity divided the imaginary world, perceived by man, and the true world, this division did not yet raise the problem of the real path to truth - the problem of the general method (form) of theoretical thinking. The illusory nature of opinions about the world, for the early dialecticians, was primarily associated with the limited perceptual capabilities of the senses, with the weakness of the mind in the face of age-old prejudices, with the tendency of people to wishful thinking, etc., which later F. Bacon would call the ghosts of a cave, a kind , market and theater. Contradictions in judgments were not associated with the objectively contradictory formation and deployment of the processes of everything that really exists.
The philosophers of the Middle Ages were faced with the task of identifying the initial foundations in seemingly well-founded, but contradictory statements about principles and principles, about sensory experience and reason, about the passions of the soul, about the nature of light, about true knowledge and error, about transcendental and transcendent , about will and idea, about being and time, about words and things. Eastern philosophy reveals the opposite of wise contemplation of the eternal meaning of being to vain action in the transient world.
Starting from antiquity, the greatest difficulty for thinking was, first of all, direct semantic contradictions with the initial interdependence of “paired” universal categories of thinking. In the Middle Ages, the internal dialogism of thinking was perceived not only as a norm for theoretical thinking, but also as its problem, requiring a special mental form, rule and canon for its solution. Socratic dialogue remained such a form for a long time. During this period, dialectics was not called a universal productive way of philosophizing, as it asserted itself during the formation and first steps in the development of theoretical activity, but an academic subject designed to teach young scholastics to conduct a dialogue according to all the rules of the art of double-edged thought, which exclude the emotional disorder of an ordinary dispute. The rules were that opposing statements about a particular subject (thesis and antithesis) should not contain contradictions in the definition and other errors against the rules of Aristotelian logic. Thus, a conviction was strengthened that was radically opposite to the original formula of theoretical consciousness: to think truly means to think consistently, formally without error, because in the conceivable (in nature, created by God’s plan) there are no errors or contradictions. The imperfect mind of man is mistaken. Contradiction in statements is the first and main sign of his fallacy. The "dialectic" of the dispute is called upon to reveal errors either in the statements of one of the disputants, or in the statements of both. Thus, the logic of thinking about contradictions in statements and the logical consequences of them and the logic of theoretical (primarily philosophical) thinking about the internal contradictions of the conceivable were clearly separated.
In modern times, science, as a new form of theoretical activity, set itself the goal not of ordinary empirical, but actually theoretical knowledge of the invariants of natural processes. The immediate subject of this knowledge is the methods, means and forms of determining these invariants: mechanics, astronomy, the principles of chemistry, medicine, etc. In medieval universities, a number of deep theoretical hypotheses were prepared about the properties of substances and forces of nature, manifesting themselves with convincing constancy with regularly repeated interactions. natural phenomena. At the same time, fundamental problems were formulated that did not accidentally coincide with the problems of scientific knowledge. For example, the discussion by realists and nominalists of the problem of the existence of universals (universal in the name and in real being) grew into the 17th-18th centuries. into the problem of the cognitive correlation of the truths of theoretical thinking (reason) and sensory experience with the substances and forces of nature. Empiricists and rationalists continued the dialogue between realists and nominalists with a radically different type of public awareness of the historical reality of being. Along with the immutable truths of the Holy Scriptures and the texts of the Church Fathers, no less immutable general knowledge about the space and time of natural processes appeared.
The original dialectical essence of the theory as a "dialogue of the thinking" stubbornly demanded a search for real ontological prerequisites for the genesis unity of fundamentally incompatible opposites. This search found its logical embodiment in the antinomies of I. Kant's pure reason, in the throwing of philosophical thought from the extreme of pure spiritualism to the extreme of vulgar materialism, in the constant sharpening of the opposition between empiricism and rationalism, rationality and irrationality.
In the philosophical tradition, there are three main laws of dialectics that explain the development of the world. Each of them characterizes its side of development. The first law of dialectics - the law of unity and struggle of opposites reveals in the development of its cause, source (that's why it is called the main one). The basis of any development, from the point of view of this law, is the struggle of opposite sides, tendencies of this or that process, phenomenon. When characterizing the operation of this law, it is necessary to refer to the categories of identity, difference, opposition, contradiction. Identity is a category expressing the equality of an object to itself or several objects to each other. Difference is a category that expresses the ratio of inequality of an object to itself or objects to each other. Opposite is a category that reflects the relationship of such aspects of an object or objects with each other, which are fundamentally different from each other. Contradiction is a process of interpenetration and mutual negation of opposites. The category of contradiction is central in this law. The law implies that true actual opposites are constantly in a state of interpenetration, that they are moving, interrelated and interacting tendencies and moments. The inextricable interconnection and interpenetration of opposites is expressed in the fact that each of them, as its opposite, has not just some other, but its own other opposite and exists as such only insofar as this opposite of it exists. The interpenetration of opposites can be demonstrated by the example of such phenomena as magnetism and electricity. “There cannot be a north pole in a magnet without a south pole. If we cut the magnet into two halves, then we will not have the north pole in one piece, and the south pole in the other. In the same way, in electricity, positive and negative electricity are not two different, separately existing fluids ”(Hegel. Works. Vol. 1. P. 205). Another integral side of the dialectical contradiction is the mutual negation of sides and tendencies. That is why the sides of a single whole are opposites, they are not only in a state of interconnection, interdependence, but also mutual negation, mutual exclusion, mutual repulsion. Opposites in any form of their concrete unity are in a state of continuous movement and such interaction with each other, which leads to their mutual transitions into each other, to the development of mutually penetrating opposites, mutually presupposing one another and at the same time fighting, denying each other. It is this kind of relationship of opposites that is called contradictions in philosophy. Contradictions are the internal basis for the development of the world.
Development can be viewed as a process of formation, aggravation and resolution of contradictions. Each object initially exists as an identity to itself, which contains certain differences. At the beginning, the differences are insignificant, then they turn into essential ones, and, finally, they turn into opposites. Opposites, in this case, reflect the relationship of such sides inherent in any object, which equally differ from each other, but by their actions, functions simultaneously determine and exclude each other. The development of opposites reaches the stage of contradiction, which is fixed by the moment of unity and struggle of opposites. This stage of the formation of a contradiction, which is characterized by a conflict, a sharp confrontation of the parties, is resolved by the transition of opposites not only to each other, but also to higher forms of development of a given subject. The resolution of any conflict of contradictions is a leap, a qualitative change in a given object, its transformation into a qualitatively different object, the denial of the old by the new object, the emergence of new, different contradictions inherent in the object of a new quality.
The second law of dialectics - the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones - describes the mechanism of self-development. Quality is the internal certainty of an object, a phenomenon that characterizes an object or phenomenon as a whole. The qualitative originality of objects, phenomena acts, first of all, as their specificity, originality, originality, as what distinguishes this object from another. The quality of any object, phenomenon is determined through its properties. The properties of an object are its ability to relate in a certain way, to interact with other objects. That is, properties are manifested in the relationship between objects, phenomena, etc. Properties do not exist by themselves. The deep basis of properties is the quality of an object, that is, a property is a manifestation of quality in one of the many relationships of a given thing to other things. Quality acts as an internal basis for all the properties inherent in a given thing, but this internal basis is manifested only when a given object interacts with other objects. The number of properties of each object is theoretically infinite, because in the system of universal interaction an infinite number of interactions is possible. Quantity is defined as a certainty external to being, relatively indifferent to this or that thing. For example, a house remains what it is, regardless of whether it is larger or smaller, etc. At the same time, quality and quantity are interpenetrating opposites and there is no quality without quantitative characteristics, just as there is no quantity completely devoid of quality. certainty. The immediate concrete unity of quality and quantity, the qualitatively determined quantity, is expressed in the category of measure. A measure is the unity of the qualitative and quantitative certainty of an object, an indicator that a certain range of quantitative characteristics can correspond to the same quality. Consequently, the concept of measure shows that not every, but only certain quantitative values belong to quality. The limiting quantitative values that a given quality can take, the boundaries of the quantitative intervals within which it exists, are called the boundaries of the measure. Certain objects and phenomena can change - decrease or increase - quantitatively, but if these quantitative changes occur within the limits of a measure specific to each object and phenomenon, then their quality remains the same, unchanged. If such a decrease or increase goes beyond the limits, goes beyond the limits of its measure, then this will necessarily lead to a change in quality: the quantity will pass into a new quality. So, for example, “the degree of water temperature at first does not have any effect on its droplet-liquid state, but then, with an increase or decrease in temperature, a point is reached at which this state of cohesion changes qualitatively, and water passes on the one hand into steam, and , on the other hand, into ice ”(Hegel. Op. T. 1. P. 186). The transition of quantity into quality also has an inverse process, expressed by this law, namely, the transition of quality into quantity. These mutual transitions are an endless process, which consists in the fact that quantity, passing into quality, by no means denies quality in general, but denies only the given definition of quality, the place of which is simultaneously occupied by another quality. This newly formed quality means a new measure, that is, a new concrete unity of quality and quantity, which makes possible a further quantitative change of the new quality and the transition of quantity into quality.
The transition from one measure to another, from one quality to another, always takes place as a result of a break in a gradual quantitative change, as a result of a leap. A jump is a general form of transition from one qualitative state to another. A leap is a complex dialectical state of the unity of being and non-being, which means that the old quality is no longer there, but the new quality is not yet there, and at the same time, the old quality is still there, and the new one is already there. A leap is a state of struggle between the new and the old, the withering away of the former qualitative definitions and their replacement by new qualitative states. There is no other kind of transition from one qualitative state to another besides a jump. However, a jump can take an infinite variety of forms in accordance with the specifics of one or another qualitative certainty.
The third law of dialectics - the law of negation of negation reflects the overall result and direction of the development process. Any negation means the destruction of the old quality by the new, the transition from one qualitative state to another. However, denial is not just the destruction of the old by the new. It has a dialectical nature. This dialectical nature is manifested in the fact that negation is a unity of three main points: 1) overcoming the old; 2) continuity in development; 3) approval of the new. The negation of negation in a double form includes these three points and characterizes the cyclical nature of development. This cyclicity, first of all, is associated with the passage of three stages in the process of development: affirmation or position (thesis), negation or opposition of this assertion - (antithesis) and, finally, negation of negation, removal of opposites (synthesis). This essential side of the operation of the law - the negation of negation - can be demonstrated both at the abstract level, the level of the movement of pure thought, and on concrete examples. The process of negation of negation as a logical process develops in such a way that thought is first posited, then opposed to itself and, finally, is replaced by a synthesizing higher thought, in which the struggle of the previous thoughts removed by it, as opposites, is the driving force for the further development of the logical process. At the level of nature, the operation of this law is revealed by the example of the growth of a plant. For example, a grain of oats thrown into the ground sprouts into a stalk that negates this grain. The stem after some time begins to ear and gives a new grain, but already in a tenfold or more size. There was a denial of the denial. Hegel attaches importance to this triple rhythm, but does not reduce the cyclicity in this "triad". The main thing in this cyclicity is that in development the repetition of the past is carried out, the return to the initial state, "allegedly to the old one", but on a fundamentally different qualitative basis. Therefore, the development process is progressive. Progression and repetition give the cycle a spiral shape. This means that the development process is not a straight line, but an ascending line, which necessarily includes a return, “allegedly to the old”, and passing to a new, higher level. Each new stage is richer in its content, since it includes all the best that was accumulated at the previous stage. This process is designated in Hegelian philosophy by the term "withdrawal". Thus, the process of development is characterized by the progressive movement of an expanding spiral.
When considering the categories of movement and development, the question of the causes of phenomena and events in the changing world necessarily arises.
test questions
1. What is the meaning of the concept of "movement"? What are the main characteristics of the movement?
2. What forms of movement can be distinguished?
3. Is the social form of movement represented in the physical and vice versa?
4. It is known that, in principle, a mathematical description of the movement of air microparticles that occurs during communication is possible. Then it is quite possible to assume that the mathematical model of air vibrations caused by the speech of one person, in general terms, can coincide with the mathematical model of air movement, which is generated by the speech of another person. Is it possible, on the basis of such a coincidence of mathematical models, to assert the coincidence of the content of the speech of these people?
5. Are the concepts of movement and development identical? Define the term "development".
6. Under the influence of certain conditions, a substance passes from one state to another: for example, when heated, metals change from a solid state to a liquid state. At a temperature of about 2500 degrees and a pressure of 10 billion pascals, graphite turns into diamond. Is it possible to speak of development in these cases?
7. What are the specific characteristics of development?
8. Give a comparative description of progressive and regressive development.
9. What is the meaning of dialectics?
Development
Development noun, with., use comp. often
Morphology: (no) what? development, what? development, (see) what? development, how? development, about what? about development
1. Development called bringing someone's abilities, skills, knowledge into an active, active state. Development in children of memory, oral speech skills. | Development of skill, spatial thinking, fantasy by special methods.
2. Development called the degree of someone's mental, spiritual maturity, enlightenment, breadth of outlook.
Diagnosis of the level of intellectual development of someone.
3. Development is the process of formation and growth of something.
Uterine phase of fetal development. | The initial stage, the early stage of the development of the Universe.
4. Development called the process of accumulating experience and its application in any production, public and other activities.
Technology development. | The course of historical, social development. | The significance of the teachings of Copernicus for the development of science is immeasurably great.
5. Development called a gradual increase, strengthening of any qualitative or quantitative indicator.
The development of speed has reached a critical value.
6. Development thoughts, ideas, etc. are called the formation of a system of their evidence.
The idea was not developed further. | Any development of the argument does not stand up to scrutiny. | This thinker is characterized by the constant development of his own ideas.
7. Development called the gradual increase in the painful symptoms of something.
The development of blindness proceeded gradually. | Anything increases the risk of developing the disease.
8. Development dramatic work, its plot is called the gradual following of dramatic actions, pictures, emergence, appearance of images, etc. from the plot through the culmination to the finale.
The development of the plot of the play. | Symphonic development of a musical piece.
9. Development of events their sequence is called, which is established as a result of something, as a reaction to something.
An unexpected turn of events. | However, with any development of events, this company will not remain in the loser.
10. Development call a system of someone's joint, interrelated actions aimed at achieving some qualitative result.
Rapid pace of development. | Development directions. | Slow down the development of production. | Development of the region.
Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language Dmitriev. D.V. Dmitriev. 2003 .
Synonyms:
See what "development" is in other dictionaries:
Progressive movement, evolution, transition from one state to another. R. is opposed to “creation”, “explosion”, appearance from nothing, as well as spontaneous formation from chaos and “catastrophism”, which implies a sudden, one-time replacement ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
DEVELOP, DEVELOPMENT Verbs develop develop and reflexive develop develop in the Russian literary language until the very end of the 18th century. expressed only specific meanings (sometimes with a professional connotation), directly arising from their morphological ... History of words
- (development) A multidimensional process, usually involving a change in state from less satisfactory to more satisfactory. Development is a normative concept; it does not have a single, generally accepted definition. Some people think that... ... Political science. Vocabulary.
DEVELOPMENT, development, pl. no, cf. (book). 1. Action according to Ch. develop develop. Muscle development through gymnastics. 2. State according to Ch. develop develop. Industry development. 3. The process of transition from one state to another, more ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
Progress, improvement, evolution, growth; development, forging, formation, education; development, outlook; process, progressive movement, step forward, sophistication, proliferation, range of interests, clarification, flow, ontogeny, course, ... ... Synonym dictionary
The biological process of closely interrelated quantitative (growth) and qualitative (differentiation) transformations of individuals from the moment of birth to the end of life (individual development, or ontogenesis) and throughout the entire lifetime of life on ...
International credit operations contributed to the formation of the world MONEY MARKET, the most important sectors of which are the American money market and the European market, controlled by transnational banks and international ... ... Financial vocabulary
development- DEVELOPMENT is an irreversible, progressive change in the objects of the spiritual and material world in time, understood as linear and unidirectional. In European philosophy, the concept of R. became dominant in modern times, when it was established ... ... Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science
development- DEVELOPMENT, perspective, formation, formation, evolution ... Dictionary-thesaurus of synonyms of Russian speech
DEVELOPMENT, directed, natural change in nature and society. As a result of development, a new qualitative state of the object of its composition or structure arises. There are two forms of development: evolutionary, associated with gradual ... ... Modern Encyclopedia
Directed, regular change; as a result of development, a new qualitative state of the object of its composition or structure arises. There are two forms of development: evolutionary, associated with gradual quantitative changes in the object (see ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Books
- Child development from 3 to 5 years (set of 5 books), A. S. Galanov. "Child development from 3 to 5 years" - educational and play set for parents. Inside you will find: development calendar; guidelines; sets of useful games for physical and…
1. The concept of development.
3. The length of development in time: phylogenesis, anthropogenesis, ontogenesis, microgenesis.
4. Periodization of human development. The subject of developmental psychology.
Developmental psychology as subject studies the natural changes of a person in time and the related facts and phenomena of mental life. Almost all researchers agree that development can be defined as change over time: the idea of change and its course in time undeniable. Another thing is to answer questions what and as changes. This is where the differences begin.
Using the scheme proposed by Yu. N. Karandashev, we will consider what options are possible here.
First: development as growth. Such an understanding is almost never found in modern science. Under growth process is understood quantitative changes (accumulation) of the external features of the object, measured in height, length, width, thickness, weight, etc. This means that, firstly, growth is just one of the aspects of development, i.e. remain and other; secondly, that growth is only external an indicator of development that does not say anything about its essence; thirdly, growth can only be quantitative characteristic of development.
Second: development as maturation. This definition of development is used primarily in everyday thinking. Under ripening refers to the reduction, curtailment of development to morphological changes, proceeding under the direct control of the genetic apparatus. This means that such a definition exaggerates the significance of biological heredity and, accordingly, underestimates the significance of other aspects of development.
Third: development as improvement. This definition is often used in pedagogy and is teleological character, those. it initially assumes the presence of a goal (teleo), which acts as a "perfect" those. the best, exemplary, ideal form of development. In this case, first of all, it is not clear who can set such a goal: is it externally(God, upbringing, environment) or internally given (through the hereditary apparatus). And secondly, it is not clear why just such the form of development should be considered as the best, perfect, and not any other (who sets the criteria for "perfection"?).
Fourth: development as a universal change. as one of the criteria for determining development, the requirement is put forward generality, universality the changes taking place. It means that the same changes must take place among people of different cultures, religions, languages, levels of development. With clear evidence of this requirement, it turns out to be not feasible First, it is impossible to really establish which changes are classified as general, universal, and which ones are considered as private. And, secondly, with such an approach, a large mass of particular changes will be generally denied to be considered the subject of developmental psychology.
Fifth: development as a qualitative, structural change. The definition of development through qualitative changes is connected with the understanding of the object as system
we. If the essential improvement(deterioration) of its structure, we thereby return to the definition of development through perfection, keeping his shortcomings. The only difference is that the subject of improvement narrows. If there is no question of improvement (deterioration), then it is not clear where development is directed. And finally, if earlier it was about improving the object as a whole, now it is only about improving only it. structures. In other words, the quantitative measure of improvement is excluded and only the qualitative measure is preserved.
Sixth: development as a quantitative and qualitative change. In the previous case, the qualitative nature of the changes was taken as a basis, and the quantitative nature was leveled. However, the very idea of their connection is present in all variants of definitions. For example, growth can be viewed as a quantitative change, but some qualitative transitions stand out in it. Maturation is closer to a qualitative change, but it also contains a quantitative aspect. confining only quantitative changes, we take an unconditional step back in the understanding of development. However, by excluding quantitative changes from the definition of development, we lose the opportunity to establish what caused these qualitative changes themselves.
Seventh: development as a change that entails new changes. Dissatisfaction with the existing definitions of development stimulated the search and emergence of new ideas. So, G.-D. Schmidt postulates the presence of a close, existential connection between the changes that follow one after another.. Flammer writes that development should be considered only such changes that entail new changes ("an avalanche of changes"). This definition carries the idea evolutionary succession changes.
Developmental changes can be:
1) quantitative / qualitative,
2) continuous/discrete, spasmodic,
3) universal / individual,
4) reversible / irreversible,
5) targeted / non-directed,
6) isolated/integrated,
7) progressive (evolutionary) / regressive (involutionary).
In addition, development can be considered in different temporal dimensions, forming changes at the phylo-, an-tropo-, onto- and micro-levels.
For a general integral characteristic of development processes, categories are used that do not relate to individual features, but to development as a whole. These are the categories of growth, maturation, differentiation, learning, imprinting (imprinting), socialization (cultural sociogenesis).
Growth. Changes that occur in the course of development can be quantitative or qualitative. An increase in body height or an increase in vocabulary represent quantitative changes. Physiological changes at the age of puberty or the acquisition of an understanding of the ambiguity of words in sayings are, on the contrary, qualitative changes. Therefore, in the "quantity-quality" pair category, the concept of growth refers to the quantitative aspect of development. Growth is only a separate aspect of the course of development, namely, a one-dimensional quantitative consideration of development processes. To consider development in the aspect of growth means to confine ourselves to the study of purely quantitative changes, when knowledge, skills, memory, content of feelings, interests, etc. considered only from the point of view of increment of their volume.
Maturation. The maturational approach to development has dominated psychology for quite some time. It is customary to refer to biological maturation as all processes occurring spontaneously under the influence of endogenously programmed, i.e. hereditarily determined and internally controlled growth impulses.
These processes include physical changes that are important for mental
development - maturation of the brain, nervous and muscular systems, endocrine glands, etc. Based on the psychophysical unity of man, i.e. connections between somatic and mental processes, biologically oriented models of development represented mental development, by analogy with anatomical and physiological maturation, as an internally regulated maturation process. Maturation is usually spoken of when past experience, learning or exercise (exogenous factors) do not have an impact (or have an insignificant ) on the nature of the changes taking place. Along with the restriction of external conditions of development, a number of signs are distinguished that indicate the presence of maturation processes: 1) similarity of occurrence and course; 2) occurrence at a strictly defined age; 3) catching up; 4) irreversibility.
Differentiation. Authors who understand by development qualitative changes dependent on maturation readily turn to the concept of differentiation. In a narrow sense, differentiation means the progressive separation of heterogeneous parts from the original undivided whole, following the example of such somatic processes as cell division and the formation of tissues and organs. It leads to an increase, on the one hand, in structural complexity, and, on the other hand, to the variability and flexibility of behavior. This also includes the growing diversity, specialization and autonomization of individual structures and functions. In a broad sense, differentiation simply means the general content of the progressive fragmentation, expansion and structuring of mental functions and modes of behavior.
Learning- it is a generalized category denoting a set of processes leading to changes in behavior. The latter are understood in the broadest sense as the acquisition of knowledge, memorization, assimilation of attitudes, motives, etc. Since the source of changes during learning is the external environment (exogenous regulation of development), learning is a concept opposite to maturation (endogenous regulation of development).
In a general sense, learning refers to the achievement of progress through purposeful efforts and exercises (for example, learning verbs, learning to read, ride a bike, etc.). The psychological concept of learning is broader: it includes all more or less long-term changes in behavior that occur on the basis of experience, exercise or observation. At the same time, not
it does not matter whether any success has been achieved or whether the changes that have occurred have arisen unintentionally, spontaneously. Learning includes both mastering new forms of behavior and changing the repertoire of existing forms.
Imprinting (imprinting). The concept of imprinting is used to denote the processes of direct, not controlled by consciousness, assimilation of any norms, requirements, ways of behavior as a result of a short-term (less often - long-term) impact of a particular sample. It is in this way, for example, that parental patterns of behavior inherited in childhood, problematic character traits, are explained. In reality, it is difficult to determine what is the nature of the origin of this or that behavioral scheme. It can equally be explained by other mechanisms not related to imprinting.
It is customary to characterize imprinting with the following 6 features: 1) a kind of fixing of given patterns of reactions with a system of environmental stimuli; 2) the possibility of exposure to the outside world is limited to a genetically determined age interval (critical or sensitive period); 3) once the impression has taken place, it is outwardly stable and even irreversible; the ensuing imprinting is resistant to new influences; 4) through imprinting, species-specific, and not individual, features of the stimulus object are “learned”; 5) the connection of a behavioral pattern with a specific stimulus object does not at all require functional capacity or external expressions of behavior during the imprinting phase; 6) imprinting effects are reproduced not only in response to reinforcement or reduction of the motive, but also to food, warmth, and tactile stimuli.
Socialization (cultural sociogenesis). Obviously, under normal conditions, each person is “born” into an already existing society with certain norms of behavior and experience. Starting from birth, the growing child interacts with his social environment, first of all with his parents, later with individuals and groups - at school, at work, etc. As a result, he acquires values, norms and roles typical of his environment. Thanks to this experience of behavior and experience, forms of behavior and experience that are significant for a particular society are gradually mastered. This general process of the influence of sociocultural factors on development in the sense of growing into the surrounding society and culture is described by the concept of socialization.
There are two sides to the concept of socialization. The first is the social development of a person, i.e. the process of spontaneously growing into the social environment. The second is the social formation of a person, i.e. the process of its purposeful adaptation to existing values, norms, ideals. The concept of socialization was first proposed by C. Cooley in the term "socialized consciousness". Depending on the science in which this term is used, it acquires the appropriate meaning. Thus, psychology is primarily interested in the development of personality, the social development of various individuals and the learning processes underlying them. The most preferred topics here are: the socialization of dependence, aggressiveness, sexist behavior, moral attitudes, etc.
In modern psychology, socialization is considered as a general name for a hypothetical process of social learning, which is characterized by the mutual interaction of persons who depend on each other or who are related to each other.
3 The length of development in time: phylogenesis, anthropogenesis, ontogenesis, microgenesis.
In order to understand development, it is necessary to consider the extent of the temporal distance over which it takes place: depending on this, at least four series of changes can be distinguished: phylogenesis, anthropogenesis, ontogenesis and microgenesis.
Phylogenesis, or the development of a species, is the ultimate temporal distance, including the emergence of life, the origin of species, their change, differentiation and continuity, i.e. all biosocial evolution, starting with the simplest and ending with man. In comparative studies of behavior based on the phylogenetic method of analysis, the species-type behavior of different organisms is considered in order to highlight their commonality and differences. The result of this analysis is the conclusion about their general biosocial patterns of development.
Anthropogenesis, or the development of mankind in all its aspects, including cultural sociogenesis, is a part of phylogeny that begins with the emergence of Homo sapiens and ends today.
Ontogenesis, or individual development, is a temporal distance of the length of a human life: it begins from the moment of conception and ends with the end of life. The prenatal phase (development of the embryo and fetus) occupies a special position due to the dependence of vital functions on the maternal organism. Changes in individual individuals (or certain groups of them) in the course of ontogenesis constitute an essential part of the subject of developmental psychology. Obviously, the concept of human ontogenesis is private logically, but central in terms of the content of developmental psychology.
microgenesis, or actual genesis, - the shortest time distance, covering the "age" period, during which short-term processes of perception, memory, thinking, imagination, detailed sequences of actions (for example, behavior when solving problems), etc. Today, these processes are considered by general psychology and, in principle, do not require developmental psychologists to deal with them. However, for developmental psychology they are important in aspect of the transformation of microgenesis into ontogenesis,
The division of the time distance into peculiar and unique stages constitutes the problem of periodization of development. As L. S. Vygotsky noted, most of the proposed ideas of periodization, upon careful analysis, turn out to be formal, not affecting the essence of development. Criticizing the methods of dividing childhood into age stages that existed by that time, he wrote that periodizations are based on external, but almost never touch domestic grounds relating directly to the changes that occur in the child's psyche.
Every change happens in time whether it is quantitative or qualitative, fast or slow, micro or macro. Time in no way regulates the course of mental development, but fixes all events. in a strictly defined sequence.
The question of the division of ontogeny into separate, age-limited stages, stages, or phases has a long tradition, but still remains open. The criteria on the basis of which such a division is made, as well as the content, number and temporal length of the established age periods, are extremely different. Some modern authors (R. Bergius, H. M. Trautner) argue that, due to the growth of knowledge about the phenomena and facts of development, it will be generally impossible to create an acceptable project for dividing ontogenesis into coherent age periods. In their opinion, in relation to ontogenesis, we can only talk about large divisions (prenatal period, infancy, etc.), and more fractional ones are applicable only to certain functional areas (cognitive development, development of the emotional sphere, communication, etc.) .
4. Periodization of human development. The subject of developmental psychology.
The purpose of any periodization is to designate points on the line of development that separate qualitatively unique periods from each other. The only question is - which determines this quality difference. In my time. Gesell, 3. Freud, J. Piaget, L. S. Vygotsky and others identified various grounds for constructing periodization. The systematization of these attempts was undertaken by L. S. Vygotsky in his work “The Problem of Age” (1984). All existing by that time periodization
L. S. Vygotsky divided the division into 3 groups, and this division turned out to be so methodologically successful that the emerging modern periodizations often successfully fit into the systematization he proposed.
first group made up periodizations created not by dividing the personality development itself into stages, but by analogy with stepwise construction of other developmental processes. Such, in particular, is the well-known periodization of S. Hall, created by analogy with the development of society. He singled out the stage of digging and digging (0-5 years), the stage of hunting and capturing (5-11 years), the pastoral stage (8-12 years), the agricultural stage (11-15 years), the stage of industry and trade (15-20 years). years), correlating them with the animal stage of development of society, the period of mastering hunting and fishing, the end of savagery and the beginning of civilization, the period of romanticism, etc. It is clear that such analogies are very tempting, but superficial.
Co. second group(the most numerous) L. S. Vygotsky attributed periodizations, which are based on any one (or several) separately taken signs of development. He takes an example of the simplest periodization of this type from P. P. Blonsky, who used dentition as a basis and singled out, respectively, toothless childhood, milk-toothed childhood, the period of tooth change, the stages of eruption of premolars and canines, permanently toothed childhood. He believed that the development process is determined by the growth of the body's energy resources, which set the time for calcification - ossification of the skeleton, change of teeth. Such a direct parallelism is not confirmed in any way, not to mention the fact that the distinguished periods are not equivalent: for example, the time of teething is very important for a child, and the transition to a permanently toothed childhood is not mentally in any way. L. S. Vygotsky places periodization proposed by V. Stern, the basis of which is actually a psychological, and not a biological criterion - a person's own activity. So, for example, V. Stern talks about the period when the child only plays, about the period of conscious learning with the division of play and labor, about the period of youth with the development of independence and the beginning of labor activity. V. Stern also belongs to periodization, which is based on the development of speech with the allocation of the phase of the first word, the phase of one-word and two-word sentences, the phase of grammar, etc.
The periodization of 3. Freud can also be attributed to this group, the basis of which is the change in zones in which the libido finds satisfaction. 3. Freud describes the following stages of personality development: 1) oral phase(1st year of life): erogenous zones - in the mouth area; forms of behavior - capture, retention, sucking, biting, spitting; 2) anal phase(2-3 years of life): erogenous zones - in the anus; forms of behavior - interest in the functions of departure; 3) phallic phase(from 3 to 6 years): erogenous zones - in the area of the primary genital organs; forms of behavior - the study of their genitals; 4) latent phase(from 5-6 years to 11-12 years, i.e. the stage of puberty): erogenous zones are not distinguished and there are no specific forms of behavior; 5) genital phase(puberty phase): led by the genitals, all erogenous zones and behaviors are activated.
A special place in the periodizations of the second group is occupied by the periodization of J. Piaget, which is based on the development of intellectual structures. He considers the development of intelligence as a factor in achieving balance with the environment and describes: 1) the pre-operational stage of thinking (sensory-motor intelligence) with its reflexes and adaptive reactions; 2) the stage of pre-conceptual and intuitive thinking (internal actions with images, symbols); 3) the concrete operations stage; and 4) the formal operations stage.
By analogy with the stages identified by J. Piaget, L. Kohlberg put the formation of morality as the basis for constructing periodization, describing from these positions the pre-moral level (associated with an orientation towards avoiding punishment and receiving rewards), the level of conventional morality (associated with an orientation towards model or authority) and the level of autonomous morality (associated with the orientation towards the social contract and generally accepted moral norms).
The list of variants of periodizations of this group is endless. All of them are named by L. S. Vygotsky monosymptomatic, because most of them are based on only one, albeit important, sign of development.
the third group, according to L. S. Vygotsky, should make periodizations related highlighting the essential features of the development itself. It is they who would allow answering the questions of what, how, why, in what direction is changing. He came closest to the construction of a periodization of this type. Gesell, who discovered that the "density" of development decreases with age.
L. S. Vygotsky proposed his own periodization, guided by the dialectical model of development and the idea of jumps-transitions to a new quality. He singled out stable and critical ages (periods) in development. AT stable perios-dah there is a slow and steady accumulation of the smallest quantitative changes in development, and in critical periods These changes are found in the form of jumps that have arisen irreversible neoplasms. According to L. S. Vygotsky, stable and critical periods in development alternate:
1) crisis newborn,
2) a stable period of infancy,
3) crisis of the first year of life,
4) stable early childhood,
5) crisis of three years,
6) stable preschool age,
7) crisis of seven years,
8) a stable junior school period,
9) pubertal crisis,
10) stable adolescence,
11) crisis of 17 years, etc.
In world psychology, the periodization of E. Erickson is widely used, who put three processes at once at the basis of development: somatic development, social development and the development of the conscious self. He considers his theory of phases in five dimensions: 1) psychosocial crises; 2) circle of reference persons; 3) elements of social order; 4) psychosocial modalities; 5) psychosexual dynamics.
In the periodization of E. Erickson, 8 phases of development are distinguished: 1) first phase(infancy, first year of life) is characterized by the primary trust or distrust of the child in the environment; 2) second phase(early childhood: 2-3 years of life) characterized by autonomy or shame and doubt; 3) third phase(preschool age: 4-5 years of life) is characterized by initiative or guilt; 4) fourth phase(school age: from 6 to 11-12 years old, i.e. until puberty) is characterized by a sense of value and hard work or little value; 5) fifth phase(youth) is characterized by personal individuality, identity or identity diffusion; 6) sixth phase(young: 20-30 years old) characterized by closeness, intimacy and solidarity or isolation; 7) seventh phase(maturity: 30-40 years old) is characterized by creativity, integrativeness or stagnation; eight) eighth phase(older adult age (plus old age), 40 years and older) is characterized by the integrity of the personality or split, despair.
The line of L. S. Vygotsky in modern domestic psychology was continued. N. Leontiev and D. B. Elkonin. Their position on the issue of periodization can be expressed in several theses:
1) the inconsistency of many periodizations of mental development is due to the fact that their foundations were taken, although characteristic, but outwardly individual signs of development, not inner being this process, so the foundations of periodization must be sought only in internal contradictions of the times-orgy;
2) the periodization of mental development must be built taking into account the change of one integral activity by another; the personality of the child changes as a whole in its internal structure, and the laws of change of this whole determine the movement of each of its parts;
3) when considering the sources of the development of the psyche, each of its periods must be associated with the most significant type of integral activity of the child for him (leading activity);
4) the holistic activity of the child, specific for each of his age, determines those mental changes that first occur in him - neoplasms. It is these neoplasms that serve as the main criterion for dividing child development into separate ages; at every age level there is always central neoplasm, leading to the entire process of development and characterizing the restructuring of the entire personality of the child on a new basis.
L. S. Vygotsky, speaking of a neoplasm, had in mind both a new type of child activity and a new type of his personality, those psychological changes that first appear in this period. . N. Leontiev and D. B. Elkonin developed a new type of activity in the neoplasm and central psychological changes that first appear in this activity.
Such breeding determined their understanding of the driving forces of development: the basis of mental development is, in their opinion, a change in activity that determines the emergence of neoplasms; but the neoplasms achieved are also a prerequisite for the formation of a new type of activity that takes the child to a new stage of development.
The new type of activity that underlies the integral mental development of a child at a particular age was called the leading one. In its meaning, this concept is close to the concept of the social situation of development in L. S. Vygotsky.
Leading activity- this is 1) activity, in the form of which other new types of activity arise and within which differentiate; 2) activity in which particular mental processes are formed or rebuilt (for example, in a game - imagination, in teaching - logical thinking); 3) activity on which the main psychological changes in the child's personality observed in a given period of development depend. Thus, the leading activity is the one whose development causes the most important changes in mental processes and the psychological characteristics of the individual at a given stage of development.
Based on periodization. N. Leontiev and lies the actual type of leading activity. He describes: 1) infancy with direct-emotional communication between a child and an adult; 2) early childhood with subject activity; 3) preschool childhood with the game 4) school age with teaching; 5) teenage years with socially useful activities and communication with peers; 6) youthful - with educational and professional activities.
D. B. Elkonin, relying on the experience of L. S. Vygotsky’s cultural-historical psychology, proposed considering each period of development on the basis of four criteria: 1) the social situation of development as a system of relations into which the child enters, and a way of relationships; 2) the main (leading) type of activity; 3) the main neoplasms of development; 4) crisis.
Considering each period as consisting of two stages, D. B. Elkonin believed that changes are made at the first stage motivational-need spheres of personality, and on the second one is mastering operational and technical spheres. They were opened law of alternation, periodicity of different types of activity at each stage: the activity of one type, which orients the subject in the system of relations between people, in the norms and rules of interaction in society, is necessarily followed by the activity of another type, in which orientation in the ways of using objects takes place. Every time between these two
types of orientation contradictions arise. The periods and stages of child development, according to D. B. Elkonin, look like this.
Stageearly childhood consists of two stages - infancy, a newborn that opens with a crisis, on which the motivational-need sphere of personality develops, and early age the beginning of which marks the crisis of the 1st year of life, in which the development of the operational and technical sphere is mainly carried out.
Stagechildhood opens with a 3 year crisis, marking the beginning preschool age(with the development of the motivational-need sphere). The second stage is the opening crisis of 6-7 years primary school age, on which the operational-technical sphere is based.
Adolescence stage divided into stages adolescence(the motivational-need sphere is being mastered), the beginning of which is the crisis of 11-12 years, and the stage of early youth(development of the operational and technical side) associated with the crisis of 15 years. According to D. B. Elkonin, crises of 3 and 11 years are relationship crisis, they are followed by new orientations in human relations; and crises of the 1st year, 7 and 15 years - worldview crises, changing orientation in the world of things.
In domestic psychology, the periodization of D. B. Elkonin is accepted, and in our presentation of specific ages, we will try to follow it. But it should be noted that the problem of periodization is so interesting and important in developmental psychology that research work in this direction is still ongoing. In particular, the periodization proposed by V.I. Slobodchikov in the 1980s is interesting. 20th century
He began his reflections with the search for answers to the questions: what exactly changes, what develops in the process of development, what will be its result? Based on the idea of the formation in the mental development of a special personal education - subjectivity(or, more generally, the inner world), he calls the change in the forms of interaction (coexistence = being together) of the developing child with the social environment, adults as a mechanism for its acquisition identifications with them (the formation of eventfulness, co=existence) and segregation from them (realization of originality).
In the scheme he proposed - the "age matrix" - each stage is a relatively completed development cycle, built in the logic of the development process as a horizontal sequence periods(formation and implementation) and stages(critical and stable).
The subject of developmental psychology is the regular changes in the human psyche over time, entailing new changes, and the facts and phenomena of mental life associated with this.
The idea of development came to psychology from other areas of science. Charles Darwin's work "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection..." prompted researchers to study the course of children's mental development. Development for the first time began to be seen as the gradual adaptation of the child to the environment. One of the first attempts to systematically monitor the psychological and biological development of a child from birth to three years is described in the book by V. Preyer "The Soul of a Child", in which the author described the development of his daughter.
Development - the process of irreversible, directed and regular changes, leading to the emergence of quantitative, qualitative and structural transformations of the psyche and human behavior.
Almost all researchers agree that development can be defined as change over time. Yu.N. Karandashev singled out the main approaches to the definition of the concept of "development":
Development as growth- the process of quantitative change in the external features of an object, measured in height, length, width, thickness, weight, etc. In modern science, such a definition does not occur, since growth is just one of the aspects of development, its external indicator and quantitative characteristic.
Development as maturation- morphological changes occurring under the direct control of the genetic apparatus. In modern science, such a definition does not occur, since here the importance of biological heredity is exaggerated and the importance of other aspects of development is underestimated.
Development as improvement. This definition is often used in pedagogy and is of a teleological nature, i.e. it initially assumes the existence of a goal (teleo), which is a certain “perfect”, ideal form of development, but it is not clear whether it is outwardly (God, upbringing , external environment) or internally given (through the hereditary apparatus), and why exactly this form of development should be considered as the best, perfect, and not any other.
Development as a universal change. As one of the criteria for determining development, the requirement of commonality, universality of the changes taking place is put forward, i.e., the same changes should take place among people of different cultures, religions, languages, levels of development, but it is impossible to really establish which changes are attributed to common, universal, and which ones to consider as private.
Development as a qualitative, structural change. The definition of development through qualitative changes is connected with the understanding of an object as a system. In this case, we are talking about improving only the structure of the object, the quantitative measure of improvement is excluded and only the qualitative measure is preserved.
Development as a quantitative and qualitative change. This definition most fully reveals the essence of the concept of "development".
Development as a change that entails new changes. Dissatisfaction with the existing definitions of development stimulated the search and emergence of new ideas. For example, G.-D. Schmidt shows the existence of a close, existential connection between the changes that follow one after another, A. Flammer notes that only such changes that entail new changes (“an avalanche of changes”) should be considered development. This definition carries the idea of evolutionary continuity of changes.
HER. Sapogova notes that developmental changes can be:
Quantitative (qualitative);
Continuous (discrete), spasmodic;
Universal (individual);
reversible (irreversible);
Purposeful (non-directional);
Isolated (integrated),
Progressive (evolutionary) or regressive (involutionary).
Development can be considered at the philo-, anthropo-, onto- and micro levels:
Phylogeny - the development of a species, i.e., the limiting time distance, including the emergence of life, the origin of species, their change, differentiation and continuity, i.e., the entire biosocial evolution, starting with the simplest and ending with man.
Anthropogenesis - r the development of mankind in all its aspects, including cultural sociogenesis, that is, the part of phylogeny that begins with the emergence of Homo sapiens and ends today.
Ontogeny - individual development, i.e., a temporal distance of a human life, which begins from the moment of conception and ends with the end of life.
Microgenesis - the shortest time distance covering the “age” period during which short-term processes of perception, memory, thinking, imagination, detailed sequences of actions (for example, behavior when solving problems), etc.
The main properties of development are:
Irreversibility - the ability to accumulate changes, "build on" new changes over the previous ones;
Orientation - the ability of the system to conduct a single, internally interconnected line of development;
Pattern - the ability of the system to reproduce the same type of changes in different people.
In modern psychology, the problem of development is being intensively developed within the framework of genetic psychology, comparative psychology, psychogenetics, developmental psychology, and acmeology.
The main areas of mental development:
1) the psychophysical area of development, includes external (height and weight) and internal (bones, muscles, brain, glands, sensory organs, constitution, neuro- and psychodynamics, psychomotor) changes in the human body;
2) the psychosocial area of development, which involves changes in the emotional and personal spheres. At the same time, one should especially point out the importance of interpersonal relations for the formation of the self-concept and self-awareness of the individual;
3) the cognitive area of development, including all aspects of cognitive development, the development of abilities, including mental ones.
An individual is a carrier of the psychophysical properties of a person. The bearer of psychosocial properties is the personality, and cognitive properties - the subject of activity.
Currently, human mental development is considered from the point of view of a systematic approach, which includes four aspects:
dynamic characterizes mental development as a process that takes place throughout life, that is, it is the age-related dynamics of various mental functions (perception, attention, memory, thinking, etc.);
structural- qualitative changes in mental processes, for example, the complication of memorization processes, the development of rational methods of thinking;
Causal - determination of determinants, driving causes of development;
ontological- clarification of the specifics of human mental development as a biological and social unity.
Thus, a systematic approach to development involves the study of what, how, in which direction, with what changes, for what reasons, develops in the psyche and personality of a person - a biosocial being throughout life.
There are the following types of development:
preformed development - a type of development, when at the very beginning both the stages that the body will go through and the final result that will be obtained are set;
unpreformed development - a type of development that is not predetermined;
mental development- development of cognitive mental processes;
personal development- development of human qualities, moral judgments, motivational-required sphere and "I"-concept.
Mental and personal development are closely interrelated, but not always unidirectional or side by side. In different age periods, they may not coincide and affect each other in different ways.
Factors of mental development - these are the leading determinants of human development: heredity, environment and activity. The action of the factor of heredity is manifested in the individual properties of a person and acts as prerequisites for development, the action of the environmental factor (society) - in the social properties of the individual and the action of the activity factor - in the interaction of the two previous ones.
Let's consider each of the factors in more detail.
1. Heredity - the property of an organism to repeat in a number of generations similar types of metabolism and individual development as a whole.
M.S. Egorova and T.N. Maryutina, comparing the significance of hereditary and social factors of development, emphasize that the genotype (the genetic constitution of the organism) contains the past in a folded form: information about the historical past of a person and the program of his individual development. Thus, genotypic factors typify development, i.e., ensure the implementation of the species genotypic program and, at the same time, the genotype individualizes development. Genetic studies have revealed a strikingly wide polymorphism that determines the individual characteristics of people. Each person is a unique genetic entity that will never be repeated.
2. Wednesday - the social, material and spiritual conditions surrounding a person for his existence. Phenotype - the totality of all the features and properties of an individual that developed in ontogeny during the interaction of the genotype with the external environment. It should be emphasized that the environment is a very broad concept. There are different types of environments, each of which in its own way affects the development of a person, therefore, when describing the determinants of mental development, this concept needs to be specified. In a broad sense, the environmental determinants of mental development include learning.
Mental development is influenced by macro (country, ethnicity, society, state), meso (region, media, subcultures, type of settlement) and micro factors (family, neighborhood, peer groups).
3. Activity - the active state of the body as a condition of its existence and behavior, which manifests itself when the movement programmed by the body towards a specific goal requires overcoming the resistance of the environment. The principle of activity is opposed to the principle of reactivity.
According to the principle of activity, the vital activity of the organism is an active overcoming of the environment, according to the principle of reactivity, it is the balancing of the organism with the environment. Activity manifests itself in activation, various reflexes, search activity, arbitrary acts, will, acts of free self-determination.
Consider the basic principles of human mental development.
