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Morphological (typological) classification of languages is a direction of linguistic research that is rooted in the most common and most important properties of a language and does not depend on their genetic relationship. It is based on the method of connecting morphemes, typical for a particular language.
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History of classification The foundations of typology were laid by F. Schlegel, who distinguished between inflectional and non-inflectional languages. His brother, A. V. Schlegel, postulated, in addition to the first two, a class of amorphous languages, and also introduced the opposition of a synthetic and analytic structure for inflectional languages. W. von Humboldt singled out the types listed above under their modern names; At the same time, he considered incorporating languages as a subclass of agglutinative ones. Subsequently, a number of morphological classifications were proposed, of which the most famous are the typologies of A. Schleicher, H. Steinthal, F. Misteli, N. Fink, F. F. Fortunatov. The most recent, well-founded and most detailed morphological classification was proposed in 1921 by E. Sapir.
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Selection parameters There are two traditional typological parameters: analytical and synthetic. Under analyticism, grammatical meanings are expressed by separate functional words, which can be both independent word forms (cf. will do) and clitics (cf. would do); the locus of grammatical morphemes is a separate syntactic position. With synthesism, grammatical meanings are expressed by affixes as part of a word form, that is, they can form one phonetic word with a supporting lexical root; locus of grammatical morphemes - at the lexical root.
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Types of morphological structures Isolating or amorphous Agglunative Incorporating or polysynthetic Inflectional
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Isolating languages Isolating (amorphous) - languages that have neither word formation nor inflection; express relations between words either by their juxtaposition or by means of auxiliary words. In practice, isolating languages are extremely rare, although the tendency towards this type can be expressed to a very strong degree. Words in the most isolating language will consist of only one morpheme - the root, without forming either compound words or combinations with suffixes, prefixes, etc.
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Distribution Isolate languages are widely spoken in Southeast Asia, eg Vietnamese, Classical Chinese (different from modern Chinese). Almost all languages in the region are isolating (the exception is the Malay language). Also, the Austronesian languages in this region show more isolating features than other languages from this group. Some other isolating languages in the region are Burmese, Thai, Khmer in Cambodia, Lao, etc.
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Agglutinative languages Agglutinative languages (from Latin agglutinatio - gluing) are languages that have a structure in which the dominant type of inflection is agglutination ("gluing") of various formants (suffixes or prefixes), and each of them carries only one meaning. In agglutinative languages, formants do not form indivisible structures and do not change under the influence of other formants. Usually agglutinative languages contain many suffixes/morphemes in one word.
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Distribution Agglutinative languages - Turkic, some Finno-Ugric, Mongolian, Tungus-Manchu, Korean, Japanese, Georgian, Basque, Abkhaz-Adyghe, Dravidian, part of Indian and some African languages. The Sumerian language also belonged to the agglutinative languages.
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Incorporating languages Polysynthetic (incorporating) languages are languages in which all members of a sentence (full incorporation) or some components of a phrase (partial incorporation) are combined into a single whole without formal indicators for each of them. With polysynthetism, all morphology tends to the verb, so polysynthetism really manifests itself in the complexity of verbal morphology. Polysynthetic languages are characterized by long verbs that correspond to whole sentences in other languages. Formants in this type of language have only one meaning.
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Distribution Known examples of polysynthetic languages are Chukchi-Kamchatka, Eskimo-Aleut and many language families of North America. In the Abkhaz-Adyghe languages, with a very simple noun system, the verb system is polysynthetic. The artificial (planned) languages Ithkuil and Arahau are polysynthetic.
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Inflectional languages An inflectional structure (from Latin flectivus "flexible") is a language device in which inflection dominates with the help of inflections - formants that combine several meanings at once. A feature of inflectional languages is the presence of irregular forms. At the same time, inflectional languages tend to lose their inflections as they develop. For example, Slovenian, Lithuanian, Armenian have largely retained the inflectional system of Proto-Indo-European, while English and Afrikaans are almost analytic languages. Another typical feature of inflectional languages is their declension systems. For example, in German, the definite and indefinite articles change according to gender, number, and case.
The traditional classification of languages according to the similarity of their structures relied mainly on the morphological structure of the word, so it was previously called morphological. The typological classification of the languages of the world can be represented in the following scheme:
We touched on the main means and ways of expressing grammatical meanings in the previous lecture, so here we will partially repeat them and introduce them into the system of other features of the main types of languages.
Isolating languages, or root, do not have the morphological structure of the word, that is, the words in them are invariable, and the relationship between the words in the sentence is expressed by word order and intonation. Words in a sentence in isolating languages are, as it were, isolated from each other. For example, Chinese: Cha woo boo hee literally means: “I don’t drink tea”, that is, “I don’t drink tea”. Wo boo pa ta - " I'm not afraid of him"; Ta boo pa wo"He's not afraid of me." When isolating languages are called amorphous(gr. a - without, not; morphē - form), they mean that in this language only a single word has no form. The isolating languages include Chinese, Thai, Burmese, Vietnamese and the languages of the Malayo-Polynesian group.
Affixing languages are languages in which relationships between words are expressed through affixes. Among these languages are inflectional and agglutinative languages.
Words in inflectional languages express grammatical meanings by a system of their own forms: cf. Russian was reading- past tense of the verb read and - read!- imperative mood of the same verb. Among the inflectional languages, the languages of the synthetic and analytical systems stand out.
Synthetic languages- languages that are characterized by the following features:
a) affixes in them are multi-valued;
b) affixes are closely (fusional) soldered between themselves and the root;
c) root morphemes do not always represent an independent word.
Synthetic languages include ancient Indo-European - Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Old Slavonic, as well as modern - Russian, German, Semitic-Hamitic languages.
Analytical languages- languages in which the expression of grammatical meanings occurs outside the word with the help of internal inflection, auxiliary and auxiliary words, as well as word order. The languages of the analytical system include English, French, Italian, partly Bulgarian.
For agglutinative languages the following features are characteristic: a) there are affixes, but they are unambiguous;
b) they are not closely related to each other and the root;
c) root morphemes, as a rule, represent an independent word.
So, words in agglutinative languages consist not only of roots (transmitting meanings), but also of morphemes (transmitting relations). So, in Turkish, the root sev, meaning " love”, can “acquire” morphemes: sevmek – « be in love», sevmemek– « not to love», sevdermak – « make love», sevdermemack – « don't force love". In the affixes of agglutinative languages there is no internal inflection, that is, the alternation of morphemes within a word. The word boundary in agglutinative languages is not clear. Agglutinative languages include Turkic, Finno-Ugric, Mongolian, Dravidian, Bantu, and Japanese.
Polysynthetic(gr. poly - many, synthetikos - consolidated, combined) - such languages \u200b\u200bthat there is a way to form words that are equivalent to whole sentences in other languages by adding the stems of individual words and numerous affixes that can correspond in meaning to independent words in other languages . This includes many North American Indian languages and Paleoasiatic languages. In the language of the Aztecs ninakakwa literally means "I - meat - eat" and is formed from neither - I , take that - meat , kva eat. The combination of words in polysynthetic languages is apparently carried out according to the principle of agglutination, but they have an internal inflection that is not characteristic of agglutinative languages.
The concept of linguistics. Sections of linguistics.
Linguistics is the science of natural human language that studies its structure, functioning and historical development, its properties and functions.
Linguistics is the science of all the languages of the world as individual representatives of the natural human language. Currently, there are about three to seven thousand languages on earth. It is impossible to establish the exact figure, which is due, on the one hand, to the abundance of dialects in certain languages.
Linguistics is divided into sections: general and particular.
General linguistics is divided into the following main levels of language: phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactic.
Phonetics is the science of the sound side of the language, the subject of its study are the sounds of speech.
Lexicology is the study of the dictionary (lexicon) of a language.
Morphology is that part of the grammatical structure of a language that combines grammatical classes of words (parts of speech), grammatical (morphological) categories and forms of words belonging to these classes.
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of phrases and sentences and the functional interaction of various parts of speech in them. It is an integral part of grammar.
Private sciences of language study individual languages and their groups. According to the object of study, the following particular sciences of language are distinguished: 1) for a separate language - Russian studies, Japanese studies, etc.; 2) according to the group of related languages - Slavic studies, Turkology, etc.; 3) according to the geographical affiliation of languages - Balkan studies, Caucasian studies, etc.
Morphological classification of languages.
Languages can be combined into one typological group based on the features of their morphological structure. The morphological structure of a word is the totality of its morphemes.
A classification based on the morphological structure of a word is called morphological.
According to the morphological classification, languages are divided into four groups: 1) root-isolating, or amorphous, 2) agglutinative, 3) inflectional, 4) incorporating, or polysynthetic.
For root isolating languages, the absence of inflection is characteristic, the stem of the word coincides with the root. Word order is of great grammatical importance. Such languages include Chinese, Vietnamese, Dungan, Muong, etc. Modern English is evolving towards root isolation.
Languages of the second type are called agglutinative, or agglutinating. Languages of this type are characterized by a developed system of inflection, in which each grammatical meaning has its own indicator. Agglutinative languages are characterized by the presence of a common type of declension for all nouns and a common type of conjugation for all verbs. The agglutinative type of languages includes Turkic, Tungus-Manchurian, Finno-Ugric and some other languages, as well as the Esperanto language (an international language, international words, often understandable without translation, and 16 basic grammatical rules).
The third type is represented by inflectional languages. Languages of this type are characterized by a developed system of inflection and the ability to convey several grammatical meanings with one indicator. The inflectional type of languages includes Slavic, Baltic, Italic, some of the Indian and Iranian languages.
The fourth type includes incorporating languages. Languages of this type tend to combine the whole sentence into one large compound word. At the same time, grammatical indicators do not form individual words, but the entire word-sentence as a whole.
§ 309. The typological classification of languages is the division of languages into certain classes, or types, depending on the nature (type) of linguistic units of a particular level, on the ways and means of expressing their grammatical meanings, regardless of the origin of the language.
The typological classification of languages, in contrast to the genealogical classification discussed above, is relative, it is "always relative and historically changeable due to the variability of the very structure of the language and its theoretical understanding."
To refer to the typological classification of languages in the specialized literature, the term "morphological classification of languages" is often used. This is explained by the fact that the typological classification of languages is most often carried out on the basis of morphological features of words or word forms. It should be considered as a specific concept in relation to typological classification, as one of the types of typological classification (for more details, see below).
The typological classification of languages can be carried out according to different structural features - not only morphological, but also syntactic, phonetic (or phonological), semantic (lexico-semantic), etc. On this basis, some linguists distinguish several different classifications within the typological classification of languages, they talk about different typological classifications, or typologies - morphological, syntactic, phonetic (phonological), semantic. The most developed and best known is the morphological typological classification, or morphological typology, of the languages of the world.
§ 310. Morphological classification is called "classification of languages, carried out at the morphological level", i.e. based on the morphological features of words, their grammatical forms. According to B. N. Golovin, "the morphological (typological) classification of languages is based on the similarities and differences in the morphological structure of words (meaning their morphemic structure. - V.N.) in one language or another.
According to the morphological features of words (word forms), according to their morphemic structure, most of the languages of the world are divided, first of all, into two classes, or types, into root and affix languages.
Root languages are considered in which "the word is usually equal to the root, and the relationship between words is transmitted primarily syntactically (word order, auxiliary words, rhythm, intonation)"; in them "there are no affixes of formation, there is, of course, no grammatical change of the word associated with such affixes." In the linguistic literature, root languages are also called isolating, or root-isolating, without affixes (see above), amorphous, analytical.
Root is, for example, most of the languages of Southeast Asia, Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, etc.
affixal called languages in which the grammatical forms of words are formed with the help of affixes - in the broad sense of this term, i.e. in the meaning of affixes proper (affixes in the narrow sense of the word) and inflections, or endings. Among affixal languages, inflectional and agglutinative languages are distinguished.
"Languages inflectional and agglutinative can be called affixal, opposing them to root languages."
To inflectional(inflecting) are languages in which the main means of forming grammatical forms of words and expressing grammatical meanings is the ending, or inflection (external or internal), as a polyfunctional, polysemantic grammatical morpheme. According to B. N. Golovin, inflection in such languages is "a stable and essential feature of the morphological structure of the word." The polyfunctionality of inflection lies in the fact that the same inflectional morpheme as part of the same word form is capable of expressing different grammatical meanings. For example, flexion th in word form white expresses at the same time the meaning of the singular, nominative or accusative case, belonging to the masculine gender; flexion -it in word form sees- meanings of the indicative mood, present tense, singular, 3rd person.
First of all, most Indo-European languages (Slavic, Baltic, etc.), many Afroasian (Afroasiatic), or Semitic-Hamitic, languages are inflectional.
Agglutinative(agglutinating) languages (from lat. agglutinare- "glue"), as well as inflectional ones, are characterized by the fact that in them the grammatical forms of words are formed with the help of morphemes, affixes, which in a certain sequence are attached to the stem of the word, "stick", "stick" to it. They differ from inflectional languages primarily in that the morphemes in them are unambiguous, each morpheme expresses only one strictly defined meaning. At the same time, morphemes have a stable phonemic composition, remain unchanged when combined with different stems and with other affixal morphemes.
Agglutinative languages include Japanese, Korean, Turkic, Finno-Ugric, Mongolian, Indonesian, Indian languages, and many African languages.
An example of an agglutinative word form from Turkish: dallarda("on the branches"), where dal-– root-base with the value "branch", -lar-- affix with the meaning of the plural. numbers and -da- affix with the meaning of the local case.
There are also languages in the world that do not fit into the framework of the three morphological types considered. They stand out in a special type of languages, which are called incorporating(from lat. incorporare-"include in its composition, attach"), In such languages, derivative (compound) words (word forms) are used that are equivalent to sentences. They are often also called polysynthetic (literally - "multi-combining").
The incorporating languages include some languages of Asia (Chukchi, Karyak, etc.), many languages of the Indians of North America, etc.
An example from the language of the Nootka Indian tribe: unikw-ihl-"minih-"is-it-a("There were a few lights in the house"), where uniqw- root meaning "fire" or "burn", -ihl-- a root with the meaning "house", -"minih-- plural affix -"is-- affix with diminutive value, -it-- an indicator of the elapsed time, -a- an indicator of indicative mood.
Another example is from the North American Chinook Indian language: i-n-i-a-1-u-d-am("I came to give it to her"), where -d– stem root with the value "give away" to which prefixes are attached i- (indicates the past tense) -P-(transfers the pronominal object "I"), -i-(pronominal object "it"), -a-(pronominal object "her"), - l- (prepositional element), -and-(an indicator of movement directed away from the speaker) and -am(suffix specifying the spatial meaning of the verb).
As can be seen from the review given above, modern linguistics usually distinguishes four morphological types of languages; they are root languages, or isolating, inflectional, agglutinative and incorporating languages. Such a classification has recently been the most famous and popular; it is also reflected in the latest educational literature on the course "Introduction to Linguistics".
Other morphological classifications of languages are also proposed, i.e. classifications based on other criteria, for example, depending on the way the grammatical forms of words are formed and, accordingly, on the way the grammatical meanings are expressed. On this basis, the following morphological types of languages are distinguished: synthetic languages (grammatical forms are formed in a synthetic way), analytical (word forms are formed in an analytical way) and polysynthetic (combine the features of synthetic and analytical languages).
It should be noted that there are no strict boundaries between different morphological types of languages. It is known, for example, that many languages (for example, the languages of Oceania) occupy an intermediate position between root (amorphous) and agglutinative, combine the features of both and "can be characterized as amorphous-agglutinative." Partially, this also applies to the Russian language, which, according to most morphological features, is one of the inflectional ones, i.e. synthetic, but at the same time has some signs of root, or analytical. Many grammatical forms in it are formed in an analytical way, for example, the prepositional case forms of nouns ( in the garden, on the shore, about the forest), forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs ( more beautiful, most beautiful, most beautiful) forms of the future tense of imperfective verbs, forms of the subjunctive mood, etc. There are many grammatically invariable significant words in the Russian language, such as, for example, adverbs (there, everywhere, today etc.), nouns of foreign origin with a stem in a vowel (cinema, taxi, kangaroo etc.) and others, which is typical for root, isolating languages.
One of the most important questions of linguistics. This method of dividing into groups of all existing means of communication is the newest. The prerequisites for it appeared only in the 16th-17th centuries. The first monumental works on this problem were written in the late XIX - early XX century.
Morphological and genealogical classification of languages
These two types of division into species are the main ones.
The first of these appeared during the Renaissance. In the science of antiquity, almost no attention was paid to the problems of philology, except for the works that are devoted to Latin and Greek. These languages were considered among the scientific community as the only ones worthy of study. All others were called barbarian. It was considered unworthy to study them, since even the very sound of foreign speech usually caused ridicule. People speaking in incomprehensible dialects have been compared to animals emitting inarticulate growls.
In the Middle Ages, the beginning of the history of the development of the morphological classification of languages was also out of the question. During this period, all research in this area was reduced to attempts to explain the diversity of dialects with the help of the legend of the Tower of Babel.
Renaissance opening
The state of affairs changed only with the onset of a new historical period. At that time, many Western scientists and artists were engaged in research on the works of ancient philosophers. This served to increase interest in the classical languages, ancient Greek and Latin, in which these works were created.
Also at that time, many geographical discoveries were made. Sailors conquered new lands. So, there was a need to communicate with the local population of these countries. Accordingly, it was necessary to get specialists in the field of exotic languages as soon as possible. But how to do that? It was necessary to draw at least some parallel with the languages known to Europeans. It was then that the first attempts were made to find common features between them.
The first known classifications of languages appeared in the 15th-16th centuries thanks to the work of Italian linguists.
Related languages
The pioneer in this area was the French scientist Scaliger. In the 16th century, he compiled a list of languages that he called the mothers of all the rest. Among them were: Greek, Latin, Arabic, Irish and others. Of course, this work contained a rational grain, and the ideas of the French linguist later served as the basis for numerous studies. However, much of what Scaliger wrote about did not have any scientific evidence, and sometimes was based only on his guesses.
Pioneer mistakes
As an example of a clear misconception contained in his scientific work, one can name the following statement: "All of the named mother languages are absolutely independent. Their vocabulary and morphology have nothing in common with each other." This scientist supported his theory with an example, citing the word "god" in various languages.
Interestingly, Scaliger did not notice a clear similarity between the Latin word "deus" and the Greek "theos", which is extremely surprising. And accordingly, his statement about the independence of all these languages \u200b\u200bcan also be questioned.
Wonderland
The impetus for a new round of development of linguistics was the numerous expeditions of seafarers to the shores of India, which were made by such travelers as Marco Polo, Afanasy Nikitin and others. During these voyages, many monuments of oriental literature were brought to Europe. Scientists then discovered for the first time on which all ancient Indian literature was written.
Although at that distant time there was not yet a sufficiently developed morphological classification of languages, nevertheless, it immediately became clear to linguists that in the classical languages (Greek and Latin) and Sanskrit, many common features can be found. They contained similarities both in lexical material (the roots of many thousands of words turned out to be the same) and at the morphological level (word formation occurs in a similar way).
New discoveries
Nevertheless, in order to discern in Sanskrit a relative of Latin and ancient Greek, it took scientists about three centuries. Only at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century did they come to this conclusion.
At the same time, the first genealogical classification of languages appeared, that is, one that is based on the geographical location of the countries where a particular language is spoken, as well as on the presence of common ancestors in languages.
However, there were scientists who expressed an absolutely revolutionary point of view on this problem. They said that it was not entirely appropriate to classify languages that have a common ancestor, or those that contain a sufficient amount of similar lexical material, into one group. After all, the roots can be borrowed. In this case, the morphological and syntactic structures will be completely different. These researchers proposed to introduce a morphological classification of languages based on the similar composition of words, as well as ways of forming new terms.
The emergence of a new system
The morphological classification of languages is based on the peculiarity of word formation.
Among the founders of this method of division into types was the famous American linguist Edward Sapir. He is also known for his contribution to the development of the theory that the characteristics of the language spoken by a person determine the characteristics of his thought processes, worldview, and so on.
One of the principles of the morphological classification of languages is the following provision: scientists divide the number of morphemes (that is, such components as the root, suffix, prefix, and so on) contained in a particular text by the number of words. At present, it is customary to evaluate the degree of complexity of a language by the number that is obtained in the process of such an action. The smallest factor can be one.
This result was obtained in the study of the Vietnamese language. This indicator of the morphological classification of languages can be deciphered briefly as follows: there is one morpheme per word. That is, in Vietnamese, all parts of speech consist only of the root. Accordingly, we can say that people who speak it do not encounter such phenomena as declensions, conjugations, and so on.
Typological morphological classification of languages
The above principle of dividing all languages of the world into types refers to the so-called typological classification. It relies on structural features. In addition to the morphological classification of languages, this type can also include lexical, syntactic, phonetic, and others. However, the first one is the most popular.
Types of languages
So what kinds of languages does the typological morphological classification divide into?
The first group to be named is root (isolating). This includes such languages in which each word contains only one morpheme - the root. Accordingly, there is no declension or conjugation in them. All of these languages have certain common features.
The order of words in them always affects their meaning. The location of the members of the proposal is strictly regulated. For example, subjects must always be used before the predicate.
Some of these languages are "vocal". This name has nothing to do with the performance of songs. Although teachers of these languages say that people who study them should have a fairly developed ear for music.
This means that the words in them can change their meaning depending on the intonation with which they are pronounced. These are mainly oriental languages such as Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and so on. In them, indeed, glory does not change depending on the declension and conjugation. Their name - isolating - can be explained as follows: each word in a sentence does not affect the form of others in any way. Strictly regulated is only the place of the members of the proposal. Another characteristic of all these languages should be mentioned: each word in them contains a single syllable. Therefore, even without knowing Chinese (Vietnamese) and hearing a monologue in it, you can easily determine how many words were said.
Agglutination
In this article, according to the morphological classification, the languages of the world are presented in the following sequence: they are named as the composition of the word becomes more complex.
The second group includes the so-called
In them, a word can no longer consist of only one, but of several morphemes. And each has a stable form and meaning. So, in Uzbek and many Turkic languages, the affix "lar" usually means the plural. The word "kyz" means "girl". In the plural, this noun will have the form "kyzlar".
These languages include all Turkic, as well as some Finno-Ugric and Caucasian.
Inflectional languages
Why does the Russian language not belong to this group? After all, words in it are also formed by adding certain affixes to the root, which give it a new meaning.
The Russian language can be classified as an inflectional type of languages according to morphological classification. Here, as in the previous group, new forms are formed by adding the corresponding parts of the word, but here these prefixes and suffixes are not static. For example, the plural of nouns can be formed with different endings, depending on the root. If you need to get the plural form of the word "boot", the ending "and" should be added to it, and if the same operation is required to be done with the root "car", then in this case the affix "s" is used.
Universal affixes
In addition, in this subgroup, each specific morpheme is responsible not only for the number, case, or other property. It can combine these functions in itself, which cannot be said about similar parts of a word in agglutinative languages.
Example
You can consider this phenomenon on the example of the ending in the already mentioned word "boots".
In this case, this part gives it not only the plural, but is also responsible for the nominative case, as well as the masculine gender.
Another group are the so-called analytical languages. In them, in order to form a new form of a word, it is necessary not to change the composition, but to use additional lexemes. Such a language is, for example, modern English. Here, auxiliary verbs are widely used to form the predicate forms.
A sentence-length word
The last group of the classification under consideration are the so-called incorporating languages.
In them, the word usually has many morphemes. This is explained by the fact that in these languages it usually contains a whole sentence.
These languages include Chukchi and some dialects of the Indians.
It is extremely difficult for a Russian-speaking person to understand the essence of this phenomenon. However, in any language, in addition to words formed according to its belonging to one or another group of morphological classification, there are also exceptions related to other types. One might even say that there are no languages that can be described as "pure" inflectional or agglutinative. Therefore, some elements of incorporation can also be found in Russian. For example, the colloquial word "fishing" contains two roots, the first of which denotes the object to which the action is directed, and the second - the process itself. Something similar happens in incorporating languages.
Language is a constantly evolving phenomenon. Therefore, its structure itself can change over time. Thus, English, now analytical, was once inflectional. The process of its development can be traced by considering the morphological classification of verbs in and changes in it. Today English is moving towards root isolation.
