• Started working at the Higher School of Economics in 2018.

Education, degrees

• PhD in History: Lomonosov Moscow State University M. V. Lomonosov

Specialist: Moscow State University named after V.I. M.V. Lomonosov, specialty "History"

Scientific supervisor of dissertation research

for the degree of Candidate of Sciences

1. 2002–2004 – supervised by I.S. Arkhipov, post-graduate student of IVI RAS (defence of Ph.D. thesis took place in 2004 at IVI RAS, now a member of IVI RAS, NRU HSE).

2. 2009 - 2012: supervised by GAUGN graduate student V. A. Shelestin, Ph.D. diss. took place in 2014 at the Institute of Orthopedics RAS (now a staff member of the Institute of Oriental Studies RAS).

3. 2013-2019 management of the IVI RAS applicant A.A. Yasenovskaya, the defense took place on December 18, 2019 at the IVI RAS (now an employee of the Pushkin Museum).

Publications 26

Chapter of the book Nemirovsky A. A.// In the book: Essays on the history of Christian civilizations. From its inception to the Arab conquests VII-XIII. M. : ROSSPEN, 2019. Ch. 2 (part 7, ch. 2). pp. 433-441.

Chapter of the book Nemirovsky A. A.// In the book: Essays on the history of Christian civilizations. From its inception to the Arab conquests VII-XIII. M. : ROSSPEN, 2019. Ch. 4 (part 7, ch. 4). pp. 449-458.

Chapter of the book Nemirovsky A. A.// In the book: Essays on the history of Christian civilizations. From its inception to the Arab conquests VII-XIII. M. : ROSSPEN, 2019. Ch. 3 (part 7, ch. 3). pp. 441-449.

Article Ivan Ladynin , Alexander Nemirovsky . // Bibliotheca Orientalis. 2018 Vol. 75. No. 1-2. P. 105-117. doi

Chapter of the book Nemirovsky A. A.// In the book: Aegyptiaca Rossica. M. : Russian Foundation for the Promotion of Education and Science, 2018. S. 226-247.

Chapter of the book Nemirovsky A. A.// In the book: From the Bronze Age to the Digital Age: the phenomenon of migration in time. Col. monograph / comp., scientific, lit. ed. S.A. Panarin; ed. English texts by A.A. Kosmarsky; Institute of Oriental Studies RAS; Altai state. un-t. –. Barnaul: Alt. un-ta, 2018. - 436 p. ISBN 978-5-7904-2258-4. Barnaul: Altai University Press, 2018, pp. 201-210.

Chapter of the book Nemirovsky A. A.// In the book: Aegyptiaca Rossica. M. : Russian Foundation for the Promotion of Education and Science (Dmitry Pozharsky University), 2017. P. 173-196.

Chapter of the book Nemirovsky A. A.// In the book: Studia Historica. XV. Yearbook-almanac. M. : Buki Vedi, 2017. S. 12-40.

Chapter of the book Nemirovsky A. A. Once again about the umman-manda of Mesopotamian texts // In the book: Ethno-cultural development of the Middle East in the 4th-1st millennia BC. / Proceedings of the scientific conference (Moscow, October 26–27, 2017). M. : IV RAN, 2017. S. 73-79.

Chapter of the book Nemirovsky A. A. Western barbarians: constructing the image of the Amorite tribes in the Babylonian tradition II - I millennium BC. // In the book: Civilization and barbarism: man of the barbarian world and the barbarian world of man (Part 1) // V.P. Budanova (Ed.) - M.: Akvilon, 2017. Issue. VI. - 294 p. ISSN 2307–7794. M. : Akvilon, 2017. S. 105-122. doi

Chapter of the book Nemirovsky A. A.// In the book: Folklore of Paleoasian peoples: materials of the II International Scientific Conference, Yakutsk, November 21–25, 2016. Yakutsk: RIO media holding, 2017. P. 320-328.

• Chapter of the book Nemirovsky A. A.// In the book: Folklore of Paleoasian peoples: materials of the II International Scientific Conference, Yakutsk, November 21–25, 2016. Yakutsk: RIO media holding, 2017. P. 59-70.

  Chapter of the book Nemirovsky A. A.// In the book: Scripta Antiqua. Issues of ancient history, philology, art and material culture Vol. 5. M. : Collection, 2016. Ch. 5. S. 132-166.

  Chapter of the book Nemirovsky A. A.// In the book: "Gods among people": the cult of rulers in the Hellenistic and post-Hellenistic world / Ed. editor: S. Yu. Saprykin,

When did the pioneer printer Ivan Fedorov die and where is he buried?

Questions of History, 1964, No 6, pp. 213-215.

Documentary materials that can be used as the basis for the scientific biography of Ivan Fedorov are few in number. Perhaps that is why there are many contradictions in the literature devoted to him. In particular, information about the date of the death of the first printer is contradictory. Some authors claimed that he died on December 5 (15), 1583, others considered the date of his death to be December 6 (16). In the last century, the majority opinion was inclined in favor of the first version: the 300th anniversary of the death of the first printer was celebrated on December 5, 1883, 75 years later, in 1958, the anniversary date was celebrated on December 16 (6).

The source of information about the time of the death of the first printer is the inscription on the tombstone of Ivan Fedorov in the church of St. Onufriy (Onufrievsky Monastery) in Lvov. The first mention of this plate is contained in a letter from the Polish archaeologist 3. Ya. Dolenga-Khodakovsky to members of the so-called "Rumyantsev circle". One of them, archeographer P. I. Koeppen, visited Lvov in January 1822. He sketched the slab and, returning to Russia, described it and published the text of the inscription on the stone. The drawing was soon reproduced. It depicts a vertically elongated rectangle, in the center of which one can guess the image of the typographical mark of Ivan Fedorov. Above and below the sign are three-line inscriptions. Above: "the repose of the resurrection from the dead to tea." Below: "Drukar of books before the unseen." Along the edges of the stone there is an inscription of four lines - two vertical and two horizontal. The scientist could not read the top line, and therefore it is not in the figure. He read the rest of the lines as follows: “... the drukar Moskvitin who, with their diligence, were zledbaloe (correctly: zanedbaloe. - E. N.) ωnovil reposed in Lvov to the fate of the AFPG (that is, 1583 - E. N.) dekevr ... ".

As you can see, there is no date of death here. It was first proposed by the Western Ukrainian historian D. I. Zubritsky, who, although he does not give the full text of the inscription, however, referring to it, indicates the date of December 5, 1583. The same date is also mentioned by V. Kompanevich.

The next mention of the tombstone dates back to 1860 and belongs to Ya. F. Godovatsky, who first indicated the exact location of the stone: “It lies on the right side of the entrance to the church of St. Onufry under the benches standing on it, inserted into the stone floor. It consists of a four-slab sandstone slab half a third arshin long, and 1 1/5 arshin wide, on which an incised circular inscription is forged from the front side in two parallel strokes. The side from the West is completely worn out, that nothing can be read off. Ya. F. Golovatsky could not establish the exact date of the death of the pioneer printer.

M. P. Pogodin (who visited Lvov in October 1835 and visited the Church of St. Onuphry) who got acquainted with the inscription on the tombstone, named December 5, 1583 as the date of the death of the first printer. M. P. Pogodin drew attention to the fact that the slab was close to destruction, and asked the procurator of the monastery, V. Kompanevich, to immure the stone into the wall of the church for better preservation. On October 12, 1837, in a letter to V. Kompanevich, he once again recalled this request, which, unfortunately, was never fulfilled.

The following evidence comes from A. S. Uvarov, who visited Lvov. Uvarov copied the inscription and ordered a plaster cast from the plate. He read the words along its edges as follows: “Ioan Θeodorovich drukar Moskvitin, who, with his diligence, reposed in Lvov rock. A. F. P. G. dekemvr S ”(that is, December 6, 1583 - E. Ya). So, there is a new date.

The last person to examine the slab and leave a note about it was the Western Ukrainian historian and bibliographer A. S. Petrushevich. He visited the monastery in August 1883, but could not read the dates on the stone.

A few months later, the tombstone disappeared, and under very mysterious circumstances. On December 1, 1883, O. S. Monchalovsky accused on the pages of the Lviv newspaper Slovo the abbot of the monastery Kliment Sarnitsky of its deliberate destruction. Justifying himself, on December 9, in the presence of witnesses, Sarnitsky drew up a protocol stating that the stone crumbled when it was lifted, repairing the floor of the church. Later, however, there were witnesses who saw the stone. Yes, and Sarnitsky subsequently changed his testimony and claimed that the slab, reduced by half, was built into the wall of the church and immured during its next restructuring.

Later, attempts were made more than once to find the plate, but they ended in vain.

Let us return, however, to the inscription itself. In 1817, M. Grinevetsky made a drawing of the slab at the request of the Polish scientist I. Lelewel. The drawing subsequently came to the collector A. Lesserov and was published by A. Plug in 1884. M. Grinevetsky also could not read the inscriptions in the upper part of the slab, therefore, in his drawing, the date of the death of the first printer is also missing. But we find it in the record of M. Grinevetsky, referring to the same 1817 and preserved in the margins of the manuscript chronicle of the monastery. Here is her text: “...ich Drukar Moskvitin, who, with his diligence, drukovaniye zanedbaloe ωnovil. Repose in Lvov roku afpg dekemr. E ".

The earliest transcription of the inscription thus gives us the date 5 December 1583. To be sure of the validity of this statement, one would have to look for earlier evidence dating back to the time when the inscription on the top of the slab had not yet been erased. And there is such evidence.

The manuscript chronicle of the monastery, compiled in 1771 by Gavriil Popiel, contains the following entry in Polish on the third sheet under 1583: “On December 5, he was buried at the church of St. Onuphry Lvovsky is some kind of drukar, named Moskvitin, as evidenced by his stone tombstone ... ". Of great interest is another piece of evidence that we recently discovered. We are talking about an inscription made in South Russian cursive of the 18th century. on a copy of the first Ukrainian printed book, "The Apostle" of 1574, which belonged to the Onufrievsky Monastery. An unknown reader of the book compares the typographic mark of Ivan Fedorov on the last page of the "Apostle" with the image of the same mark on the tombstone. Along the way, he names the date of interest to us. Here is the inscription: “This book of the Apostle is the monastery of the Lvov Reverend Father Onuphry the Desert-Dweller, where and its druk is the burial of the fate of God afpg (1583 - E. N.) of the day E December 5 tego Decembra, as his tombstone in the church of St. Onuphry is witnessed the most holy Mother of God, who is known before the altar. It also has the coat of arms of the same drukary tavoviy (follows the drawing. - E. N.), which vyadidga his coat of arms at the ends of the sowing book (follows the drawing. - E. N.). Only on the tombstone (so - E.N.) are the letters ΙΘ, which means Ioan Θedorovich. At the end of the book of sowing, there is the name Iωan written out ... ". The entry ends with words indicating that the author saw the tombstone with her own eyes. Anyone, he emphasizes, who doubts that the printer is buried in the Onufriev Church, can take the "Apostle" of 1574 in the monastery library, take it to the church and compare the images of the "coats of arms": "... anyone can demolish and compare this."

Let's summarize. There are no inscriptions in the upper part of the two drawings of the slab, made from nature. And only in the drawing from the cast of A. S. Uvarov, it is read quite clearly. How was A.S. Uvarov able to read the inscription in 1873, if P.I. Koeppen had failed to do so half a century earlier? How did A. S. Uvarov manage to reproduce it in full, if back in 1860 Ya. F. Golovatsky pointed out: “The side from the west is completely worn out, that nothing can be written off”? Apparently, the Uvarov cast was more of a reconstruction than the original. This is also proved by the fact that A. S. Uvarov partially modernized and Russified the spelling of the inscription.

All this gives us the right to think that the date of the death of the first printer could have been distorted on the cast and that, contrary to the version generally accepted in recent times, December 5 (15), 1583 should be considered the exact date. The above inscription from the “Apostle” of 1574, which indicates the place where Ivan Fedorov is buried: “before the altar,” may help in further searches for the plate.

Library of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR in Lvov, st. 54010, ll. 2-14 unnumbered, ll. 1-1 rev., Wed. a similar entry on ll. 260-264.

Readers of this ancient form of the book had a hard time. In the process of reading, it was necessary to unfold and simultaneously fold the scroll all the time. If you wanted to return to the "page" you liked, you had to rewind the whole book again. There, no less than scrolls were libraries, stacking them on shelves and providing labels with names.

Another drawback of the scroll was, so to speak, its one-sidedness: it was written on only one side. 50% of the usable area of ​​the sheet material was lost.

The Scroll dominated the earth for approximately three millennia. In the II century BC. it begins to give way to the code.

Different forms of the book, as a rule, do not immediately and completely replace one another. They side by side, coexist for many centuries. But their areas of application are changing.

Back in the 17th century, the scroll was one of the favorite forms of office work in Moscow palace orders. Numerous Torahs were also scrolls - Hebrew lists of one of the sections of the Bible - the Pentateuch of Moses. They were written on parchment until very recently, and it happens that they are still being written. In 1801, Alois Senfelder, the inventor of lithography, submitted his application to the British Patent Office in the form of a scroll.

Over time, old forms attract the attention of amateurs, collectors. From now on, their destiny is a kind of antique stylization. The ancestor of constructivism in book business, Lazar Markovich Lissitzky (1890-1941), who signed his works with the transparent pseudonym El Lissitzky, began by arranging in 1917 in the form of a scroll, stylized as the Torah, M. Broderson's "Prague Legend", published in Moscow limited edition.

Making parchment. Engraving by I. Amman. 1568

But let us return to the codex, the appearance of which became possible with the invention of parchment. This is the name of the specially dressed skin of sheep, calves, kids. This writing material is named parchment after the city of Pergamum in Asia Minor, where it was allegedly invented by King Eumenes II. This king, says the legend, decided to create a large library in his capital and was going to buy a large batch of papyrus in Egypt. But Pharaoh Ptolemy V, a great book lover and proud, decided that the new book depository would overshadow the glory of the Alexandrian Library, famous in the ancient world, and banned the export of papyrus. It was then that Eumenes, without thinking twice, invented parchment, which was the skillfully dressed skin of lambs or calves. In fact, this material was known before. The oldest parchment scrolls that have survived to this day date back to 196-195. to R.X. Originally parchment books, like papyrus, were scrolls. But gradually people thought of folding the sheets in half and sewing notebooks out of them, from which they subsequently made up a book block, which was called code. Literally translated from Latin, this means tree trunk, log, log. This is the origin of this name. The ancient Greeks and Romans used waxed wooden boards for writing. The text was scratched into the wax with a pointed stylus. The edges of the boards could be fastened together with a cord, passing it through the holes drilled in them. It turned out to be some kind of notebook, the waxed pages of which are always ready for use. They often called her polyptych. Such a notebook served as a prototype of the book in the form of a vertically elongated rectangle. This form - in memory of the wooden "pages" of the polyptych - was given the name codex. Its advantages over the scroll, namely: the ability to turn pages and write both on the front and on the back of the sheet, were obvious.

Parchment had one more feature: the text written on it was easy to wash off and reuse the material. Such books, written according to the washed away text, are called palimpsests- from Greek words palin, what does it mean again and psycho- I'm cleaning. Scientists have learned how to restore washed away texts and read many previously unknown works of ancient authors.

Parchment served mankind for about ten centuries, although it had a significant drawback - it was very expensive. Parchment books cost a fortune.

This shortcoming was eliminated with the advent of writing material - paper. The innovation did not cause a revolutionary change in the form of the book; it was still code. For several centuries, parchment has been used in book business in parallel with paper. But again, the functions of the parchment book have changed; such books were henceforth produced only for very wealthy amateur bibliophiles. This feature was preserved even after the invention of printing around 1450, which did not change the form of the book, because it adopted the ancient code.

Start of paper production in Europe

From China, the new material penetrated into neighboring countries - Korea and Japan. In the 7th century the great and long journey of paper to the west began. Captured Chinese craftsmen, who came to Samarkand in the 8th century, introduced the peoples of Central Asia to papermaking. From here the paper came to the Middle East, then to Sicily. Another route from Samarkand lay through Egypt, where paper became known around the 10th century. after R.X., and through North Africa. Having crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, the paper came to Spain, and then to other European countries. In the XIII century. the first paper mills were built in northern Italy, and about a century later in France. Germany in the 14th century used mainly Italian paper, only in 1390 the Nuremberg patrician Ulman Stromer first began to make paper on German soil. For this purpose, he invited the Italian masters Francis and Mark. Today we can even "look" at the Stromer mill, because in 1493 one of the artists who illustrated the "Book of Chronicles" by the humanist Hartmann Schedel depicted it on an engraving with a Nuremberg perspective. The monopoly of this Nuremberger did not last long, although he demanded strict observance of secrecy from his masters and apprentices.

Paper mill W. Stromer in Nuremberg.
From a woodcut of 1493.

The appearance of cheap writing material in Germany immediately precedes the invention of the printing press. Paper has become the most important material and technical prerequisite for the emergence of book printing. By the middle of the 15th century, i.e. by the time the first printing house was created, at least 10 paper mills were operating in German lands. Scientists believe that each mill produced at least 1,000 rices of paper annually. Rice is equal to 480 sheets. It is easy to calculate that by the middle of the XV century. in Germany, about 10 thousand rice, or 480 thousand sheets of paper per year, were produced.

At the time, that was a lot. The city office of Nuremberg in 1440 purchased only 4 rice paper. Other magistrates spent even less. It can therefore be argued that the young typographical business from its very first steps did not experience a shortage of paper.

In addition, a lot of paper was brought from abroad, and above all, from Italy and France. The trade in writing material has become a profitable industry. Many editions of the inventor of printing, Johannes Gutenberg, are printed on imported paper.

These are lines from "Ode to the Typography" by the Chilean poet Pablo Neruda.

Paper appeared in Russia in the 14th century; before that they wrote on parchment. The "Teachings of Isaac the Syrian", dated 1381, is considered the oldest Russian book written on new material. For a long time, paper was brought to us from abroad. The first paper mill in Russia appeared during the time of Ivan Vasilyevich the Terrible. They learned about this when they found a message from the Russian Tsar dated September 26, 1570 to King Frederick II in Denmark. It was written on paper with a watermark in the form of the inscription " C[a] R[b] Ivan Vasilyevich of All Russia Grand Duke of Moscow summer 7074(i.e. 1565-1566)" .

The oldest depiction of a paper-making workshop is found in an engraving by Jost Ammann (1539-1591) in the book A True Description of All Conditions on Earth (Frankfurt am Main, 1568). This is an album whose talented engravings are accompanied by the unpretentious verses of Hans Sachs (1494--1576). Under an engraving depicting a paper craftsman, we read:

In the original, the verses are composed of pairwise rhymed lines. We offer the reader their prose translation. The technology of paper making is presented in the poem very approximately. Engraving gives a much better idea of ​​it.

Through the window in the upper right part of the illustration, the blades of the mill wheel are visible, which sets in motion the levers of the crush, which prepares the paper pulp. In the foreground, we see a craftsman who is immersing a frame with a mesh stretched over it into a barrel of paper pulp. Settling on the grid, the fibers of the mass form a paper sheet. For crimping sheets, a press is used, shown in the upper right part of the engraving.

Beginnings of woodcut printing in Europe

There is no need to talk about the invention of woodcuts in Europe. And the point here is not at all that it was previously known in the Far East. Reproduction of colorful prints on fabric from a wood-etched form was commonplace. From a technical point of view, what is now called woodcut printing is completely identical to printing on fabric. The difference here is more functional. And at the same time, this difference has played a colossal role in the history of human society. Printing on fabric pursued primarily aesthetic goals. When they began to print on paper, woodcuts acquired a new, purely informational aspect. It has become a tool for capturing and disseminating information. Woodcut, in fact, stands at the origins of mass communication methods. It is difficult to overestimate the degree of influence of the latter on the political orientation of the masses, on their mentality. It was the mass character in this case that was the decisive factor. Therefore, the spread of engraving became possible only with the appearance in Europe of cheap writing material. The milestone, as we remember, was 1390, when Ulman Stromer founded a paper mill in Nuremberg. Around the same time, the first news about woodcuts, or rather, about the masters who were engaged in this art, also belong to the same time.

Already at the end of the XIV century. in Germany and Holland, masters worked, who were called Forms Schneider and printer. What kind of forms they cut and what they printed, we do not know. Perhaps it was related to the jewelry business. One way or another, these craftsmen practiced certain methods of carving metal and wood.

Sources, for example, report that in 1398 a certain mold carver Ulrich worked in Ulm. The historian of early printing, Anthony van der Linde, associated the beginning of woodcut printing in southern Germany with this news, although, strictly speaking, he had no serious grounds for this.

Speaking about the beginning of woodcuts in Holland, the same Linde cited various archival references to masters called prenter. This word, he believed, goes back to the same fundamental principle as the English printer- printer. Yes, and in Germany, however, much later, in 1492, in Mainz, the student of Johann Gutenberg Peter Schaeffer in the afterword to the "Chronicle of Saxony" called printing - prenterey .

There is a report that on May 21, 1417, the knight Wouter van der List testified before the authorities that in his presence Gisbrecht de Koninck and the printer Jaan (Hans) borrowed 130 livres and 7 shillings from a merchant from Bruges. Other references to this "printer" are also known. One of them refers to August 5 of the same 1417.

On this day, Jaan the printer borrowed 2 livres 12 shillings and 4 grosz from parchment master Willem Tsernels, promising to return the money no later than by Easter. The mention of a master who made parchment is significant. Jaan might need this writing material to print engravings. The same "printer" had connections with an artisan who made paints. Together with such a master named Jan, the son of Giesbrechts van Wezele, and with Johann Hubracke, on September 18, 1417, he borrowed 8 livres of Brabant groschen with the obligation to repay the debt by Trinity Day. Another news about Jaan the printer, again connected with debt obligations, refers to November 29, 1417. As you can see, the aforementioned Jaan showed noticeable business activity, but God knows whether it was connected with his activities as an engraver or printer.

In 1428, sources record the stay of the carver Hans Pemer in Nuremberg.

Another name of the profession associated with the reproduction of pictorial and, to some extent, textual products was briefmaler. Literally translated from German, it sounds like a letter artist. Meanwhile, a literal translation is hardly appropriate here. The first part of the term we have given does not go back to the German brief- letter, and to Latin breuis- short. The thing is that the aforementioned masters propagated mainly single-leaf. In art history literature, the phrase is translated as draftsman of patents. Paul Kristeller, in whose Russian translation of "The History of European Engraving" we found this term, does not disclose the technical essence of the process carried out by the aforementioned "draughtsmen". But one can understand that he identifies it to a certain extent with woodcuts. Meanwhile, if we look at the engraving by Jost Amman, which is just called "Der Brieffmaler" (it was executed in 1368), we will see a person making prints by coloring on a stencil. Under the engraving, placed in the book "A Genuine Description of All Conditions on Earth", simple verses of the German poet Hans Sachs, popular in his time, are printed.

In our prose translation, this poem would sound like this: "They call me a draftsman of letters. I work with a brush and draw pictures on paper or parchment with paints and even gold. This is how I do the worst part of the work, getting some kind of payment for it."

The profession of "letter draftsman", which existed in the 15th-18th centuries, has always been low-paid. This work was considered mechanical. These artisans reproduced the simplest texts, images of saints, playing cards...

With the transition to woodcuts "briefmaler" gradually gives way to a master named briefdrucker, those. letter printer.

The oldest engravings were often pasted into handwritten books, in which they seemed to play the role of illustrations. One of the early cases is indirectly connected with 1410. This is the date of the manuscript that the engraving historian Wilhelm Schmidt found in the monastery of St. Zeno at Reichenhall. The codex contained woodcuts depicting St. Sebastian and St. Dorothea. Of course, the engravings could have been pasted into the manuscript later. But even the greatest authority on the history of engraving, Paul Kristeller, acknowledges the correctness of the above dating and notes that "decoration and binding of the manuscript was then usually done immediately after its production". He highly appreciates the artistic quality of these engravings, now stored in Munich, speaks of their extraordinary subtlety. By 1410, these engravings are attributed by the modern historian of the book, Horst Kunze. The author of "St. Sebastian" and "St. Dorothea" cannot be denied figurative thinking, a kind of elegance. True, only the contours of the drawing are conveyed in these sheets; the engraver is not yet able to model volumes by shading. Prints intended for hand coloring.

Paul Kristeller names a number of undated engravings which, in his opinion, look more archaic than those from the Reichenhalle. It is engraved in thick lines and, according to Christeller, "majestically severe" "The Death of Mary" and "St. Christopher" from the German Museum in Nuremberg. Some other woodcuts are also mentioned.

The oldest date that can be found on engraved sheets is "1418". This number is indicated on the image of the Madonna, which is now kept in the Royal Library in Brussels. The dating is disputed. Wilhelm Schmidt argued that the date was falsified in modern times. Art critic Lippman was more lenient: he said that the master made a mistake when engraving the date on the board: instead of "MCCCCLVIII", i.e. 1458 he carved "MCCCCXVIII" - 1418. Anthony van der Linde denied the possibility of falsification; the erroneous date, in his opinion, could have appeared when the engraving was painted with dirty brown paint and retouched at a later time with a pencil. Other scholars believed that the engraving, executed around 1440, transferred the date from the painting, which served as the original for the woodcut.

No one, however, has so far denied the authenticity of the date "1423" affixed to the engraving "St. Christopher". This sheet, which is now reproduced in all works on the history of engraving, still in the 60s of the XVIII century. found in the Buxheim monastery near Memmningen by a passionate collector and researcher of engravings Karl Heinrich von Heineken (1706-1791). The engraving was pasted on the back of the binding cover of the handwritten book "Laus Virginis" ("Praise to the Blessed Virgin"). The book contained another, this time undated, but no less ancient engraving depicting the Annunciation. Subsequently, these two sheets ended up in the collection of Lord George John Spencer (1758-1834), and subsequently - in the John Rylands memorial library in Manchester.

Saint Christopher, carrying the baby Jesus across the river, is depicted against the backdrop of a medieval German landscape with a water mill, with a peasant woman who brought grain on a donkey, with a peasant climbing a mountain with a sack on his shoulders, with a rabbit looking out of a hole. The landscape is purely Central European. Below the image are two lines of text:

"Christophori faciem die quacunque tueris Illa nempe die morte mala non morieris."

The date is indicated in the lower right corner: "Millesimo ssss o xx o tertio", i.e. 1423. Engraving colored by hand.

Text material will now accompany the illustration. For now, he plays a secondary role. In a printed book, it will become the core and basis of the information contained in it.

Colored woodcuts in the first half of the 15th century. sold at fairs throughout Germany. Ordinary people, buying them, hung pictures on the walls, attached them to the walls of cabinets and beds. The image of a saint in a dwelling, many believed, protects against diseases, from the evil eye. Each saint had his own "specialty". Saint Christopher protected from the plague, Saint Valentine cured epilepsy, Saint Apollonia helped with toothache.

Johannes Gutenberg, of course, bought these sheets himself, which served as a modest decoration for a strict and stingy medieval interior. He was also familiar with the technique of woodcutting, which became one of the material prerequisites for typographic art.

The technique of imprinting was the simplest. The engraved board was covered with a layer of paint and carefully, so as not to smear, a sheet of paper was placed on top. It was rubbed to the board with the edge of the palm or flat raber. It was possible to tap the paper with a brush. No mechanical devices, even the simplest ones, were required to obtain an impression.

Sublime engraving metal variants

The initial stages of development of any technical idea are characterized by an abundance of options implemented in practice. The form of letterpress appeared in various guises, which could be not only wooden, but also metal. One of the original engraving methods was called Teigdruck, which literally means test print. The form of letterpress in this case was engraved on wood or metal. A sheet of paper or parchment was covered with a pasty mass before imprinting. Sometimes gold foil was placed between the mold and the sheet, allowing for special decorative effects. Printing on the test is a rather rare way; no more than one hundred such prints have been preserved. An interesting collection of them is in the Bavarian State Library in Munich.

A kind of parallel to woodcuts is sublime engraving on metal. The essence of the method remains the same, only the material changes. Metal engraving is much more difficult than wood engraving. But the quality of the prints wins somewhat, especially when it comes to small images. In woodcuts, a tree is taken out on both sides of the contour line that forms the pattern. Choosing a metal is not so easy. Therefore, a slightly different technique has become widespread in sublime engraving on metal. Contour lines were engraved in depth. The impression from such a form turned out to be as if negative: white lines on a black background (depending on the color of the paint).

To "revive" large black planes, they were worked out punches. The impression in this case was covered with many small white dots, with the help of which the volume was sometimes modeled. This manual reproduction process is called punch, or white engraving, and in the German version Schrotdruck. Most of the surviving prints date back to the 60s of the 15th century.

A metal plate with recessed contour lines can be used as a mold for casting a low-melting metal cliché in which the lines are elevated. The method has long been used by jewelers. In German specialist literature it is called Abklatschverfahren There is no Russian synonym for this term. The method could have prompted Johannes Gutenberg to the idea of ​​casting type letters according to prefabricated matrices.

Returning to traditional woodcuts, let's say that over time the idea of ​​serial engravings arose. Several sheets with images and inscriptions, being collected together, made it possible to unfold the plot in time and space. When such engravings began to be fastened together, a printed book arose. But before continuing the story of typography, let's get acquainted with one of the most popular areas of woodcut printing.

Playing cards

The famous Chinese writer Lu Xun (1881-1936), a great lover of engraving, wrote:

"According to many researchers, Europeans learned woodcut from the Chinese. This happened at the beginning of the 14th century, more precisely, in 1320. The first such examples of woodcut engraving were probably roughly made playing cards. These gambling items, having appeared on the European continent, marked the beginning of the printing art - this sharp weapon of modern civilization" .

The date given here is, of course, hypothetical. But the essence of the question is stated correctly. The very fact of deriving a printed book from playing cards condemned and cursed for several centuries will seem shocking to many. But it is impossible, and indeed unnecessary, to exclude these instruments of vice from the list of material prerequisites for printing.

Playing cards came to Europe from Asia in much the same way as paper. In India, they were known as early as the 2nd millennium BC. Through the Middle East and North Africa, they came to Spain. It is believed that from here they were brought to France in 1366 by troops returning from the Iberian Peninsula after the war with the Saracens.

The oldest mention of playing cards in Europe can be found in the decision of the city council of Florence on March 23, 1377. In the same year, the Dominican monk Johann von Reinfelden wrote about them with condemnation in Basel. Playing decks, which the clergy called "devil's prayer books", are spreading in European countries like an epidemic. In 1377, their existence was recorded in Paris, in 1378 - in Constance and Regensburg, in 1379 - in St. Gallen and Brabant, in 1380 - in Nuremberg and Barcelona, ​​in 1381 - in Marseilles, in 1391 - in Augsburg, in 1392 - in Frankfurt am Main.

St. Bernardino of Sienna (1380-1444) delivered a sermon in Bologna in 1423 against the card game, declaring playing cards an invention of the devil. And his follower, the Franciscan monk Giovanni Capistrano (1386-1456), a fanatic who burned 40 Jews in Breslau, held a three-hour ceremony in Nuremberg in 1452 against games in general. A bonfire was laid out in one of the city squares, in which 3,640 backgammon boards, 40,000 dice sets and countless decks of cards were burned. Capistrano also carried out similar actions in Augsburg, Weimar, Magdeburg and Erfurt. The engraver Hans Leonhard Scheufelein (1480-1540) depicted the Nuremberg auto-da-fé in one of his engravings; this sheet can be seen today in the exposition of the Museum of Playing Cards in Altenburg.

We will not touch on the moral side of the issue and will deal only with the technical aspects. Initially, cards were made by hand. Such cards - a true work of art - were very expensive. Among them are those that were intended for the so-called. "Court Game" ("Hofisches Spiel"). In 1415 in Milan, a deck cost 1,500 golden écus, equivalent to 15,000 pre-war francs according to playing card historian Melbert B. Carey. Therefore, even then they begin to make them by the method of coloring on a stencil. This was done by the very "briefmalers" mentioned above. The technological process was simple and fast. It was then that in Germany there was a proverb that still exists today "Alle zwolf Apostel auf einen Streich malen" ("Draw 12 apostles with one stroke"). Cards from the oldest German deck that has survived to this day, which date back to 1427-1431, are painted with bright colors. In the first half of the XV century. maps are also being made with the help of woodcuts and woodcuts. Somewhat later, when creating maps, they also use a new technique - in-depth engraving on metal, which will be discussed below.

Researchers point to close links between playing cards and illustrations from the incunabulum period in the history of printing.

The task of mass reproduction in the production of playing cards was, perhaps, more acute than in sheet woodcuts. Technical ways of solving the problem bring it closer to printing. Here it was no longer possible to do with rubbing the prints by hand. Perhaps it was in card making that simple printing devices first appeared. However, we have no documentary evidence for such an assertion. However, we dare to assume that Johannes Gutenberg was familiar with the card game firsthand. This is evidenced by his connections with one of the masters of playing cards, which will be discussed below.

Western European engraved books

At one time, a discussion flared up on the pages of the bibliographic press, the meaning of which can be conveyed by the title of an article by the engraving historian Wilhelm Ludwig Schreiber - "Should woodcut be considered the forerunner of book printing?" . Schreiber answered the question in the negative. He pointed out that woodcuts never set themselves the task of reproducing textual material. The inscriptions on the engravings are few and random. As for woodcut books, where the proportion of the text is quite high, they, according to Schreiber, appeared after 1460, when printing had already been invented.

This view has been refuted by recent research. It has been established that the first woodcut books appeared around 1430 and therefore preceded printing. The place of their origin, most likely, should be recognized as Holland. Hence, inevitable parallels with the version that printing was invented in Holland. This version was popular at the time. In this regard, the name of a resident of Haarlem Laurens Janszon Koster was called.

Page from the woodcut book "Bible of the Poor"

Engraving historians have identified 33 woodcut books. There were, of course, much more, about 100, but many have not reached us. The theme is dominated by biblical subjects - "Bible of the Poor", "Apocalypse", "Mirror of Human Salvation", "Life and Passion of Jesus Christ", "Song of Songs". Books of religious and moral content were widely distributed: "The Art of Dying", "The Dance of Death", "The History of the Holy Cross", "The Seven Deadly Sins". At the same time, there were publications that can be called informational - "Memorable places of the city of Rome", "The Book of the Planets", "The Art of Palmistry", all kinds of calendars. Produced in the form of woodcut books and primary textbooks of the Latin language - Donata.

The volume of all these books is within 60 sheets. The "Bible of the Poor", for example, is known in versions with 34, 40 and 50 sheets.

Almost until the end of the 15th century. woodcut books existed in parallel with those printed from typesetting, and the handwriting continued to flourish at that time. Each method of book production had its own audience and favorite subjects.

Engravers made woodcut books. By that time, this occupation had become a separate profession. The oldest image of the engraver's workshop can be found in an engraving by Jost Amman from 1568.

Woodcut books were originally printed like sheet woodcuts - they rubbed the edge of the palm to the form, stuffed with paint. In this case, the paper was pressed into the recessed blank areas of the board. It was impossible to print on the reverse side of the print, because the print on the front side would inevitably be damaged during the second pass. The prints printed on one side of the sheet were glued together. Books made up of double sheets are called anopistographic. The etymology of this word is as follows: Greek an is a negative particle, a opisthographos means written on the back. After the invention of printing, woodcut books began to be printed on a printing press already on both sides of the sheet. Such books are called opistographic. The illustrations in woodcut books were often hand-coloured.

The National Library of Paris has two engraved forms, which the German historian and naturalist Gotthelf Fischer von Waldheim (1771-1853), who lived most of his life in Russia, where he was called Grigory Ivanovich, attributed to Johannes Gutenberg and attributed to his very first experiments in the field typographic art, because the configuration of the text carved on one of them was close to the smaller font of the Psalter of 1457. The boards were worn out by worms, which also indicated their antiquity. The mirror-engraved 20 lines of text on the first board began with the words "Praepositio quid est". The second board represented only the upper part of the form and contained only 16 lines. The font here was different, containing fewer abbreviations than the first.

The boards came to the Parisian library during the time of King Louis XIV; they were purchased in Germany and have been in the collections of many bibliophiles. They were first described by Karl Heinrich Heineken in 1771. He also spoke about another woodcut board, on which the text of one of the pages of the textbook of Latin etymology, Donatus, was engraved. The board was in the collection of Gerard Meermann in The Hague.

The old historians derived printing directly from the method of making woodcut books. "The Gutenberg Challenge,- wrote Anatoly Alexandrovich Bakhtiarov (1851-1916) in the first Russian biography of the inventor of printing, - consisted only of cutting the Dutch boards into individual letters. From this idea arose the printing press itself.. It is impossible to agree with such a statement. The emergence of a fundamentally new way of making books suggested a revolutionary leap in technology. The mere declaration of the type-setting principle yielded little. It was necessary to develop a practical, technologically driven way of multiple reproduction of the letters themselves. This is exactly what Johannes Gutenberg did.

At the origins of typography - legendary dates

In the 550 years that have passed since the invention of printing in Europe, the literature has accumulated a lot of information about this great event, which, at best, cause a smile. What times did not include the beginning of typographic art. With what only peoples, cities and people he was not associated.

The simplest case is typographical errors in the imprint of early printed books. Human neglect is a widespread thing. Errors in indicating the year of publication of books - a great many. And it is relatively easy to determine that this is a typo, and not the original date.

Anthony van der Linde put together many of these mistakes in his time. The list is impressive; it occupies five large format pages. The oldest of the dates is 1071. It is given in the colophon of the works of Valery Martial, published by the French printer A. Beaufort: "Appo Domini M.LXXI". Obviously, in this case, the typesetter missed the Roman numerals. SSSS, and as a result, instead of 1471, it turned out to be 1071.

A similar case is found in the imprint of Seneca's writings, printed by the Czech printer Mattias from Olmütz, who worked in Italy. Here in the colophon stands MLXXIII, those. 1074 instead MLCCCCXXIII, those. 1474.

In the "Fables" of Lawrence Abstemius published by John of Tridino in Venice, 1399 is indicated as the date of publication. Here in the date ISSAASIH missing one WITH.

Sometimes printers reproduced in the colophon not the date of printing, but the date of the creation of the manuscript, affixed to the original from which they typed the text. So, for example, in one of the publications widely distributed in the Middle Ages and often published in the XV-XVI centuries. Commentaries of Nicholas de Lear (1340) to the Bible as the date of publication is 1339.

Apparently, a similar case and a 36-leaf book, which contains the following colophon: "Liber de miseria humane condicionis Lotarij dyakoni sanctorum Sergi et Bachi cardinalis qui postea Innocentins tercius appellatus est Anno domini MCCCCXLVIIl". The German printing historian Georg Wilhelm Zapf (1747-1810) suggested that the date 1448 was transferred from the manuscript that served as the original for the printer. But at the same time, he did not rule out the possibility that the book was printed by Johannes Gutenberg.

The reader will say that it is unlikely that any serious person will take the erroneous date for the actual one and attribute the beginning of printing to 1071, 1074 or 1339. But it happened. The Jewish physician Joseph ha-Sephardi wrote in his "Chronicle" published by him in 1554: “It seems to me that printing was invented much earlier than(what is usually considered. - E.N. ), since I saw a book printed in Venice in 1428.".

One can cite a very recent similar example, though not connected with the invention of printing. The Serbian bibliographer Borivoje Marinković published a list of 60 South Slavic books in Cyrillic script published in 1517-1668. and unknown in the bibliography. Marinkovitch wrote that efforts should be made to search for them, but upon closer examination it turned out that the dating of most of the publications he indicated was based on misprints, and of relatively recent times.

A special case of legendary dates is associated with messages that have nothing to do with printing, but which are nevertheless connected with it. Such, for example, are fairly frequent assertions that printing was already known to the ancient Romans. The French literary critic Izraeli, in a very curious book "Literary Curiosities", even argued that the Romans deliberately hid the secret of typographic art, based on purely political considerations.

Speaking about the acquaintance of the Romans with printing, they often refer to the words of Mark Tullius Cicero about "signs made of gold or other material and representing twenty-one letters"; These words have been quoted above. There was also talk about the fact that Cicero in this case was not talking about typographic letters, but about children's cubes with images of letters that were used to teach literacy.

In later times, the specific names of the inventors of printing were also named. Today it is sometimes difficult to establish where these names actually came from. In 1713, for example, Pope Clement XI (Giovanni Francesco Albani, 1649-1721) in one of his bulls, referring to the authority of Archbishop Lothar Franz von Schonborn, named a certain Theodoric Gressemund as the inventor of printing.

And in later times, the invention of printing was associated with the names of various people, sometimes quite real, but who had nothing to do with the invention. Among them, for example, the Italians Pamfilio Castaldi and Bernard Cennini. The latter should not be confused with Cennino Cennini, the author of the "Book of Art", which we talked about above, talking about printing on fabric. Bernard Cennini was born in 1412. According to the Florentine typographer Domenico Maria Manni in a book devoted to the history of the book business in Florence, published in 1761, Bernard first began to engrave punches on steel and make matrices with their help. This new method was used to cast the typefaces used to print "The Life of Catherine of Sienna" in 1471. Bernardo Cennini really existed and was the first printer in Florence. But he founded a printing house here only in 1471, when book printing was already known to the world.

As for the message of Domenico Manni, the source for it was the words in the preface printed by Bernardo and Domenico Cennini in 1471 in Florence of the "Works" of the ancient Roman poet Publius Virgil Maron. Here, it seems to us, it was about the book first printed by these printers, and not at all about the invention of printing.

Bi Sheng's invention

Typesetting was first used in China. You can learn about this from the work "Meng qi bi tan" ("Reservoir of dreams"), written by Shen Kuo (1031-1095) in 1088. This kind of encyclopedia with articles on a variety of topics was republished in China in 1975. One of the articles says, in part:

"During the reign of Qing Li (1041-1048), a commoner Bi Sheng made a movable type in the following way: taking viscous clay, he carved signs in it as high as the rim of a coin, with each hieroglyph forming a separate seal. To give the letters of the fortress, he burned them on fire. Then he took an iron board prepared in advance and covered it with a mixture of pine resin, wax and paper ash. Before printing, Bi Sheng placed an iron frame on the board to separate the lines. This frame was filled with seals placed in a row, making up a solid board for printing. Then Bi Sheng brought it to the fire and heated it. When the paste softened from the heat, he laid a smooth board over the letters, after which their surface became even, like a grindstone. This method is unprofitable for printing 2-3 copies, while printing several hundreds or thousands, extraordinary speed is achieved.

"For every sign, Shen Ko continued. there were several letters, and for frequently used signs ... twenty or more, in case of a possible repetition of these signs on the same page ... If there was a rare sign that was not prepared in advance, it was immediately cut out and burned on fire from straw so it was ready right away."

Why did Bi Sheng make letters from clay and not from wood and did not use the xylographic technique widespread in China? Shen Kuo answered this question in the following way: "He did not use wood, because the wood fabric is sometimes coarse, sometimes thin, i.e. heterogeneous, and in addition, the tree absorbs moisture, as a result of which the composition(from letters) the shape becomes uneven.

After finishing printing, Bi Sheng, according to Shen Ko, brought the form to the fire. The paste melted and the letters fell out "of themselves, without leaving any trace of clay."

"When Bi Sheng died,- said Shen Ko, - his set of letters passed into the possession of his(as stated in the 1696 edition of Shen Kuo's work, in an earlier edition of 1631 - "to mine." - E.N. ) is close and is still preserved as a great value ". Shen Ko wrote his work 40 years after Bi Sheng's invention; it is quite possible that he was personally familiar with this "commoner".

Bi Sheng was the first to combine typesetting and printing principles into a single whole. He, no doubt, belongs to the honor of creating a typesetting form for the reproduction of textual material. Bi Sheng's clay type was not widely used. But the very principle of printing from typesetting proved to be fruitful, although its use was constrained by the hieroglyphic nature of Chinese writing. Recall that in this letter a special character is required for each word. Therefore, there must be a lot of letters, and their search is very difficult.

Nevertheless, books printed with clay type were periodically published in China. One such publication was the Buddhist sutra "Wuliang-shou-fo iing", printed in 1103 and found in 1965 during excavations in Wenchu. In 1193, the famous Chinese scholar of the Song Dynasty Zhu Vida (1126-1204) used Bi Sheng's method to print his work "Yutang zaji" ("Various notes of the Imperial Academy"), which he himself told in a letter to his friend Chen Huangcheng.

Wang Zheng's wooden type model

In the XIII century. in China they printed from a form made up of individual wooden letters. This is known from the work "Nong shu" by Wang Zheng (c. 1260-1330) published in 1313. This work was republished in Shanghai in 1994. The work is mainly devoted to agricultural issues, but it has a section called "Moving Type Typography". The first edition of "Nong Shu" was published in 1314, subsequently it was issued repeatedly.

Wang Zheng talks about woodblock printing, which is widespread in China, rightly pointing out its shortcomings:

"The material for the boards and the work of the craftsmen required high costs. It happened that the printing of some books required great effort and ended with difficulty only after a few years. Some works worthy of publication remained unprinted for fear of labor costs."

As a means to overcome the shortcomings, he points to typesetting. At the same time, Wang Zheng reports on the invention of Bi Sheng, without naming, however, his name.

"Recently,- says Wang Zheng, - they also began to make letters cast from tin. The letters were mounted on an iron wire, forming lines. Then they were put into the compartments for lines available in the form and printed.

This is a very important, but, unfortunately, too short message. Nothing is said about how the letters were cast. Recall that the multiple reproduction of letters by casting is an important element of the invention of Johannes Gutenberg.

Engraving depicting a typesetting shop from a Chinese book
"Moving Type Printing Guide". 1776

Tin letters, however, were not successful in China. "On letters of this kind, ink does not hold well, says Wang Zheng, and with frequent printing they deteriorate, as a result of which they are not suitable for long-term use. Therefore, the Chinese began to make letters from wood. The hieroglyphs were written on thin paper, their mirror images were obtained on the board in the manner described above, and then engraved. "After the engraving of signs on the board,- writes Wang Zheng, - each of them is sawn with a file with fine teeth and folded into a basket. Each letter is carefully trimmed with a knife. The width and height of the letters are measured according to a predetermined pattern, after which the font is folded into special boxes". There were a lot of boxes - according to the number of hieroglyphs. They were mounted on the surface of a round rotating table; it turned out to be a sort of collection box office. Wang Zheng reports the dimensions of the table: its diameter was about 7 chi (approximately (245 cm), height - 3 chi (105 cm). When typing, one of the compositors took the manuscript and loudly shouted out the names of the hieroglyphs. Another compositor picked up the letters and made a printed form.

Chinese cash register. According to Wang Zheng

Chinese compositors working

Wang Zheng, who served as governor of Jingde County in Xuanzhou County, relates that he ordered movable type to be made. It took two years. Wang Zheng typed out the description of Jingde County. It took about 60,000 characters to set the forms. About a month later, 100 copies were printed, "indistinguishable from books printed using boards." However, his "Book of Agriculture" - "Pong Shu" - Wang Zheng still printed in woodcut.

The oldest image of a Chinese type-setting workshop known to us dates back to 1776. It is placed in the book "Manual for printers in movable type." More recent drawings depict a Chinese compositing box as described by Wang Zheng and Chinese compositors at work.

The widespread use of typesetting in China was hampered, as already mentioned, by the hieroglyphic nature of Chinese writing, which nullified all the advantages of typesetting. Therefore, printing from typesetting was much more successfully used by China's neighbors, who had an alphabetic writing system. The Koreans were especially successful in this area.

Printing in Korea

Koreans started with woodcuts. Printing from solid boards, which arose here in the 8th century, by the 11th century. already widely used. By this time, all the states of the peninsula were united by the Kore dynasty. Printing becomes nationwide. During the reign of Emperor Munyong (1047-1083), thousands of boards were engraved to reproduce the canonical collection of Buddhist texts, the Tripitaka (Three Baskets of the Law). Boards were used for reprints until the Mongol invasion in the 13th century. Attempts to restore the lost forms were also made under the Mongols. So, in 1236-1251. 81238 boards were engraved, some of them have survived to this day.

The introduction of movable type also dates back to the Goryeo Dynasty. Its use in Korea was facilitated by the fact that there was a letter that originally consisted of only 28 characters. At first, the letters were made ceramic. We find the oldest message about metal type in the book "Collected Works of the Dignitary Ree from the Land of the East". Its author Ri Kyu Wo (1186-1241), speaking about the Code of Laws of Emperor Zhuo Yu, wrote: "Fortunately, this Code of Laws did not disappear. It was printed in metal letters in the amount of 28 copies, which were sent for storage to various departments". Scholars believe that this edition appeared around 1234.

A woodcut copy of the book "The Song of the Monk Juan on the Correctness of the Faith" has survived with a colophon that reads: "Printed for eternity in freshly finished type from an edition printed in embossed type. Year of Rihyo (1239), first decade of September" .

In recent years there have been reports of finds of even older Korean books printed in metal letters, but these reports need to be verified. So, in October 1973, a collection of works of classical literature was discovered, which was dated around 1160.

More specific information about type-setting printing dates back to the period of the Zhi dynasty. The name of one of the emperors of this dynasty, Se Jong (1419-1450), is associated with the invention of a practical alphabet, which greatly facilitated typesetting. In 1420, new typefaces for printing Confucian texts were cast by his order. The books printed at that time have also been preserved. One of the writers of that time - Song Khien (1436-1509) left us a description of the process of making a font. "Primarily, he wrote, carve letters from solid wood. A flat trough is filled with fine sand taken from the seashore overgrown with reeds. Wooden letters are pressed into the sand to form a negative matrix. Thus, by placing one trough over another, molten bronze is poured into the hole. Metal penetrates inside, filling negative matrices and forming letters" .

From this description it is clear that the metal letters were made by casting into flasks. The method was widespread in Korea; it was used to make jewelry in bronze and brass.

Did Europe know about Far Eastern book printing?

According to some researchers, Johannes Gutenberg also started with casting in flasks. This begs the question: did Europe know about Far Eastern book printing? For Gutenberg scholars, this is a painful question, as evidenced by the titles of the works of the patriarch of Gutenberg knowledge, the long-term director of the Gutenberg Museum in Mainz Alois Ruppel (1882-1977), among which is the article "Did the Chinese and Koreans Invent Printing?". The famous type artist Albert Capra also worried about this question, writing the article "Did Gutenberg, when inventing typography, know about printing in separate metal characters in Korea?" .

Many researchers tried to trace the ways of penetration of the Far Eastern invention into Europe. First of all, let us name the work of the American orientalist Thomas Francis Carter (1882-1925), which has already become a classic, "The invention of printing in China and its advance to the West". Western neighbors of the Chinese got acquainted with the invention very early. They, however, clearly preferred woodcuts to typesetting. One of the ancient Mongol-Tungus tribes, the Khitan, who founded the state of Liao (926-1122) already in the 11th century, printed books. There is evidence that between 1031 and 1064 the Khitans printed the Tripitaka on thin paper. The entire edition consisted of at least a thousand volumes, of which not a single one has come down to us.

During excavations in Turpan were found Uighur printed books, as well as movable type. The Jurchens, who founded the Jin Empire in 1126, also knew how to print. A.P. Terentiev-Katansky has recently studied the book business in the Tangut state, which flourished in the 10th-13th centuries. It turned out that woodcuts were also used here, although one of the books of the Tangut fund of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy, according to the scientist, "seems to be typed" .

Woodcut method since the second half of the XIII century. the Mongols also printed their books.

There is evidence that Europeans also took part in the reproduction of texts by printing. It is alleged, for example, that the Italian Giovanni da Monte Corvino (1247-1328) and the German Arnold from Cologne in 1297-1307. with the help of Chinese workers, engravings of religious subjects were printed in Beijing with brief explanations in Latin, Mongolian and Persian. It is possible that these texts also found their way to Europe.

Information about book printing among the Arab peoples is presented sparingly. True, in 1877-1878. in the Egyptian village of El Fayoum, an archive of Coptic and Arabic documents was found, partly printed by woodcuts. The oldest of them dates back to the 10th century. . Apparently, in this case one should speak of an independent invention, not related to Far Eastern sources. Some kind of printing technique in the Coptic environment was mastered by the semi-legendary Russian doctor Ivan Smerd (in the literature he is also called Smer and Smera. - E.N. ). Polovtsian, sent by the Kiev prince Vladimir to test his faith and ended up in Egypt. From here he wrote a letter to the prince, ending with the following words: "I wrote this in iron letters on twelve copper boards." Some historians consider the letter to be a forgery fabricated in the 16th century. , while others declared Ivan Smerd the inventor of printing.

Among the approximately 50 prints found at El Fayoum, most were printed in the first half of the 14th century. Among them was the Koran in Arabic.

Summarizing, it must be said that if the path of Bi Sheng's invention to the east is clearly visible, then its progress to the west is still difficult to trace.

In Persia, Far Eastern book printing was known in the 14th century. The poet Rashid al-Din, in his poem "Jami al-Tawarikh" ("The Collected Stories"), written in 1311, described the Chinese way of making books.

In fairness, it should be noted that the fact of the borrowing of printing by European peoples was obvious to many old writers. Nikolai Gavrilovich Spafari-Milescu (1636-1708), who visited China with the Russian embassy in 1676, wrote: "... Cannons were cast, and they learned to walk on the sea with mothers, so they learned to print books from the Chinese in Europe. Later, when the Kalmyks and Tatars took China, and with them Father Oderik, and Anton the Armenian, and Marco Pavel the Venetian, came to China, and truly they brought those arts to Europe from China " .

"Early European printed impressions were printed and bound exactly according to the traditional Chinese technique. Two pages were engraved on one board, water-based inks were used, the impression was made by rubbing on one side of the sheet, and the printed sheets were folded against each other with their clean sides. This method is consistent with typical Chinese methods, although it was in conflict with European traditions.This indicates that the Europeans used the same technique as the Chinese several centuries ago" .

Here, as we can see, we are talking about the production of the so-called woodcut method. anopistographic books, the pages of which are printed on one side of the sheet and glued to each other with clean sides.

Europeans soon discovered he writes, that woodcut printing does not correspond to their alphabetic writing, that the engraving of forms on wooden boards is a laborious process, and the Chinese method of printing with movable type has become more preferable in their eyes ... European typography began with wooden types, the method of manufacturing and printing from them is identical Chinese".

Further, without any grounds for this, it is asserted that Pamfilio Castaldi printed in wood type as early as 1420 in Venice. The same method, according to Hicksing Pan, was used by the Dutchman Lawrence Janszon Koster around 1440. The Beijing historian also finds Chinese prototypes in the technology used by Johannes Gutenberg.

All this was discussed at the international symposium in Seoul in September 1997, held by UNESCO in accordance with the program "Memory of the World". And what is most curious, it was published in 1998 in Mainz in the next "Gutenberg Yearbook" without any comments, but with a remark about the need to overcome "A Eurocentric Perspective on the History of Printing" .

It must be said that Albert Kapr, in his recent monograph on Johannes Gutenberg, tried to trace the ways in which Far Eastern technology penetrated Europe. He published a drawing depicting Bi Shen making matrices and an engraving depicting European coiners. These images showed a marked resemblance. Capr suggested that Johannes Gutenberg was told about Chinese printing by Nicholas of Cusa, who became acquainted with Far Eastern technology during his mission to Constantinople in 1437. Nicholas, on behalf of Pope Eugene IV, was to invite the patriarch of the Greek church and 28 archbishops to the church council. This cathedral was opened in Ferrara on April 5, 1438. Among its guests was the famous Greek scribe Basilius Bessarion, who, according to Capra, could bring Chinese printed books with him. During the council, the pope sent Nicholas of Cusa to Germany with a message condemning another heresy. Nikolai's path passed through Strasbourg and Mainz, where his meeting with Gutenberg could take place. At this meeting, the topic of printing was also discussed.

All these hypothetical constructions seem to us too straightforward. So it was or not, one thing is indisputable: the experiments in the Far East in no way detract from the merits of Johannes Gutenberg. The same Albert Kapr said very precisely about this:

"... if information about printing in movable type reached Gutenberg, and even if he saw the print printed there, we cannot deny him the search and work of the inventor. And we should not forget about another thing: printing began its victorious path around the world not from Korea , but from Mainz" .

bookbinding art

The material and technical prerequisites for the emergence of book printing are to a large extent to be found in the manuscript that has existed for centuries. The configuration of the book block goes back to the handwritten book, that "code" about which we have already written. This should also include the technology of stitching processes and the manufacture of binding, designed to protect the book from the vicissitudes of fate that constantly pursued it. This technology essentially remained unchanged until the second half of the 19th century.

Books in the form of papyrus scrolls, the oldest of which date back to the 26th century. BC, had no bindings. To protect against the vicissitudes of time, they were placed in round tubes-cases hollowed out of wood, and labels with the title of the book were attached to the handle of the stick, on which the papyrus was screwed. In ancient Rome, such a label was called titulary. Hence our term title page. True binding comes into existence only with the appearance of books in the form of a codex. As the first bindings, sheets of thick parchment or papyrus were used, glued together in several layers.

A scroll, a codex picked up by a tab, and a codex made up of separate notebooks

Initially, approximately in the 1st-3rd centuries after AD, the codex was obtained by folding sheets in half and putting them into each other. A book block, selected, as modern printers say, tab, stitched saddle- through the fold of the spine. Around the 4th century the block began to be composed of separate notebooks, each of which had a certain number of sheets. The number of sheets was not constant even within one book. It was only in the late Middle Ages that eight-leaf notebooks began to be preferred.

The oldest bindings that have survived to this day date from the 7th century BC. However, written evidence of the existence of bookbinding art dates back to much more ancient times. In one of the messages of Augustine the Blessed, who lived in 354-430, there is a speech about the need to burn the belongings of the Manichaean sect "manuscripts bound in decorated leather" .

The first bookbinder known to us by name was the Irish monk Dageus, who died in 587.

Written in the VI century. The codex containing the writings of the ancient Roman physician Pedanius Dioscorides contains a miniature depicting the Byzantine princess Juliana Anicia, on whose order the book was written. In the hands of the princess is a book bound, decorated with carvings.

The scroll and the leather-bound codex coexisted for a long time. On one of the miniatures of the Gospel of the XI century, stored in the Cathedral of St. Vita in Prague, the evangelist Mark is depicted, in front of whom lies a bound codex on a music stand. And at some distance we see a box with books in the form of a scroll.

The bindings of especially valuable books were richly decorated. The so-called "Golden Codex" (Codex aureus) is stored in the Bavarian State Library in Munich. This is a Gospel written in Reims around 870. Its text is reproduced in gold letters. The basis of the binding is wooden boards covered with leather. Gold plates with relief images of Christ, the four evangelists and scenes from the New Testament are nailed to the top board. The binding is decorated with multi-colored precious stones.

Such artistic bindings have long existed in Russia, where they were called salaries. The best known are the "Gospel and Apostolic Readings" oklad, "built" by order of the Moscow Grand Duke Simeon the Proud in 1343, and the gospel-Aprakos oklad, made in 1392 by order of the boyar Fyodor Andreyevich Koshka. The salary of the so-called Morozov Gospel of the 15th century, which was kept in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, and now located in the Armory, is also beautiful. The binding boards of this book are fastened with clasps. And the edge is decorated oversight- a curtain with pearls strung on threads.

Precious salaries are rare. And in everyday life there were ordinary bindings, which in Russia were called everyday. They were based on wooden boards up to 2 cm thick, which were covered with leather or some kind of fabric - velvet, axamite ... The surface of the skin was decorated with an embossed image, most often ornamental.

Speaking about the artistic decoration of Western European bindings, researchers distinguish several styles. The oldest of them - Carolingian, or pre-Romanesque - existed in the 8th-10th centuries. These bindings were made from rough sheepskin or parchment. To decorate the lids, an ordered geometric ornament was used.

Medieval binding in the form of a bag

Richer ornamental decoration of Romanesque bindings dating from the 12th-13th centuries. Floral motifs dominate here in ornamentation. The bindings were also decorated with plot images embossed on the skin and interpreting biblical stories. The centers where Romanesque bindings were created were workshops at universities. In Gothic bindings, which existed in the 14th-15th centuries, but were also found earlier, both geometric and floral ornaments were used for decoration. The drawings were cut or embossed on the skin. Embossing was most often blind, colorless. To decorate binding covers, metal mullions and squares with images engraved on them were hammered onto them. The bindings were decorated with carvings on ivory. Let us tell in passing about the special forms of binding that existed in the Middle Ages and were later used in liturgical printed books. These are, for example, bindings in the form of a bag made of soft leather or fabric. Wandering monks attached such bags to their belts.

In the XVI century. richly decorated gold-embossed bindings appear, which with good reason can be called bibliophilic. A well-known master of such bindings was Jakob Krause (c. 1531-1585), who worked at the court of the Saxon elector in Dresden. Some of them will be discussed later in the book or toy chapter.

Bookbinder. Engraving by I. Amman. 1568

We find the oldest image of a bookbinding workshop on an engraving by Jost Ammann in the book of Hans Sachs, already mentioned by us, "A Detailed Description of All Professions on Earth", published in Frankfurt am Main in 1568. We see how one of the masters, sitting at a table by the window, sews a book block using a simple machine. In the foreground is a master cutting a block clamped in a vise. The poem by G. Sachs placed under the engraving reads (we translate the poem in blank verse; in the original it is rhymed):

The technology of bookbinding developed in the era of handwriting, as we have already said, was borrowed by the printed book without any major changes. Over the centuries, neither technology nor simple tools have changed. This becomes obvious if we compare the engraving by Jost Ammann with a photograph of the bookbinding workshop of Grigory Evlampievich Evlampiev in Moscow, taken at the beginning of the 20th century.

Moscow binding workshop G.E. Evlampiev.
On the table - a machine for sewing book blocks

Therefore, we can use Russian literary sources and archival documents of the 16th-17th centuries to reconstruct the technology of stitching and binding. And, above all, the "Original about book binding", preserved in a handwritten collection, which is now in the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts.

The first step on the way to making a book from already written or printed sheets was folding. When making a book with a format in folio, or into a sheet on one side of the paper sheet there were two strips. The sheet was folded in half, and then the fold was smoothed with a bone. When making books in the format in quarto, or in the fourth part of the sheet, folding was done in two mutually perpendicular folds, and with the format in octavo, those. in an eighth of a leaf- in three folds.

The printed and folded sheets were collected in notebooks, which were most often eight-sheet (16-page). The selection was carried out with a tab, placing one folded sheet in another. At the same time, each notebook was beaten out with a wooden hammer on an anvil in order to smooth out the pressure resulting from printing and eliminate bulging at the spine. In the "Original of Bookbinding" the anvil is described as follows:

"The first thing to do is to make an anvil an iron inch 4 or three wide(the top is 4.5 cm. - E.N. ), and grind it smoothly on the grinder, and so that it is equal, the middle is not much high cubed(i.e. rounded. - E.N. ), below the measure of the flat. And its edges would be round, along the finger, from the edge and more.

The extraction process itself is described as follows:

"And more than which tetratey roots(i.e. roots. - E.N .) twisted, and skillfully correct the tye and nail it with a hand holding it on the anvil with a hammer so that the root stands straight. And beat lightly, so as not to split.

Then the notebooks were selected in the order of signatures - the numbering of the notebooks, which was already in the handwritten book, and subsequently transferred to the printed one. A set of 4-6 notebooks was beaten out again. At the same time, it was recommended "beat the middle more so that it is not higher." The middle parts of the sheets were somewhat thicker than the edges, "before the seal of the word has bulged out much." The entire book block, picked up in order, was beaten out again.

Then the selected block was leveled and placed in a vise, the basis of which was two well-planed boards. One of them was fixedly mounted on the table, and the second could move relative to the vertical guides. The vise was clamped with a screw device. The book block was held in a vice for twelve hours - "put between the boards in a vise for the night, so that it settles down."

Setpoint, or sewing machine for sewing book blocks

Used for sewing books setting(later this device was called sewing machine). It was a wooden board with wooden posts fixed on it with screw threads. Nuts went along the cutting, supporting the crossbar. Whips were stretched between the crossbar and the board - cords that served as the basis for sewing.

"Scourge to create from unspun hemp threads,- advises the "Original", - in three threads or six, or as many as you need according to the measure, also the length of the measure, and tying the ends into a loom, direct them with hooks, and tie the lower ends of the lashes together with threads, and pull them tight with hooks.

At the same time, care must be taken to "a lash from a lash was equal", that is, they were at the same distance from each other.

Sewing began with the top notebook of the block, which was laid on the board close to the cords. pierced with a needle and thread "the end of the notebook from the edge to the finger or half a finger from the side." Then the thread was brought out and circled around the cord, directing the needle where the first was pierced. "Then the stitch was led inside the notebook to the next cord, which was surrounded by the thread in the same way as the first cord.

After the first notebook was tightly attached to the cords, a second notebook was placed on top of it, starting to sew it in the opposite direction. "And then sew other notebooks, as if I had indicated before,"- says in the "Original". The author of this old Russian guide to bookbinding advises, "sewn to the lash, pull tightly so that every notebook reaches the lash and not only reaches, but the threads inside would be tightly stretched.

When the book block was sewn, it was clamped in a vise and, as modern printers say, the spine was rounded, that is, they gave it a rounded shape, which in the XVI-XVII centuries. in Russia they called the hump. Did it manually: "Hump up the hump of the book." The top and bottom pages of the book were previously protected from contamination by recycled sheets of paper. Book at the same time cashed, giving the spine a mushroom shape by bending the folds of the extreme notebooks. Speakers rims called zahabtsy.

The author of the "Original" advises the bookbinder carefully "see what a hump is." And further: “If it’s big, then loosen the vise, and squeeze the root with your fingers and a hammer on the lashes ...

Then the spine of the book block, without removing the block from the vise, was smeared with glue, which in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries. made from fish bones and called Karluk. Such glue is discussed, for example, in an estimate compiled in 1612 "what will two pants be(i.e. printing houses. - E.N. ) printed": "3 poods I glue fish karluka, a ruble pood each."

The same estimate mentions "a copper glue pot with legs for glue, and a frying pan for a klester, each weighing three hryvnias(the so-called small hryvnia was equal to half a pound. - E.N. ), in both cases 4 altyn hryvnia each ". These simple containers served to warm up the glue. The binder was recommended to ensure that the glue "was neither thick nor thin." The required degree of density was determined by scooping up the liquid with a flat spatula: "If it rolls clean off the spatula, then it's liquid." The process of gluing the spine was repeated twice. It was supposed to dry the book without heating, "not in the cool heat."

Then the book block had to be cut on three sides. In the inventory of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery of 1635, where an interesting list of binding tools has been preserved for us, two types of vise for cutting blocks are mentioned: "cutting wheel round" and "cut by hand".

The first vise consisted of two metal or wooden plates, one of which could move relative to the other using a screw mechanism. A round knife was mounted on one of the plates. When pruning "pras" for crimping with a book block clamped in it, they put one end on a stool with a limiter for movement (as shown in the engraving by Jost Ammann) or on the floor (as in a photograph of the beginning of the 20th century). The other end of the instrument was pressed against the stomach. Prasa boards served as guides for the plates carrying the knife. The tool was forcefully displaced along the cut edge of the book block. It could also be cut with a well-sharpened knife. This is the one "hand cut" which is mentioned in the inventory of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery.

"Prasy" and a vice for trimming were made by blacksmiths according to a model prepared by a bookbinder. In the account book of the Moscow Printing House we find an entry dated October 22, 1632, indicating that "To Ivan Vlasov for a wooden vice, that he made a model for an iron vice for a forest(i.e. per tree. - E.N. ) and 10 altyns were paid for the case" .

And a week later, on October 29, an entry appears in the account book: "The blacksmith Matyushka Pavlov was given two rubles and a half for an iron vice for the case. The blacksmith Matyushka took the money. The vice for book binding was given. The binder Ivan Vlasov took the vice." .

The trimmed book block was inserted into pre-prepared binding covers; boards served as the basis for them. "The boards would always be dry, ready,- advises the "Original about book binding", - even birch or pine, or spruce, or aspen boards ". Longitudinal sawn boards were used. The side closest to the core, the crescent side, should face the book block. The board was treated with a planer - plow. advised "to plan, so that the heart side is slightly hunchbacked, and the other side is flattened." To make the boards stronger and last longer, transverse recesses were cut into them and wedge-shaped wooden plates were driven into them - stickers.

The finished boards had to be placed next to the spine of the book block and holes were drilled where the cords run: "against any whip with an awl, and, putting it on a bench, or on a wooden table, and turn the dirochki with a screwdriver so as not to split the boards, and against those dirochek in the board with the finger in the board at a distance to the finger, turn the other dirochki and inwardly(i.e. along the inner surface of the board. - E.N. ), where the whip will fit. "

The ends of the cords were threaded into the drilled holes and fixed with carnations - wooden veneers, after which they were smeared with glue on top. The boards had to be included in zahabtsy- marginal rounding of the book block.

There is a section in the "Original of Bookbinding" called "How to Color Books". We are talking about the coloring of the edges of the book block. Here is one of the recipes here: "Take the grated vermilion paint and put it on a spoon, and add some soaked gum and wipe it thickly with your finger, and then, pouring water, make it in moderation, so that neither thinly nor thickly, and still paint the book at all Rovnenko." Dyed in different colors using various organic and mineral dyes: yellow paint - shizhgal, blue - cool, cherry - minium.

An important operation was the sheathing of binding covers with leather or fabric. The skin, pre-soaked in water, was cut so that the cut exactly matched the boards. The boards and spine of the book block, before pulling the skin over them, were smeared with dough: "And spread the book with unleavened malt dough, and not with leavened dough, first the root and then the boards, and cover it with leather."

Covers covered with leather were decorated with an embossed pattern - basmil. First of all, it was supposed to soak the skin. The embossing itself was carried out with a heated tool through "wet rag"

The binder had a wide range of embossing tools at his disposal. In the inventory of the Kirill-Belozersky Monastery, "five wheeled copper bases, fourteen plug-in copper bases." Plug-in basses- these are copper plates with a mirror-engraved image that they wanted to decorate the binding with. wheel basses, who were also called road builders, They were copper cylinders, the axes of which were movably mounted on wooden handles. The surface of the cylinder is covered with a relief ornamental pattern. With the help of a road builder, borders, frames, etc. were reproduced on binding covers. decorations.

Basmas for embossing centerpieces, squares and inscriptions

Road embossers for borders and frames

Here is how the process of basmenia is described in the "Original about book binding": "And taking the first road builder and heating it, put it on a wet rag and when it starts to stick to boil, then beat it on the skin, and beat it according to the order with wheels and other basses. And having beat it out, put the packs in the teeth(i.e. vise. - E.N. ), so that the boards stand up."

At the Moscow Printing Yard, basmas were made by themselves. This is evidenced by an entry in the account book of 1629: "Litz Arkhip Timofeev for the copper and for the deed that he poured out with a binder for the feast ... a copper line, three altyns were given" .

Everyday bindings were decorated with colorless, or blind, embossed, and books intended for eminent readers - the king or boyars - gold embossed. The initial material for the latter was sheet (or leaf) gold. Before applying it to the skin and basting, the binding had to be prepared. This process is described in the "Original" as follows:

“The first thing to do is to prepare a supply, on which gold relies. Take a chicken egg and its protein to release it into a glass ... and dilute with water in half and slingshot(i.e. whip. - E.N. ) much into foam, and let it settle, and when the supply is ready, then soak the book with a rag according to order, and raise the price with a road builder, and soon the gold will be cut to size or it would be prepared in advance, and with which it is necessary to anoint the places with the allowance ..., and put the gold in which places it should be, and let it dry so that it does not stick to the basses.

Edges of especially luxurious copies of books were also covered with gold. They did this even before inserting the block into the binding covers. The block was clamped in a vice, after which the cutoffs were smeared "Korluk glue is very liquid and warmed up." Then they took a little saffron (this is a type of perennial herbs), wrapped it in a scarf, moistened it and wiped the cut. After that, a layer of whipped protein was applied to the surface. "And on an egg cart,- the author of the "Original about book binding" instructs, - put the gold with cotton paper or with a hare's foot and put it up with a vice to dry it, and when it dries up, polish it with a tooth and with basma hedgehogs there are coinage arranged for that. Cotton paper is cotton wool, a tooth is a piece of bone, and often a natural tooth is a wolf or bear.

It remains to be noted that the binding was usually supplied with clasps, leather or more often metal. This contributed to the preservation of the book block.

Metal fasteners for bindings

This is basically the technology of the ancient bookbinding art, reconstructed by us mainly from Russian relatively late sources. In the West, in pre-Gutenberg times, it differed little from the one we have just described.

Johannes Gutenberg, and other early printers as well, most often produced books unbound; it was up to the readers to take care of that. There were no problems with this, because bookbinding workshops existed in almost every more or less large city.

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