The vocabulary of modern English is replenished mainly through word formation and borrowings. Productive ways of word formation in modern English are:
- 1) Phrasing.
- 2) Affixation.
- 3) Abbreviations.
- 4) Conversion.
- 5) The formation of verbs by adding post-verbal derivational elements (Nikishin http://www.pglu.ru).
First, consider productive ways of forming new words.
1. Compounding is one of the most ancient, universal and widespread ways of word formation in the English language. The word formation process is a fusion of two bases - homonymous word forms, for example, "carryback" (transfer of losses to an earlier period), "think-tank" (collective brain).
In cases where words are combined that end and begin with the same vowel or consonant, one of them is omitted:
"net" + "etiquette" = "netiquette" (unwritten generally accepted rules for communicating or posting information on the Internet).
The number of complex derivative units is increasing. The main productive suffix is the suffix - "er": "page-turner" (extremely interesting book); "all-nighter" (something that lasts all night, such as classes during a session).
Among the complex units, a significant proportion are words formed with the help of particles and adverbs, this is especially true for adjectives and verbs:
"laid-back" (relaxed), "buttoned-down" (conservative), traditional, "turned-on" (agitated), "switched-off" (disconnected, not feeling anything).
One of the most common multicomponent models has recently become a model with the word line, which is on the verge of complex words and phrases:
"straight-line responsibility" (direct responsibility);
"dotted-line responsibility" (responsibility divided between two);
"bottom-line" (final);
"top-of-the-line" (the best).
This model is limited in use to situations of informal communication by representatives of business circles.
Very often, with a similar method of formation, neologisms have a satirical connotation, especially in the press:
"... that they taste the same in Peking as they do in London or New York, and so it was that world burgernomics was born by McDonald's"
(http://www.independent.co.uk).
In this case, the author of the article wants to draw the reader's attention to the significant development of the McDonald's restaurant chain, the fast food industry, which has its own laws and phenomena. And like other economic laws, they operate in the same way in different countries:
(... that they taste the same in Beijing as they do in London or New York, that's how McDonald's created the world's hamburgernomics).
In general, multicomponent units used in informal communication are more characteristic of the American version, for example:
"to nickel-and-dime" (pay great attention to detail),
"meat-and-potatoes" (basic),
"nuts-and-bolts" (basic),
"quick-and-dirty" (bar, cafe where you can have a quick bite).
2. Affixation is another productive way of forming new words in the English language. At different stages of the development of society, the language prefers different ways of word formation and, in particular, different affixes. The popularity of certain word-building means is determined by the needs of society at a certain point in its development.
For example, in the 80s and 90s of the XX century. a huge number of words appeared in the English language, formed with the help of the suffixes -ist, -ism, which became unusually productive in the field of political correctness for denoting different ways of verbal and non-verbal discrimination: "alphabetizm", "sexist".
Negative connotations have the following suffixes:
eer ("profiteer" (speculator), "racketeer" (racketeer));
ster ("funster" (clown, wimp); "schoolster" (teacher, bad teacher));
nik ("neatnik" (cleansing), "noodnik" (bore));
hop ("to jobhop" (change jobs often));
er ("do-nothinger" (loafer, gimp)) (Zemskaya, 1992).
The "ness" suffix continues to be one of the most productive in modern English ("hawkishness" (aggressiveness)).
Affixes are characterized by the following common features:
All affixes are semantically relevant morphemes with more or less abstract meaning.
The affix must have a sign of free identification, i.e. taken as part of a word.
Affixes should be used to form words from stems of different origin; borrowed affixes must generate new words based on the language that borrowed them.
affixes must have a certain frequency of use; at the same time, the data of neologism dictionaries can serve as evidence of their productivity and belonging specifically to the category of affixes (and not components of compound words).
3. Abbreviation is the most productive among the irregular ways of forming morphological neologisms, which reflect the tendency to rationalize the language, to save language efforts. Despite the fact that abbreviations make up only a small percentage of the total number of neologisms, their number is growing.
Of the four types of abbreviations (abbreviations, acronyms, truncations, mergers), truncated words predominate, for example:
anchor< «anchorman» (обозреватель новостей, координирующий теле- или радиопрограммы).
The word is limited in use to the American version (in the British version it corresponds to "presenter", "lib"< «liberation»).
A feature of truncations is their limited use in colloquial speech. Truncation is most typical for various types of slang (school, sports, newspaper). Among the examples cited above, newspaper clippings predominate. So, "upmanship" often appears on the pages of English newspapers and is used in advertisements, in recommendations on how to achieve success:
“Upmanship is the art of being one up on all the others. hospital management:
My Doc is better'n yours".
(Levashov, 2007).
Abbreviations and acronyms occupy a large place among abbreviations. "VCR" (video-cassette recorder), "TM" (transcendental meditation), "PC" (personal computer), "MTV" (Music Television). As a rule, abbreviations are spelled. When an abbreviation occurs only in writing, it is read as a full word. What is new is the absence of dots after each letter of the abbreviations, which makes them closer to acronyms. Acronyms are pronounced like full words:
"IMHO" (in by humble opinion) (In my humble opinion) youth slang;
"CAD" (computer-aided design) (Computer-aided design) in medicine.
The acronyms used in the field of education deserve special attention: “TEFL” (Teaching English as a Foreign Language); everyone knows the international organization of teachers of English as a foreign language "IATEFL" (International Association of Teachers English as a Foreign Language) and the American organization "TESOL" (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages); in the field of environmental protection: "UNEP" (United Nations Environmental Program).
4. Conversion is the transition of a word from one part of speech to another. So, for example, now on the Internet you can often see "E-mail me / us to ..." Understanding the meaning of such a neologism is not difficult. The syntactic context makes it possible to determine whether the word belongs to transitive verbs, and knowing the meaning of the word "E-mail" (electronic mail), we translate: Send messages by e-mail to the address ...
Conversion as a way of creating new words has significantly reduced its activity and is inferior to all other types of word formation.
Among converted nouns, there is an increasing tendency to form from verbs with postpositions: "rip-off" (fraud) (from "to rip-off" (fraud)). A significant number of new nouns are formed by conversion from adjectives, for example:
"collectbles" (objects to be collected, especially obsolete or rare);
"cool" (self-control, restraint) is often used in the phrases "to lose one`s cool", "to keep one`s cool" (to lose control, restrain).
Especially productive is the formation of nouns from adjectives ending in - "ic", for example: "acrylic", "transuranic, tricyclic". Nouns can be formed from verb phrases, for example: “work-to-rule” (performance by workers with demands to comply with all clauses of the employment contract).
When nouns are formed from adjectives at the semantic level, the seme “quality” is muted and the seme “subject” is added, which becomes the center of the meaning of the substantiated unit: “acrylic” (acrylic) (synthetic material).
Thus, during the conversion, the content of the concept is enriched.
In terms of territorial dimension, the new converted units are limited mainly by the American variant and, to a lesser extent, by the British variant of the English language (Zemskaya, 1992).
Unproductive are the methods of plural formation, which are the remnants of ancient paradigms or borrowed from other languages, for example: suppletive forms with alternating vowels (man - men, tooth - teeth), archaic suffix -en (ox - oxen), some individual suffixes of the singular and plural numbers from borrowed nouns (antenna - antennae, stratum - strata, nucleus - nuclei, etc.); in addition, for some nouns, the plural form is homonymous with the singular (sheep, fish, deer, etc.). The singular number of nouns is in most cases unmarked (has a "zero exponent").
There are a number of suffixes that are used in non-productive word formation:
- -hood - neighborhood, childhood
- -ment - judgment, development
- -ance - importance, appearance
- -ence - dependence, difference
- -ly - slowly, lively
- -ity - curiosity, clarity.
Unproductive prefixes include: -in- and its phonetic variants - im-, il-, ir-, resulting from regressive assimilation with the initial consonant of the root. The prefix in is of Romanesque origin; occurs mainly in the composition of borrowed words; gives meaning to negation:
"incorrect" (wrong, incorrect) - "correct" (correct); "improbable" (incredible, implausible) - "probable" (probable, plausible); "illegal" (illegal) - "legal" (legal);
"irregular" (non-standard) - "regular" (standard).
En is a prefix of Romance origin; in combination with the stems of nouns and adjectives forms verbs:
"enlarge" (increase), "enslave" (enslave), "enrich" (enrich);
sometimes gives them the meaning of inclusion in something: “enchain” (put on a chain, shackle), “encircle” (surround).
Some linguists distinguish so-called dead prefixes in English. These include the prefixes for- and a- of Germanic origin. In Old English, the prefixes for- and a- had a meaning: for- the meaning of destruction, cancellation, a- amplifying meaning. In modern English, the prefixes for- and a- have lost their meaning and merged with the root; for example, "forgive" (forgive), "forbid" (prohibit), "arise" (arise, appear), "awake" (wake up, awaken).
In some cases, they even partially retain the Latin inflection forms (formula pl. formulae, memorandum pl. memoranda).
Also, unproductive methods include changes in stress at the root of the word. Verb converted to noun (See Appendix)
findings
After analyzing the information provided, we can conclude that neologisms appear in the language constantly as a result of the development of science, technology, culture, social relations, etc.
New words appear in the language in two ways: they either come by borrowing, or they are formed in the language itself in productive ways.
It should be noted that new words are perceived as neologisms only until the concepts they express become familiar, after which they are firmly included in the vocabulary and are no longer perceived as new.
In English, there are productive and unproductive ways of forming words.
Productive ways of word formation in modern English are: 1) Composition. 2) Affixation. 3) Abbreviations. 4) Conversion. 5) The formation of verbs by adding post-verbal derivational elements.
Unproductive ways of word formation include:
one). Vowel alternations at the root. 2). Change of accent.
Regularity - the ability to repeat in the composition of different words. Regular affixes: -tel, -oy (large). Nerugul affixes are found in a small number of words, combined with a small number of morphemes (glash-atai, hod-atai; ribbons-yay, saliva-tyay).
Some irregular affixes occur in 1-2 words (bush-arnik, secl-tier, torop-yg-a, treasury-achey). There are about 200 irregular affixes in SRY. Zemskaya calls them unifixes.
By participation in the formation of new words, affixes are productive and unproductive. Productives are involved in the formation of new words. Sometimes these terms are used in relation to formative affixes. Productive affixes include: nouns have the ending a, ami, unproductive: mi in the creative case, wow-two. All irregular = unproductive. Regular ones can be anything (outside of entities - regular \ curve-out-a, white-out-a \, but it is unproductive). Depending on the word-formation meaning, affixes can be reg and irregular. An example of a suffix ary for entities: 1-with the meaning of a person according to the type of activity (irregular, prod), 2-with the meaning of an inanimate object (primer book, dictionary), 3-only two entities (grouse, gudgeon).
You can also find information of interest in the scientific search engine Otvety.Online. Use the search form:
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CSR No. 3 Topic: “Morphemic structure of the word. Morphemics"
Morphemics- a branch of linguistics that studies the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms.
word formation- a branch of linguistics, which studies the formal semantic derivative of the words of the language, means and methods of word formation.
The basis of the word and its types.
Foundation (linguistics)- an invariable part of a word that expresses its lexical meaning.
In inflected words, the stem is defined as part of a word without an ending and a formative affix: pines -a, desert -I, eight -oh, our -a, entertaining th,chita -l. In immutable words, the stem is equal to the word: high , dreaming . In some cases, the basis may be intermittent:
§ verb forms containing a postfix -sya/ -ss
learning-ie-Xia ;
§ bases of indefinite pronouns containing postfixes -then/ -or/ -someday
as-oh-then ;
§ stems of some compound nouns
closet-a-coupe ;
§ bases of complex numbers
sem-and-ten -and.
Depending on the structure, the bases are derivatives and non-derivatives. non-derivative are stems that consist of one morpheme - the root: city ,table , yellow th. Derivatives are the stems, which include two or more derivational affixes. It is usually a root combined with one or more suffixes: bread n -th; with one or more prefixes: flight ; with a suffix and a prefix at the same time: no-home-n -th). New words can be formed from both non-derivative and derived stems.
From derivative and non-derivative bases should be distinguished producing bases- bases from which new words are formed. For example, the non-derivative stem of the word forces -a is generating for the word strong th.
Change in the morphemic structure of a word
The word is historically changeable (its phonemic composition, meaning, morphemic appearance changes). Modern morphemic and word-formation structures may not coincide with historical correspondence, as evidenced by morphemic and word-formation analyzes of words.
The main reasons for such phenomena are the following processes:
simplification- a linguistic process, as a result of which a word with a derivative base becomes non-derivative. At simplification there is a transformation of a word with a complex structure into a single morpheme. In Russian, different parts of speech and different morphemic structures are subject to simplification. These can be historical suffix structures: after all-m-a - witches, prefixed in origin words: za-kon - law, suffix-prefix derivatives: on-rech-y-e, words formed by adding bases: vel-m-a. Reasons leading to simplification, this is: a change in the lexical meaning of the motivating word (the word porch was originally formed from the word wing), the disappearance of the motivating word from the vocabulary ( yard in the meaning of "persons surrounding the king"), the loss of words from the vocabulary (the word mitten was formed from the word varega), change in the sound composition of the word: word cloud came from the word envelop and used to be pronounced like cloud;
re-decomposition- the process, as a result of which there is a movement of boundaries between morphs. Redecomposition can occur if the word has historically been derivative and remains derivative, but other morphs are now distinguished in its composition. So, originally the word vehemence derived from the adjective hot (hotness), but now, after the disappearance of such an adjective, the structure of the word looks like hotness, and we consider the adjective as its producer hot;
complication of the base- this is a complication of the generating base, as a result of which indivisible, non-derivative words become articulated, derivatives. This process is the opposite simplification. For example, the word umbrella it was in this form that it came to us from the Dutch language, but now we single out both the root and the suffix in this word: umbrella.
Historical changes in the morphemic structure of words
The morpheme composition of a word is not constant. In the course of the development of the language, changes could occur in it.
For example, the word sheet was formed from the adjective simple, the suffix -yn’-(a) was once distinguished in it. Thus, once this word consisted of three morphemes - a root, a suffix and an ending. Now, only two morphemes stand out in it - the root and the ending: prostyn’-a. Consequently, the morphemic structure of the word has become simpler. And this phenomenon - the merging of two morphemes into one, that is, the reduction in the number of morphemes in a word - is called simplification. Another example of simplification is the word sour cream.
But in the language you can find examples of the opposite phenomenon. It is called the complication of the morphemic structure of the word. As a result of complication, one morpheme begins to divide into two. Examples are the words umbrella and flask. Both of these words are loanwords, one from Dutch (zonnedek), the other from Polish (flaszka), so neither originally had a suffix. Later, these borrowings were perceived as diminutive and the words umbrella and flask were formed for them.
Finally, the third type of change in the morphemic structure of a word is re-decomposition. The number of morphemes remains the same, but the boundary between morphemes changes: one or more sounds go from one of the morphemes to another morpheme. For example: in the Old Russian language there were prefixes vn-, sii- and the corresponding prepositions vn, kn, son. If the root of the word began with a consonant sound, the prefixes v- and s- were used, for example: v-brother, s-brother, but if the root began with a vowel, then a variant of the prefix ending in -n- was used, for example: vn-imati , son-imati (cf. the colloquial verb imat 'grab; take'). In the same way, the use of prepositions in front of pronouns was distributed: to that, to that, to tem, but to him, to em, to remove them. Later, the consonant n went to the root. So, now we are highlighting morphemes with-him-a-t; in-him-ah-be. The root nim-, by analogy with these words, also appeared in those single-rooted verbs where it was not in this form in the Old Russian language: pri-im-a-t (other Russian pri-im-a-ti); behind-him-a-t (other Russian for-im-a-ti). Similar origin and combination of prepositions with pronoun forms in him, to him, with him, cf .: I greet him, but I am pleased with him.
Types of affixes by function.
Word-formative, formative and syncretic affixes
Word-forming prefixes, suffixes and postfixes are called, which serve to form new words: language - parent language; soup - soup; to achieve - to achieve.
Form-building there are such affixes that serve to form the form of a word: smart - smarter, smarter (with the help of -ee-, -eysh- simple forms of the comparative and superlative degree of the adjective are formed); throw - throw, brew - brew (suffixes -a-, -i-, -iva- form the specific forms of verbs); run - ran (with the help of the suffix -т- the infinitive form is formed, -l- is the past tense form of the verb); chitajut - reading, read - reading (suffixes -usch-, -vsh- form forms of real participles).
In some cases it is difficult to draw a line between these two types of affixes, for example: in which cases the postfix -sya is formative, and in which cases it is word-formative. In order not to be mistaken in the function of such affixes, it is necessary to refer to the explanatory dictionary.
Syncretic affixes are such morphemes that simultaneously perform formative and word-forming functions, for example: write - rewrite, sign (when prefixes are added, the lexical meaning of the word and its form also change: write - non-sov. form, rewrite - sov. form). Inflections can also be syncretic, cf.: spouse - spouse. Spouse. 1. The same as the husband. 2. pl. Husband and wife. Spouse (obsolete, now official and simple). The same as the wife (in 1 character). (Quoted by: Ozhegov, S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language / S.I. Ozhegov. - M., 1972 - P. 717.). With the help of inflection -a, not only a new word is formed, its form also changes. This morpheme indicates that it is a feminine noun, in the nominative singular.
Affixes regular and irregular, productive
And unproductive
Regular affixes are reproduced constantly in the composition of words and form certain word-forming or formative models, for example: suffixes -tel-, -n-(th) (teacher, teacher; frosty, cold); prefixes not-, from- (ugly, not bad, expound); inflections -y, -eat, -ish (chitaju, readajesh).
Irregular affixes rarely found in words, for example:
suffix -k- with the meaning of action, distinguished only in the word fight, inflection -m, found only in the words ladies, eat, create.
So, speaking of the regularity / irregularity of affixes, we mean how often or rarely they are currently found in words.
When determining the productivity / unproductivity of affixes, we pay attention to their different productivity in the formation of new words or forms.
Productive are such affixes that serve to form numerous groups of words in modern Russian, for example, the suffixes -ist-, -nick-, denoting a male person by occupation (driver, defender); suffixes -sk-, -n- in the formation of relative and qualitative adjectives (Gorno-Altai, harmful); prefixes without-, not- (safe, timid).
There is a close connection between the concepts of regular / irregular, productive / unproductive affixes: all irregular affixes are unproductive, and regular ones can be both productive and unproductive.
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one of the categorical language forms, characteristic mainly of nouns that denote the names of living beings, and constituting a universal semantic opposition O. ... - OIL in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
Oil (through Turkish neft, from Persian oil) is a flammable oily liquid with a specific odor, common in the sedimentary shell of the Earth, which is ... - KARACHAYEV-BALKAR LANGUAGE in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
language, the language of Karachays and Balkars, living mainly in the Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Region and the Kabardino-Balkarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. The number of speakers of K.-b. I.: … - FOREST GROWTH in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
forests (German Bonitat, from Latin bonitas - good quality), an indicator of forest productivity, depending on soil and climatic conditions (habitat). Determined by the average ... - AGGLUTINATION (IN LINGUISTICS) in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
in linguistics, the formation of grammatical forms and derivative words in languages by attaching affixes to the root or to the base of the word, ... - LINGUISTICS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
linguistics, otherwise linguistics (from Latin lingua, language), glottis or glottology (from Greek ??????, ?????? - language) - in the narrow sense ... - LINGUISTICS in the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron:
linguistics, otherwise linguistics (from Latin lingua, language), glottis or glottology (from Greek ??????, ?????? ? language)? in tight... - TURKEY: NATURE - H. SOILS in Collier's Dictionary:
To the article TURKEY: NATURE The most fertile soils containing minerals and humus necessary for plant growth are confined to floodplains and …
Speaking about the regularity or irregularity of affixes, we had in mind their reproducibility in the whole category of words or in separate, single words, acting as word-building isolated ones. Speaking about their productivity or unproductivity, one should keep in mind their inherent different productivity in creating words and forms, different (for each affix and model its own) creative character.
There are certain relationships between the concept of regularity-irregularity and productivity-unproductivity (irregular affixes are always unproductive at the same time), but the concept of regularity is not covered by the concept of productivity. Among the regular service morphemes, there are many that are no longer productive. The regularity of many now unproductive affixes is due to their vivid performance in the past.
One can speak about the productivity or unproductivity of this or that affix only by comparing the number and composition of the words containing it in a given language system with what was observed in the language in previous eras of its development. Thus, the regular suffix -izn(a), which now stands out in conjunction with the adjectival stem in at least 12 words, is just as unproductive in modern Russian as the irregular suffix -ovizn(a), known only in the word dearness. This is evidenced by the fact that since the XIX century. not a single new noun formed by means of the suffix -izn(a) has entered our speech. All words with this suffix currently in use were known in the 18th century. Moreover, at that time there were even more of them (for example, youth, blueness, tone, etc., which have now disappeared).
Productive are such affixes that stand out in a number of recent formations in their appearance in the language. Unproductive affixes are auxiliary morphemes, with the help of which new words and forms are either not formed at present, or are formed very rarely.
As currently completely unproductive affixes, one can name, for example, the prefixes su-, niz- (twilight, loam; bring down, fall, etc.), suffixes -cmeuj (e), -zn (calmness, pleasure; life, disease, fear), the ending of nouns in the instrumental case of the plural -ьми (bones), the ending -ух in the numeral two, etc. These affixes are freely distinguished both in words and in forms, however, among such words and forms of recent formations are not observed.
The circle of words and forms, in which there are completely unproductive service morphemes, is often limited to several single formations. So, the ending -a for all indirect cases is a specific accessory of only three numerals: one hundred, forty, ninety; the prefix sur- is known in Russian only in the words surrealism, surrealist, surrealistic; the suffix -tv(a) with the meaning of an abstract action is distinguished as a morpheme only in the nouns harvest, grub, battle, prayer, etc.
Examples of currently productive affixes can be the suffixes -k(a) (for the formation of female names from the corresponding masculine words), -o (for the formation of adverbs from adjectives), -yva (-iva) (for the formation of verbs imperfective form), prefixes with-, from-, pro-, the bulk of endings in nouns, adjectives and verbs, etc. With their help, new words and forms are formed intensively and constantly, their morphematic connections are wide and varied. Thus, the zero ending in the nominative singular is inherent in the vast majority of inflected masculine nouns; it is with its help that the words of the indicated generic affiliation are currently formed in the Russian language, both recent neoplasms and newly acquired borrowings. The prefix does not have the ability to form new adjectives from adjectives of very different structure, origin and time of appearance (non-party, incomplete, non-standard, unreadable, non-equivalent, etc.). With the help of the suffix -ost, abstract nouns are continuously formed.
Unproductive affixes are, for example, the suffix -ach (compare at least the October words izbach, circus performer, trickster, listener formed with the help of this morpheme), the estimated diminutive suffix -ets, the prefix anti- (compare recent derivatives with it: anti-state, anti-colonial, anti-fascist, anti-scientific, etc.), ending -e in the nominative case of plural nouns (such as brothers).
The productivity of any affix in the formation of structurally and semantically different forms and words can be different. So, the suffix -tel, which is unproductive in the production of names with the meaning of the acting person, is at the same time productive in the production of words - the names of the acting object (switch, heater, rectifier, etc.). The suffix -sh(a) is unproductive in modern Russian for the formation of the names of a wife by her husband, but is productive as a female suffix, for example: elevator operator, announcer, usher, proofreader, etc.
The same can be noted about the productivity of such affixes, which are common to a number of parts of speech. So, for example, the prefix is also found in names, and in the verb, and in the adverb.
However, its effectiveness as a formative affix in the sphere of these lexico-grammatical categories of words is not the same. In the field of adjectives and adverbs, the prefix is preproductive and freely forms derivatives from any qualitative adjective and from adverbs in -o, -e. In the sphere of verbs, this prefix, although it stands out in a number of words formed with its help (to exaggerate, to exalt, to exceed, to increase, to succeed, to be fed up, etc.), is unproductive: from relatively recent formations, only present and downplay can be noted. The remaining verbs with a prefix were known, as a rule, already in the Old Russian language. In nouns, it is completely unproductive, although it stands out in individual words (barrier, transgression, satiety, wisdom, excess, etc.).
Questions about why some affixes and models are currently productive, while others are unproductive, which explains the fact that previously productive auxiliary morphemes and types of word formation become unproductive and vice versa, have not yet been sufficiently developed, however, some conclusions can be drawn.
- Affixes can turn into unproductive or unproductive due to changes in the vocabulary as a whole, as well as in the system and methods of naming, associated with the development of society. So, in the modern Russian literary language, “wife suffixes” (-sh (a), -ih (a), etc., have become unproductive, for example: general's wife, miller's wife). This was due to the fact that in the Soviet era women became full members of society, not only wives, but also specialists in a particular area of social activity. As a result, women began to be called not by their husband, but by their acquired profession, occupation, etc. The suffix -sh (a) received a new meaning, turning as a productive morpheme into a suffix to designate female persons by their activity, profession, etc. d Another example. Currently, face suffixes are unproductive, forming words that represent the expressive characteristics of a person according to some of his external signs. The suffixes an and -un can now be characterized as unproductive [puzan, wrasse, striped mullet, gorlan; blinker, screamer, dancer, etc.). This is explained by the fact that in the modern language the methods of forming the names of persons according to their social qualities began to prevail. Such is the modern “linguistic vision”: in a person they began to “see” not his external data as a “biological unit”, but his position in society. Thus, one of the reasons for the unproductiveness or unproductiveness of previously productive affixes is the corresponding shifts in the lexical system of the Russian language, due to changes in social life and the "linguistic vision" of the objective world.
Undoubtedly, with the general development of medicine and pharmacology, with the appearance of numerous drugs of artificial origin, the emergence of productivity in the suffix -in is also associated.
Changes in the nature of the nomination also determined the productivity of the suffix -k(a) in the sphere of names that arose in the dynamic language of our present as a compression of the corresponding phraseological phrases (train, flyer, postcard, canned meat, ten-year-old, multi-circulation, seven-year-old, etc.).
- Sometimes the unproductiveness of an affix is explained by the narrowness of the circle of those words with the bases of which it can link in the process of word production. Thus, the word-formative connections of the suffix -am- are limited, as a rule, to nouns denoting parts of the body of a person or animals (humped, horned, pot-bellied, mustachioed, caudate, etc.).
- Affixes can become unproductive for purely linguistic reasons, in particular, as a result of their displacement from the sphere of productive service morphemes by others that are synonymous with them, but at the same time more adapted to form words of the corresponding meaning. It is precisely because of this that, for example, the suffixes -from (a), -in (a), -stv (o) (for example, kindness, depth, slyness, etc.), pushed aside at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries, became unproductive . to the background with the suffix -awn. The approval of the suffix -ost as the only productive suffix of quality names, among other reasons (among which the most important is the influence on the literary Russian language of the literary language of Southwestern Russia at that time) was facilitated by its unambiguity and phonetic "uniqueness". Therefore, a certain role in the transformation of the suffixes -ot(a), -in(a), -stv(o) into unproductive ones was played by the fact of their multifunctionality and the presence of homonymous suffixes next to them (cf.: hoarseness, pea, teaching, etc. , where -ot(a), -ib(a), -stv(o) respectively have the meanings of state, unity-st: and collectiveness).
- In a number of cases, the affix becomes unproductive because the corresponding formative model becomes archaic. As an example, we can cite the multiplicity suffix -iva-, -iva- (in verbs such as read, speak, walk, prick, fly to p.), in the 16th-17th centuries. being productive.
