The roots of the state structure of modern Saudi Arabia lie in the religious reform movement of the mid-18th century, called Wahhabism. It was founded at the design of Great Britain by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792) and supported by Muhammad ibn Saud (r. 1726/27-1765), the leader of the Anayza tribe who inhabited the Ad-Diriya region in central Najd.

By the mid-1780s, the Saudis had established themselves throughout Najd. They managed to unite part of the tribes of central and eastern Arabia into a religious and political confederation, the purpose of which was to spread the Wahhabi teachings and the power of the Nejd emirs to the entire Arabian Peninsula.

Against whom were the wars of the Wahhabis?

1762 - Wahhabites headed towards the city of al-Ihsa and killed the inhabitants of nearby settlements.

1773 - Wahhabis besieged the city of Riyadh and kept its inhabitants under siege for a long time. When they captured, they destroyed many townspeople. They did not even spare those who fled into the desert, chasing the fugitives, killing them and taking their property.

1787 - Wahhabis attacked the inhabitants of Qatar and killed a large number of them.

After the death of al-Wahhab (1792), Ibn Saud's son, Emir Abdul Aziz I ibn Muhammad al-Saud (1765–1803), assumed the title of imam. Relying on an alliance of Wahhabi tribes, he began a bloody war, demanding from neighboring sultanates the recognition of Wahhabi teachings and a joint action against the Ottoman Empire.

1795 - Wahhabis attacked the city of al-Ihsa. Their historian proudly reports that, approaching the settlement, they fired a simultaneous volley from all the guns so that many pregnant women had a miscarriage from fear. In the same year they staged a massacre and robbery in the city of al-Rakika. They executed even those who surrendered by cutting off their heads in front of their leader's tent.

1797 - Wahhabis raided Kuwait, robbing and killing those who defended their property.

1802 - Wahhabis attacked the city of Karbala and, according to their own historian, killed most of the inhabitants right in their homes and markets. Further, as it has become customary, the robbery began. Even the tomb of Hussein (may Allah be pleased with him), the grandson of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him), was plundered.

1803 - Wahhabis attacked the city of Taif and staged a terrible massacre there. They killed everyone in a row, both those who tried to hide in the mosque and those who took refuge at home. They spared neither children, nor women, nor the elderly. The Shafi'i Mufti of Mecca, Abdullah al-Zawawi, and many other scholars were killed, and the city itself was sacked. After killing over 4,000 citizens and taking the treasure, they retreated back into the desert.

By 1803, almost the entire coast of the Persian Gulf and the islands adjacent to it (including Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and most of Oman and Muscat) were subject to the Wahhabis.

In 1803, as a sign of revenge for the desecration of the shrines of Karbala, Abdel Aziz was killed by Shiites. But even under his heir, Emir Saud I ibn Abdul Aziz (1803-1814), Wahhabi expansion continued with renewed vigor.

1805 Siege of Mecca begins. Pilgrims on their way to Mecca were captured and killed. Many city dwellers died of starvation. The corpses of children lay on the streets. In the same year, they seized the property of the nomadic tribes of Harb, burned many palm trees and killed many people in the as-Safa valley.

1810 - The sons of Saud, dissatisfied with the content that their father determined for them, after waiting until he went to Hajj, attacked Oman. The purpose of the campaign was robbery.

From the end of the 18th century Wahhabi raids became more frequent. Islamic scholars then issued a fatwa (an official religious edict), according to which the followers of al-Wahhab were outlawed. The army of the Egyptian ruler (wali) Muhammad Ali was sent to suppress the Wahhabis. However, in December 1811 the Egyptian army was completely defeated. Despite the first defeat and the desperate resistance of the Wahhabis, the Egyptians took Medina in November 1812, and in January of the following year, Mecca, Taif and Jeddah. They restored the annual pilgrimage to the holy places, which had been banned by the Wahhabis, and returned control of the Hijaz to the Hashemites. After the death of Saud in May 1814, his son Abdullah ibn Saud ibn Abdel Aziz became the emir of Nejd. At the beginning of 1815, the Egyptians inflicted a series of heavy defeats on the Wahhabist forces. The Wahhabis were defeated in Hijaz, Asir and in strategically important areas between Hijaz and Najd. However, in May 1815, Muhammad Ali had to urgently leave Arabia. Peace was signed in the spring of 1815. Under the terms of the agreement, the Hijaz came under the control of the Egyptians, and the Wahhabis retained only the regions of Central and North-Eastern Arabia. Emir Abdullah promised to obey the Egyptian governor of Medina, and also recognized himself as a vassal of the Turkish Sultan. He also pledged to secure the Hajj and return the treasures stolen by the Wahhabis in Mecca. But the truce was short-lived, and in 1816 the war resumed. In 1817, as a result of a successful offensive, the Egyptians took the fortified settlements of Er-Rass, Buraida and Unayza. The commander of the Egyptian forces, Ibrahim Pasha, enlisting the support of most of the tribes, invaded Najd in early 1818 and laid siege to Ad-Diriya in April 1818. After a five-month siege, the city fell (September 15, 1818). The last ruler of Ed-Diriya, Abdullah ibn Saud, surrendered to the mercy of the victors, was sent first to Cairo, then to Istanbul, and was publicly executed there. Other Saudis were taken to Egypt. Ed-Diriya was destroyed. Fortifications were demolished in all the cities of Najd and Egyptian garrisons were placed. In 1819, the entire territory that previously belonged to the Saudis was annexed to the possessions of the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali. However, the Egyptian influence lasted only a few years. In 1820, in Ad-Diriya, the Wahhabis raised an uprising led by Misrahi ibn Saud, one of the relatives of the executed emir.

Ibn Saud and the formation of Saudi Arabia.

The power of the Saudi dynasty was restored by the emir Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud (full name Abd al-Aziz ibn Abdarahman ibn Faisal ibn Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Saud, later known as ibn Saud), who returned in 1901 from exile and started a war against Rashidid dynasty. In January 1902, Ibn Saud, with the support of the ruler of Kuwait, Mubarak, with a small detachment of his supporters, captured Riyadh, the former capital of the Saudis. This victory allowed him to gain a foothold in Nejd and receive support from both religious leaders, who proclaimed him the new emir and imam, and local tribes. By the spring of 1904, ibn Saud had regained control of much of southern and central Najd. To fight the Wahhabis, the Rashidids in 1904 turned to the Ottoman Empire for help. Ottoman troops sent to Arabia forced Ibn Saud to go on the defensive for a short while, but were soon defeated and left the country. In 1905, the military successes of the Wahhabis forced the governor (wali) of the Ottoman Empire in Iraq to recognize Ibn Saud as his vassal in Najd. The possessions of ibn Saud nominally became the district of the Ottoman vilayet of Basra. Left alone, the Rashidids continued to fight for some time. But in April 1906 their emir Abdel Aziz ibn Mitab al-Rashid (1897–1906) died in battle. His successor Mitab hastened to make peace and recognized the rights of the Saudis to Nejd and Qasim. Through an exchange of letters, the Turkish Sultan Abdul-Hamid confirmed this agreement. Ottoman troops were withdrawn from Qasim, and Ibn Saud became the sole ruler of central Arabia.

In an effort to achieve the loyalty of the largest tribes, ibn Saud, on the advice of Wahhabi religious teachers, began to transfer them to settled life. To this end, in 1912 all the Bedouin tribes and oases that refused to recognize Ibn Saud as their emir and imam began to be regarded as enemies of Najd. They were ordered to move to agricultural colonies (“hijras”), whose members were called to love their homeland, unquestioningly obey the imam-emir and not enter into any contacts with Europeans and residents of the countries they ruled (including Muslims). Military garrisons were erected in each community, and they themselves became not only farmers, but also warriors of the Saudi state. By 1915, more than 200 such settlements were organized throughout the country, including at least 60 thousand people who, at the first call of ibn Saud, were ready to go to war with the "infidels."

With their help, Ibn Saud established complete control over Najd (1912), annexed Al-Khasa and the territories bordering Abu Dhabi and Muscat (1913). This allowed him to conclude in May 1914 a new agreement with the Ottoman Empire. According to him, ibn Saud became the governor (wali) of the newly formed province of Najd. Even earlier, Great Britain recognized Al-Khasa as the possessions of the Emir of Najd. Negotiations began between the two countries, which led to the fact that on December 26, 1915, an agreement "On friendship and alliance with the government of British India" was signed in Darin. Ibn Saud was recognized as the emir of Nejd, Qasim and Al-Khasa, independent of the Ottoman Empire, but pledged not to oppose England and coordinate his foreign policy with her, not to attack British possessions on the Arabian Peninsula, not to alienate his territory to third powers and not to enter into agreements with countries other than Great Britain, as well as again starting a war against the Rashidids, who were allies of the Ottoman Empire. For this concession, the Saudis received substantial military and financial assistance (in the amount of £60 per year). Despite the agreement, the Nejdi emirate did not take part in the First World War, limiting itself to spreading its influence in Arabia.

At the same time, as a result of a secret correspondence between the British High Commissioner in Egypt, McMahon, and the Grand Sheriff of Mecca, Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi, on October 24, 1915, an Agreement was reached, according to which Hussein undertook to raise the Arabs to revolt against the Ottoman Empire. In exchange, Great Britain recognized the independence of the future Arab state of the Hashemites within its "natural borders" (part of Syria, Palestine, Iraq and the entire Arabian Peninsula, with the exception of the British protectorates and territories of Western Syria, Lebanon and Cilicia, which were claimed by France). In accordance with the agreement in June 1916, detachments of the Hijaz tribes, led by Hussein's son Faisal and the British colonel T.E. Lawrence, revolted. Assuming the title of king, Hussein declared the independence of the Hejaz from the Ottoman Empire. Using diplomatic recognition, on October 19, 1916, he proclaimed the independence of all Arabs from the Ottoman Empire and 10 days later took the title of "king of all Arabs." However, Great Britain and France, which secretly violated their obligations in the spring of 1916 (the Sykes-Picot agreement), recognized him only as the king of the Hijaz. By July 1917, the Arabs cleared the Hejaz from the Turks and occupied the port of Aqaba. At the final stage of the war, detachments under the command of Faisal and T.E. Lawrence took Damascus (September 30, 1918). As a result of the Armistice of Mudros concluded on October 30, 1918, the rule of the Ottoman Empire in the Arab countries was eliminated. The process of separating the Hijaz (and other Arab possessions) from Turkey was finally completed in 1921 at a conference in Cairo.

1919 - Wahhabis attacked the settlements of Turaba and Hizba. In one Turba, more than three thousand people were killed (Al-Khatib, "Safahat min tarihi al-Jazeera").

After the end of the First World War, the activity of the Wahhabis on the borders of Najd led to clashes between the Saudis and most of the neighboring states. In 1919, in a battle near the city of Turaba, located on the border between Hijaz and Najd, they completely destroyed the royal army of Hussein ibn Ali. The losses were so great that the sheriff of Mecca had no strength left to defend the Hijaz. In August 1920, Saudi troops led by Prince Faisal ibn Abdulaziz al-Saud occupied Upper Asir; the emirate was declared a protectorate of Nejd (finally annexed in 1923). In the same year, Hail, the capital of Jabal Shammar, fell under the blows of the Wahhabis. With the defeat in the following year of the forces of Muhammad ibn Talal, the last Rashidid emir, Jabal Shammar was annexed to the possessions of the Saudis. On August 22, 1921, Ibn Saud was proclaimed Sultan of Najd and dependent territories. In the next two years, ibn Saud annexed al-Jawf and Wadi al-Sirkhan, extending his authority over all of northern Arabia. Encouraged by their successes, they continued to move north, invading the border regions of Iraq, Kuwait and Transjordan.

1925 - Mecca is recaptured. The most valuable library was destroyed, where the works from the time of the Companions were kept. One of those who led the Wahhabi army was the English intelligence officer John Philippi.

Here are just a few examples of the wars waged by Wahhabis against Muslims.

As a result of the war, Hijaz was annexed to Nejd. On January 8, 1926, in the Great Mosque of Mecca, ibn Saud was proclaimed the King of Hijaz and the Sultan of Najd (the Saudi state was named "Kingdom of Hijaz, the Sultanate of Najd and the annexed areas"). On February 16, 1926, the Soviet Union was the first to recognize the new state and established diplomatic and trade relations with it. Hijaz, which was granted a constitution (1926), received autonomy within the united state; Ibn Saud's son was appointed his viceroy (vice-king), under which a Consultative Assembly was created, appointed by him on the proposal of the "eminent citizens" of Mecca. The assembly considered bills and other issues that the governor put before him, but all his decisions were advisory in nature.

In October 1926, the Saudis established their protectorate over Lower Asir (the conquest of Asir was finally completed in November 1930). On January 29, 1927, Ibn Saud was proclaimed the king of Hijaz, Najd and the annexed regions (the state received the name "Kingdom of Hijaz and Najd and the annexed regions"). In May 1927 London was forced to recognize the independence of Hijaz-Najd; Ibn Saud, for his part, recognized the "special relations" of the sheikhs of Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and Treaty Oman with Great Britain (G. Clayton's treaty).

With the conquest of the Hijaz and the introduction of a new tax on pilgrims, the Hajj became the main source of revenue for the treasury (in the rest of the kingdom, except for the Hijaz, taxes were levied "in kind"). In order to promote the development of the Hajj, ibn Saud took steps to normalize relations with the Western powers and their allies in the Arab countries. However, along the way, Ibn Saud encountered internal opposition. The modernization of the country according to the Western model (the spread of such “innovations” as telephones, cars, the telegraph, sending the son of Saud Faisal to the “country of unbelievers” - Egypt) they regarded as unacceptable innovations. The crisis in camel breeding, caused by the import of cars, further increased discontent among the Bedouins.

In 1927, Iraqi troops occupied the no man's land, which led to a new war between the Hashemite and Saudi dynasties. Only after the bombing of British aircraft on the troops of ibn Saud, hostilities between the two states were stopped. Iraq withdrew its troops from the neutral zone (1928). On February 22, 1930, Ibn Saud made peace with King Faisal of Iraq (son of the former Emir Hejaz Hussein), ending the Saudi-Hashimi dynastic feud in the Arabian Peninsula (1919–1930).

In 1928 the leaders of the opposition, accusing Ibn Saud of betraying the cause for which they were fighting, openly challenged the power of the monarch. However, the majority of the population rallied around the king, which gave him the opportunity to quickly put down the uprising. In October 1928, a peace agreement was concluded between the king and the rebel leaders. But in 1929, Ibn Saud undertook a new military operation. Ibn Saud formed a small army from among the tribes and urban population loyal to him and inflicted a series of defeats on the Bedouin rebel groups. The civil war, however, continued until 1930, when the rebels were surrounded by the British in Kuwaiti territory, and their leaders were handed over to Ibn Saud. With the defeat, the tribal associations lost their role as the main military support of ibn Saud. During the civil war, the rebellious sheikhs and their squads were completely destroyed. This victory was the final stage on the way to the creation of a single centralized state.

On September 22, 1932, Ibn Saud changed the name of his state to a new one - the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. During the entire subsequent period of the reign of ibn Saud, internal problems did not present any particular difficulties for him. At the same time, the external relations of the kingdom developed ambiguously. The policy of religious intolerance led to the alienation of Saudi Arabia from the majority of Muslim governments, who considered the Saudi regime hostile and resented the complete control established by the Wahhabis over the holy cities and the Hajj.

Literature:

Kirill Limanov. Saudi Arabia.

Materials of the online encyclopedia "Krugosvet".

Arabian countries. Directory. M., 1964.

Lutsky V. B. New history of Arab countries. 2nd ed., M., 1966.

Kiselev K.A. Egypt and the State of the Wahhabis: War in the Desert (1811–1818) // Modern and Contemporary History. 2003, no. 4.

Aleksandrov I.A. Monarchies of the Persian Gulf. Stage of modernization. M., 2000.

Vasiliev A.M. History of Saudi Arabia: 1745 - late 20th century M., 2001.

Victoria Semenova

The official name is the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Al Mamlaka al Arabiya as Saudiyya, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia). Located in southwest Asia, it occupies most of the Arabian Peninsula. The area is 2240 thousand km2, the population is 23.51 million people. (2002). The official language is Arabic. The capital is the city of Riyadh (over 2.77 million people, with suburbs 4.76 million people). Public holiday - Day of the Proclamation of the Kingdom - September 23 (since 1932). The monetary unit is the Saudi rial (equal to 100 halals).

Member of OPEC (since 1960), UN (since 1971), GCC (since 1981), Arab League, etc.

Landmarks of Saudi Arabia

Geography of Saudi Arabia

It is located between 34° and 56° east longitude and 16° and 32° north latitude. In the east it is washed by the Persian Gulf, in the west and southwest - by the Red Sea. The Red Sea is located between the coasts of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, stretched from northwest to southeast. In the northern part of the sea there is an artificial Suez Canal, connecting with the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba (off the coast of Saudi Arabia), separated by the Sinai Peninsula. The sandy, in some places rocky shores of the Red Sea are weakly indented throughout and bordered by coral reefs with coral bays. There are few islands, but south of 17 ° north latitude they form numerous groups, one of the largest is the Farasan Islands belonging to Saudi Arabia.

Surface currents are seasonal. In the southern part of the sea, from November to March, the current is directed north-northwest along the coast of the Arabian Peninsula. To the north, this current weakens, meeting with the opposite one, which runs along the coast of Africa. From June to September, there are southern and southeastern currents in the Red Sea. The tides are mostly semi-diurnal. In the northern part of the sea, winds sometimes reach storm strength. The Persian Gulf has shallow depths (average - 42 m), the currents form a cycle counterclockwise. In the Strait of Hormuz, which connects the Persian Gulf with the Oman, the direction of the current changes seasonally: in summer from the ocean to the Persian Gulf, in winter - vice versa.

Saudi Arabia is bordered in the north by Jordan and Iraq, in the northwest by Kuwait, Bahrain (marine border), Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. The southern borders with Oman and Yemen are not defined.

More than 1/2 of the territory of Saudi Arabia in the southeast is occupied by the Rub al-Khali desert, or the Great Sandy Desert, with an area of ​​approx. 650 thousand km2. In the north of the country is part of the Syrian Desert, and the Nefud Desert, covering an area of ​​approx. 57 thousand km2, extends further to the south. In the center of the country there is a plateau crossed by several small rivers that dry up during the dry season. In the south-west of the country there are small mountain ranges and its highest point - Mount Jabal Saud (3133 m). Narrow coastal plains lie along the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.

The bowels of Saudi Arabia are rich in the most important types of raw materials - oil, natural gas, iron, copper, gold and other non-ferrous metals, there are deposits of rock salt, uranium, etc. In terms of oil reserves, the country ranks first in the world - 25.2%, or 35.8 billion tons. Natural gas reserves 5400 billion m3. Minerals, except for oil and gas, are still poorly studied and are mined in extremely small quantities.

The soils in Saudi Arabia are mostly sandy and stony, in the northern part of Arabia there are gray soils, in the south - red, red-brown. The most fertile lands are located on the shores of the Red Sea.

The climate is hot, dry, mostly tropical, in the north - subtropical. Average temperatures in July are above +30°С, in January +10-20°C. Precipitation approx. 100 mm per year, in the mountains up to 400 mm. January temperature in Riyadh is +8-21°С, in Jeddah +26-37°С. The July temperature in Riyadh is +26-42°C, and in Jeddah - +26-37°C. However, in the mountains in winter there are sub-zero temperatures and snow.

There are no permanent natural reservoirs on the territory of the country, except for small pools in oases, sometimes temporary lakes form after rains. There are significant reserves of groundwater.

The flora of the inner regions is extremely poor, there are desert grasses, thorny shrubs, in fertile areas - thickets of tamarisk, acacia, in oases - date palms. The fauna is represented by antelopes, foxes, gazelles, hyenas, ostriches, panthers, wild cats, wolves, mountain goats, rabbits, and Indian badgers. Among the birds stand out bustard, dove, quail. From predatory - eagles, falcons. The sea is rich in fish.

population of saudi arabia

In a total population of approx. 23% are non-citizens of the kingdom (2002).

The average annual growth rate of the indigenous population is 3.27% (2002). In 1974 - 92 the population grew from 6.72 to 16.95 million people. The population in the 15-24 age group is growing especially fast.

Birth rate 37.25‰, mortality 5.86‰, infant mortality 49.59 people. per 1000 newborns, average life expectancy is 68.4 years, incl. men 66.7, women 70.2 (2002).

Sex and age structure of the population (2002): 0-14 years - 42.4% (men 5.09 million people, women 4.88 million); 15-64 years old - 54.8% (7.49 million men, 5.40 million women); 65 years and older - 2.8% (men 362.8 thousand people, women 289.8 thousand). Urban population 85.7% (2000). 78% of the population aged 15 and over is literate (84.2% of men and 69.5% of women) (2002).

Ethnic composition: Arabs - 90%, Afro-Asians - 10%. Indigenous Saudis stand out, whose ancestors lived in the country for centuries - approx. 82%, Yemenis and other Arabs who arrived in the country after the 1950s during the oil boom - ca. 13%, nomadic Berbers, whose numbers are declining. Languages: Arabic, European languages ​​are also used.

The state religion is Islam. Almost all Muslims are Sunnis. Saudi Arabia is the birthplace of Islam, founded by the Prophet Muhammad. The whole life of the country is subject to strict laws and rules that have a thousand-year history. Men and women are not allowed to drink alcoholic beverages. The breeding of pigs and the consumption of pork is prohibited. Mecca is the cradle of Islam and the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad, there is the main shrine of the Muslim world - the ancient sanctuary of the Kaaba. The second religious center is Medina, where the prophet is buried. Among the duties of a Muslim is fasting during Ramadan, the 9th month of the Muslim calendar (from late February to late March), when Muslims abstain from food and drink, avoid spectacles and other pleasures until sunset. One of the pillars of Islam is the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca, which must be done at least once in a lifetime. Mecca attracts millions of pilgrims from all over the world.

History of Saudi Arabia

In the 1st millennium BC. On the coast of the Red Sea, the Minyan kingdom arose with its capital in Karna (modern Khoyda in Yemen). On the east coast was Dilmun, which was considered a political and cultural federation on the shores of the Persian Gulf. For almost 1,500 years, no important events took place on the territory of modern Saudi Arabia. In 570 AD Prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca, and the teachings of Islam literally turned the whole history of Saudi Arabia upside down. Muhammad's followers, known as caliphs (caliphs), conquered almost the entire Middle East.

The Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula were aware of many technical and construction achievements. In agriculture already in the 5th-6th centuries. an iron plow was used, iron ore was mined and metal was smelted, already in the pre-Islamic era, the Arabs created their original script - the Sabaean script in South Arabia and later, in the 5th century. - Nabataean writing, on the basis of which modern Arabic writing developed.

With the advent of the caliphate, whose capital was first in Damascus and later in Baghdad, the role of the prophet's homeland became less and less significant.

In 1269, almost the entire territory of modern Saudi Arabia was under the rule of Egypt. In 1517, power passed to the rulers of the Ottoman Empire. All R. 18th century The state of Nejd was founded, which was independent of the Ottoman Empire. In 1824 Riyadh became the capital of the state. In 1865, a civil war broke out in the country, and the weakened country was divided among neighboring states. In 1902, Abdelaziz ibn Saud captured Riyadh, and by 1906 his troops controlled almost all of Najd. He achieved the recognition of the state by the Turkish Sultan. Based on the Wahhabi doctrine, Ibn Saud continued the unification of the country under his rule, and by 1926 he was able to practically complete this process. The USSR was the first to establish normal diplomatic relations with the new state in February 1926. In 1927, Ibn Saud achieved recognition by Great Britain of the sovereignty of his state. In 1932 he gave the country the name Saudi Arabia. After that, the penetration of foreign, primarily American, capital into the country, connected with the exploration and development of oil, increased. After the death of ibn Saud in 1953, his son Saud ibn-Abdelaziz became king, who continued to strengthen the position of the country, taking into account the position of the League of Arab States on pan-Arab issues. In 1958, the need for a more modern policy led to the transfer of the powers of the prime minister to the king's brother Emir Faisal, who expanded the capitalist transformations in the economy. November 7, 1962 was passed a law abolishing slavery.

In August 1965, a 40-year dispute between Saudi Arabia and Jordan over the border was resolved. Since 1966, an agreement was signed with Kuwait on the division into equal parts of the neutral zone on the border of the two countries. Saudi Arabia has acknowledged Jordan's claim to the port city of Aqaba. In 1967 - 1st floor. 1970s Saudi Arabia took an active part in defending the interests of the Arab countries, began to provide large financial assistance to Egypt, Syria, Jordan. The increase in the role of the country was facilitated by the multiple expansion of oil production and export. In 1975, an agreement was signed with Iraq on the equal division of the neutral zone on the border between the countries.

In October 1973, Saudi Arabia imposed an oil embargo on the United States and the Netherlands. Since the 1970s the kingdom began to play an increasingly important role in OPEC. March 25, 1975 Faisal, who became king in November 1964, died in an assassination attempt. In 1975 - 82, Khaled was the king of SA, and Emir Fahd was the prime minister. With the active participation of Fahd, state building and economic modernization of the country began at an accelerated pace. Under the influence of the threat factor in the region from Iran and the Marxist regime in Yemen, Saudi Arabia initiated the strengthening of the armed forces of the monarchies of the Arabian Peninsula and encouraged the strengthening of the American military presence. The Kingdom took an active part in the liberation of Kuwait from Iraqi occupation in 1991. In March 2001, Saudi Arabia signed a final agreement with Qatar to settle the border dispute between the two countries and a demarcation line was drawn.

State structure and political system of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is an absolute theocratic monarchy with a cabinet of ministers. Saudi Arabia is an Islamic state, the role of the Constitution of the country is performed by the Koran, which defines ethical values ​​and gives instructions. In 1992, the Basic Nizam on Power was adopted - an act regulating the system of government.

Administrative division of the country: 13 administrative regions (provinces, or emirates), within which 103 smaller territorial units have been allocated since 1994.

The largest cities: Riyadh, Jeddah (over 2 million people, with suburbs 3.2 million), Dammam (482 thousand people), Mecca (966 thousand people, with suburbs 1.33 million), Medina (608 thousand people) (2000 estimate).

Principles of public administration: the basis of the legislative system is Sharia - an Islamic code of laws based on the Koran and Sunnahs. The king and the council of ministers operate within the framework of Islamic law. Acts of state come into force by decrees of the king. In public administration, the principles of deliberation (shura), ensuring consensus, equality of all before the law, the source of which is Sharia norms, are applied.

The supreme body of legislative power is the king and the Advisory Council, appointed by the king for 4 years, consisting of 90 members from different strata of society. Council recommendations are submitted directly to the king.

The highest body of executive power is the Council of Ministers (appointed by the king). This body combines executive and legislative functions, develops proposals in the field of domestic and foreign policy.

The king is the head of state, the head of the highest body of legislative power, the head of the highest body of executive power.

The composition of the Advisory Council and the Council of Ministers is appointed by the King. The Advisory Board has a chairman and is half renewed in composition for a new term. The question of the possible introduction of an elected representative body is currently being worked out.

King Abdelaziz ibn Saud, who fought for the unification of the kingdom for 31 years and managed to achieve this by establishing an independent state, which he ruled until 1953, is considered, first of all, King Abdelaziz ibn Saud. He made a great contribution to the formation of statehood. King Fahd ibn Abdelaziz ibn Saud played an important role in the successful implementation of programs for the economic modernization of the country and the use of its potential. Even before accession to the throne, he was the first Minister of Education of the country, developed a plan for reforms in education, during his reign he ensured the constant development of a long-term program of economic reforms and the rise of the authority of Saudi Arabia in the international arena. On November 24, King Fahd assumed the title of "Keeper of the Two Holy Mosques" (the mosques of Mecca and Medina).

In the administrative units of the country, power is exercised by the emir of the province, whose appointment is approved by the king, taking into account the opinion of the inhabitants. Under the emir, there is a council with an advisory vote, including the heads of government agencies in the region and at least 10 citizens. The administrative divisions within the provinces are also headed by emirs, who are responsible to the provincial emir.

There are no political parties in Saudi Arabia. Among the leading organizations of the business community are the Saudi Association of Chambers of Commerce and Industry in Riyadh (which unites the country's major entrepreneurs), several dozens of chambers of commerce in the country. The Supreme Economic Council has recently been established with the participation of representatives of the state and business circles.

The activities of trade unions are not provided for by law. Among other public organizations, the structures involved in the dissemination of Islamic values ​​are of great importance, primarily the League for the Promotion of Virtue and the Condemnation of Vice. There are more than 114 charitable organizations and more than 150 cooperatives operating in the country. The Saudi Red Crescent Organization has 139 branches throughout the country. Its activities are supported by the state. A system of cultural societies, literary and sports clubs, scout camps has been created. There are 30 sports federations. Clan, tribe, family are the traditional foundations of Saudi society. There are more than 100 tribes in the country, which in the recent past settled in cities in one quarter. They undergo certain changes under the influence of the modern way of life. A group of Muslim clerics and theologians is considered to be an influential social stratum. The strengthening of modern social strata continues: entrepreneurs, workers, intellectuals.

The domestic policy of Saudi Arabia is based on following the Islamic faith in all spheres of life, the government's concern for stability in the country and the well-being of its citizens, the comprehensive development of the education system, social services, and healthcare.

Foreign policy includes the following principles: Islamic and Arab solidarity, the country's desire to act from a peaceful position in resolving all regional and international conflicts, the active role of Saudi Arabia in international affairs, good neighborly relations with all countries, non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries.

The armed forces consist of the army and the National Guard. The paramilitaries include the forces of the Ministry of the Interior. In 1997, the armed forces of Saudi Arabia numbered 105.5 thousand people, incl. 70 thousand in the Ground Forces, 13.5 thousand in the Navy, 18 thousand in the Air Force and 4 thousand in the Air Defense Forces. The total strength of the National Guard was approx. 77 thousand people (1999). In service with the Air Force (in 2003) there are 294 combat aircraft, not counting transport aircraft, etc. The ground forces are equipped with French and American tanks (1055 units), armored personnel carriers, and Hawk missiles. The air defense troops are equipped with the Patriot and Krotal systems and interceptor fighters. The fleet has several dozen large ships and boats for various purposes, 400 boats are at the disposal of the Coast Guard.

Saudi Arabia has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation (established with the USSR in February 1926. In April 1938 diplomatic relations were frozen. Restored at the level of ambassadors in September 1990).

Economy of Saudi Arabia

The economic development of modern Saudi Arabia is characterized by a high proportion of the oil industry, with a gradual expansion of production in related industries and a number of manufacturing industries.

Saudi Arabia's GDP, calculated at purchasing power parity, was $241 billion. GDP per capita $10,600 (2001). Real GDP growth 1.6% (2001). Share of Saudi Arabia in the world economy (share of GDP) at current prices approx. 0.4% (1998). The country produces almost 28% of the total GDP of the Arab countries. In 1997, Saudi Arabia provided 13.9% of world oil production and 2% of gas. Inflation 1.7% (2001).

Number of employed 7.18 million people (1999). Most of those employed in the economy, approx. 56% is represented by immigrants.

Sectoral structure of the economy in terms of contribution to GDP (2000): agriculture 7%, industry 48%, services 45%. The extractive industry in 2000 accounted for 37.1%, the manufacturing industry - approx. 10%, Structure of GDP by employment: services 63%, industry 25%, agriculture 12% (1999). According to 1999 data, the largest number of employed people is 2.217 million people. - was in the field of finance and real estate, 1.037 million people. - in trade, restaurant and hotel business, 1.020 million people. - in construction. The rest were employed in other sectors of the service sector and in industry, incl. OK. 600 thousand people - in processing.

Many of the well-known large Saudi companies have grown out of traditional family business groups. The industrialization of Saudi Arabia was carried out with the leading role of the state, so the economy is still dominated by companies and corporations with a high share of state capital, private capital is present in them on shares with state capital. There are companies with foreign capital participation. Saudi National Bank Al-Rajhi Banking and Investment Corporation grew in the 1970s and 80s. from the oldest money-changing office of the Al-Rajhi family, which owns 44% of the bank's shares. National Industrialization Co. and National Agricultural Development Co. are the first large companies in the country, respectively, industrial and agricultural development, created with a predominance of private capital. Saudi ARAMCO State Oil Company and PETROMIN State Holding Company for Oil and Mineral Resources, with its system of subsidiaries in various fields of the oil industry from oil production to the production of oils, gasoline, etc., includes 14 large companies and is the basis of the entire industry structure. Some of these companies have foreign equity participation (McDermott, Mobile Oil Investment). A similar structure exists in petrochemistry and heavy industry, the central place being occupied by the holding company SABIC (Saudi Basic Industries Corp.), established in 1976, 70% of whose capital is owned by the state. The role of private capital in this sector of the economy is higher. Among the large companies are "Kemya", "Sharq", "Ibn Sina", "Hadid", "Sadaf", "Yanpet". In other sectors of the economy, Arabian Cement Co. (cement production), Saudi Metal Industries (steel fittings), Az-Zamil Group (real estate, marketing), etc. There are various banks and insurance companies in the country.

The main industry is oil and gas, which provides the production of the most significant share of Saudi Arabia's GDP. It is controlled by the state through state authorized organizations and companies. To con. 1980s The government completed the buyout of all foreign shares in the oil company Saudi Aramco. In the 1960s and 70s. in the country there was a rapid increase in oil production: from 62 million tons in 1969 to 412 million in 1974. This coincided with the outbreak of the world energy crisis in 1973 after the Arab-Israeli war. In 1977, Saudi oil exports generated $36.5 billion in revenue. In the 1980s oil prices have declined, but the oil and gas industry continues to generate significant revenues (ca. 40 billion US dollars per year), amounting to ca. 90% of the country's income from exports. Oil development is carried out in state-owned fields. It is extracted from 30 major deposits and exported through a system of pipelines, oil storage facilities and ports on the coast of the country. In 2000, 441.4 million tons of oil and 49.8 million m3 of gas were produced. Saudi Arabia plays an important role in the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). In 2001, the country's quota in OPEC production was more than 7.54 million barrels. oil per day.

In the field of gas utilization, the largest project was the construction in 1975-80 of a unified system for collecting and processing associated gas, through which gas is exported and supplied to petrochemical enterprises. Production volume - 17.2 million tons of liquefied gas (1998). In the field of oil refining, there are 5 largest oil refineries in Yanbu, Rabah, Jeddah, Riyadh and Ras Tannur. The latter processes more than 300 thousand tons. Most of the production is fuel oil and diesel fuel. The production of automobile and aviation gasoline, fuel for jet engines has been launched.

Large SABIC-controlled facilities located in the industrial centers of Al Jubail, Yanbu and Jeddah carry out petrochemical and metallurgical production. In 1990-96, the volume of production increased from 13 to 22.8 million tons. 12.3 million tons of petrochemical products, 4.2 million tons of fertilizers, 2.8 million tons of metals, 2.3 million tons of plastics were sold on the market. By 1997, the volume of SABIC production reached 23.7 million tons, and by 2000 it was planned to increase production capacity to 30 million tons. Among the petrochemical products are ethylene, urea, methanol, ammonia, polyethylene, ethylene glycol, etc.

The mining industry is underdeveloped. In the beginning. 1997 State-owned mining company established. Gold deposits are currently being developed northeast of Jeddah. In 1998, approx. 5 tons of gold, 13.84 tons of silver. Salt and gypsum are being developed.

From the beginning 1970s In Saudi Arabia, the building materials industry developed rapidly due to the construction boom. The basis of the industry is the production of cement, which increased from 9648 thousand tons in 1979 to 15 776 thousand in 1998. Glass production is developed.

The metallurgical industry is represented by the production of reinforcing steel, steel rod, and some types of shaped steel. Several enterprises have been built.

In 1977, the plant of the Saudi-German truck assembly company began to produce products. There is a small shipyard in Dammam that manufactures oil barges.

Important industries are seawater desalination and energy. The first desalination plant was built in Jeddah in 1970. Now water is supplied from the coast to the central cities. In 1970-95, the capacity of desalination plants increased from 5 to 512 million US gallons of water per year. Approx. 6000 cities and towns across the country. In 1998, electricity generation was 19,753 MW; in 1999, production capacity reached 23,438 MW. In the next two decades, an annual increase in electricity demand of 4.5% is expected. It will be necessary to increase its production to approx. 59,000 MW.

The light, food and pharmaceutical industries are developing rapidly. Light industry is mainly represented by handicraft-type enterprises. The country has more than 2.5 thousand enterprises for the production of food products, tobacco products, 3500 carpet, textile, clothing and footwear, more than 2474 woodworking, 170 printing houses. The government encourages the development of manufacturing enterprises with private capital. As a result of the issuance of licenses in the 1990s. the most priority were the creation of production of petrochemical goods and plastics, metalworking and mechanical workshops, the production of paper products and printing products, food, ceramics, glass and building materials, textiles, clothing and leather products, woodworking.

The share of agriculture in the country's GDP in 1970 was only 1.3%. During 1970-93, the production of basic foodstuffs increased from 1.79 million to 7 million tons. Saudi Arabia is completely devoid of permanent watercourses. The lands suitable for cultivation occupy less than 2% of the territory. Despite this, agriculture in Saudi Arabia, subsidized by the government and using modern technology and machinery, has become a dynamic industry. Long-term hydrological surveys, begun in 1965, have identified significant water resources suitable for agricultural use. In addition to deep wells throughout the country, Saudi Arabia's agriculture and water industry uses more than 200 reservoirs with a total volume of 450 million m3. Only the agricultural project in Al-Khas, completed in 1977, made it possible to irrigate 12,000 hectares and provide employment for 50,000 people. Other major irrigation projects include the Wadi Jizan project on the Red Sea coast (8,000 ha) and the Abha project in the Asira Mountains to the southwest. In 1998, the government announced a new $294 million agricultural development project. 1990s increased to 3 million hectares, the country began to export food products, food imports decreased from 83 to 65%. According to the export of wheat SA in the 2nd half. 1990s ranked 6th in the world. More than 2 million tons of wheat, more than 2 million tons of vegetables are produced, approx. 580 thousand tons of fruits (1999). Barley, corn, millet, coffee, alfalfa and rice are also grown.

Animal husbandry is developing, represented by the breeding of camels, sheep, goats, donkeys and horses. An important industry is fishing and fish processing. In 1999, approx. 52 thousand tons of fish. Fish and shrimps are exported.

The length of railways is 1392 km, 724 km have two tracks (2001). In 2000, 853.8 thousand passengers and 1.8 million tons of cargo were transported by rail. Road transport has more than 5.1 million vehicles, of which 2.286 million are trucks. Length of roads - 146,524 km, incl. 44,104 km of paved roads. In the 1990s completed the construction of the Trans-Arabian Highway. Pipeline transport includes 6,400 km of pipelines for pumping oil, 150 km for pumping oil products and 2,200 km of gas pipelines, incl. for liquefied gas. Maritime transport has 274 vessels with a total gross tonnage of 1.41 million tons, of which 71 large vessels have a capacity of over 1000 tons. 1000 t, including 30 tankers (including for the transport of chemicals), cargo ships and refrigerators, there are also 9 passenger ships (2002). 90% of goods are delivered to the country by sea. The fleet transported 88.46 million tons of cargo in 1999. The largest ports are Jeddah, Yanbu, Jizan on the Red Sea coast, a number of other ports are expanding. Dammam is the 2nd largest trading port and the country's largest port in the Persian Gulf. Another major port in the Gulf is Jubail. The largest oil port is Ras Tanura, through which up to 90% of oil is exported. There are 25 commercial airports in the kingdom. The largest international airports are King Abdelaziz in Jeddah (the halls can simultaneously accommodate 80 thousand pilgrims, cargo turnover is about 150 thousand tons per year), the airport. King Fahd in Dammam (12 million passengers per year), airports in Riyadh (15 million passengers per year) and Dhahran. Others are airports in Haile, Bisha and Badan. Saudi Arabia is the largest airline in the Middle East. In 1998, 11.8 million passengers were carried.

In Saudi Arabia, the communications system has 3.23 million fixed telephone lines and more than 2.52 million mobile phone users, approx. 570 thousand Internet users (2001). 117 TV channels are broadcast. The country is actively involved in the creation of a pan-Arab satellite communications. There are several national TV and radio channels and approx. 200 newspapers and other periodicals, incl. 13 daily.

Trade is a traditional area of ​​economic activity in Saudi Arabia. Imports are mainly industrial and consumer goods. To encourage national industry, a 20% duty is imposed on goods that compete with locally produced goods. The import of alcohol, drugs, weapons, and religious literature into the country is strictly regulated. Other sectors of the service sector are related to real estate, financial transactions, in which the activities of foreigners are limited.

Until recently, the development of tourism was mainly associated with the service of pilgrims coming to Mecca. Their annual number is approx. 1 million people In con. 1990s the decision was made to make foreign tourism the most important branch of the service sector. In 2000, approx. $14.4 billion. There were 200 hotels in the country.

Modern economic policy is characterized by the participation of the state in the main sectors of the economy and the limitation of the presence of foreign capital. However, with con. 1990s a course is being pursued to simultaneously expand the activity of national private capital, privatization, and stimulate foreign investment. The extraction of oil and gas remains in the hands of the state. Social policy includes the provision of social guarantees for the population, support and subsidies for youth and families. At the current stage, this is combined with the stimulation of training and retraining of national personnel for work in industry and the private sector of the economy.

The country's monetary system is characterized by the provision of the national currency with the help of foreign exchange earnings from oil exports, and a liberal currency regime. The Monetary Agency controls the circulation of money and the banking system. The independent activity of foreign bank capital is not allowed until now. In a number of joint banks with foreign capital, the controlling stake is national. There are 11 commercial banks and special development banks, as well as funds for financial assistance to Arab countries. Banks operate according to the Islamic system, do not charge or pay a fixed percentage.

The state budget of the country is formed by 75% at the expense of oil export revenues. Taxes to con. 1990s were absent, except for the religious one. In 1995, indirect taxes were estimated at 1,300 million Saudi. rials (less than 0.3% of GDP). A corporate income tax and personal income tax are currently being introduced. The introduction of a value added tax, etc. is being considered. The largest budget expenditure items are: defense and security - 36.7%, human resource development - 24.6%, public administration - 17.4%, health care - approx. 9% (2001). Budget revenues 42 billion US dollars, expenditures - 54 billion (2002). There is significant domestic debt. External debt is estimated at $23.8 billion (2001). Gross investment - 16.3% of GDP (2000).

The standard of living of the population of the country is relatively high. Average wage in industry $7,863.43 per year (2000).

The country's trade balance is active. The value of exports is 66.9 billion US dollars, imports are 29.7 billion US dollars. The main export item is oil and oil products (90%). Main export partners: USA (17.4%), Japan (17.3%), South Korea (11.7%), Singapore (5.3%), India. Machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, automobiles, textiles are imported. Main import partners: USA (21.1%), Japan (9.45%), Germany (7.4%), UK (7.3%) (2000).

Science and culture of Saudi Arabia

Great attention is paid to education. In con. 1990s education expenses - St. 18% of the budget, the number of schools at all levels exceeded 21,000. In 1999/2000, the number of students in all forms of education was approx. 4.4 million people, and teachers - more than 350 thousand. Education for girls is managed by a special supervisory board, they were approx. 46% of students in ser. 1990s Education is free and open to all citizens, although not compulsory. The university system includes the Islamic University of Medina, the University of Petroleum and Mineral Resources. King Fahd in Dhahran, University. King Abdelaziz in Jeddah, University. King Faisal (having branches in Dammam and El Hofuf), University. Imam Mohammed ibn Saud in Riyadh, Umm el-Kura University in Mecca and the University. King Saud in Riyadh. There are also 83 institutes. A special department is in charge of schools for sick children. In the scientific and technical town. King Abdelaziz conducted research in the field of geodesy, energy, ecology.

Saudi Arabia is a country with ancient cultural traditions. Many architectural monuments embody Arabic and Islamic fine arts. These are old castles, forts and other monuments in all parts of the country. Among the 12 main museums are the National Museum of Archeology and Folk Heritage, the Al-Masmak Fort Museum in Riyadh. The Saudi Society for Culture and the Arts, with chapters in many cities, organizes art exhibitions and festivals. The art center near Abha hosts exhibitions of local and regional artisans, a library and a theatre. The system of literary clubs and libraries is widely developed. Saudi literature is represented by a wide range of ancient and modern works, poetry (odes, satire and lyrics, religious and social themes) and prose (short story), journalism. Interesting creative festivals. The National Cultural Heritage Festival in Jenadriya, north of Riyadh, brings together local and foreign scholars in the humanities, it involves representatives from all regions of the country, it covers fine arts, folk dances, painting, literature, poetry. The famous camel races are held.

The cultural life is influenced by the Islamic religion. The state has established 210 Islamic cultural centers around the world to explain Islamic culture. Local customs include restraint of behavior, one should not talk to women, except for service personnel. Muslims pray 5 times a day, take off their shoes at the entrance to the mosque. Non-Muslims are prohibited from entering the holy cities of Mecca and Medina.

The eastern parts of present-day Saudi Arabia were settled in the fourth or fifth millennium by immigrants from southern Iraq. The Nabattin Empire was the greatest of the early empires, stretching as far as Damascus in the first century BC.

In the early 18th century, the Al Sauds, the current ruling dynasty of Saudi Arabia, became sheikhs in the Dirayah oasis, near present-day Riyadh. In the middle of the 18th century, they allied with Mohammed bin Abdul Wahhab and created Wahhabism, a religious movement that goes back to the origins of Islam, which is now the main religion of Saudi Arabia. By 1806, the Wahhabi armies had captured much of what is now Saudi Arabia and southern parts of Iraq.

This situation was not supported in Constantinople, since in theory the western part of Arabia was part of the Ottoman Empire. In 1812, the empire regained western Arabia, but by the end of the 19th century, the Al Saud retreated to Kuwait, where they were given refuge. Hence, one of the great leaders of the Al Saud, Ibn Saud, using all conceivable and unthinkable means, was able to return Riyadh, and in 1925 Jeddah.

In 1939, Chevron discovered oil fields in Saudi Arabia, but when World War II began, oil production dropped significantly. By the 1950s rulers were earning up to $1,000,000 a week from oil production, and by the 1960s. The country received 80% of its income from the sale of oil. Because of the embargo on Arab oil in 1973-74. oil prices have quadrupled and Saudi Arabia has become something of a world leader. While the government was raking in money, a building boom began in Saudi Arabia. But the oil attracted many interested countries, and relations between Saudi Arabia and its neighbors began to deteriorate sharply. The massacre of 400 Iranian Hajj pilgrims in 1987 led Iran to boycott the pilgrimage to Mecca for several years.

When Iraq occupied Kuwait in 1990, the Arabians became nervous and asked the US to send troops to protect Saudi Arabia. Although Arabia was not invaded, the crisis led to political changes and in 1993 the king established an advisory council whose members were appointed by the king and could comment on proposed laws.

The days of easy oil money are over, the country's population is skyrocketing (the average Saudi woman gives birth to six children) and the kingdom is ruled by an aging King Fahd who faces these intractable problems. In 1999, this inaccessible country hosted its first expensive tour. But still, for an ordinary traveler to get into the country is almost impossible. Only Muslims making a pilgrimage to Mecca or Medina and those lucky ones who can receive an invitation from a citizen of Saudi Arabia can count on obtaining a visa.

The territory of the Arabian Peninsula from ancient times (2 thousand BC) was inhabited by nomadic Arab tribes who called themselves "al-Arab" (Arabs). In 1 thousand BC. in various parts of the peninsula, the ancient Arab states begin to take shape - the Minean (before 650 BC), Sabaean (c. 750–115 BC), Himyarite kingdoms (c. 25 BC - 577 AD .). In the 6th–2nd centuries BC. in the north of Arabia, slave-owning states arose (the Nabataean kingdom, which became a Roman province in 106 AD, and others). The development of caravan trade between South Arabia and the states of the Mediterranean coast contributed to the development of such centers as Makoraba (Mecca) and Yathrib (Medina). In the 2nd–5th centuries Judaism and Christianity are spreading on the peninsula. On the coast of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, as well as in the Hijaz, Najran and Yemen, religious communities of Christians and Jews arise. At the end of the 5th c. AD in Nejd, an alliance of Arab tribes was formed, led by the Kinda tribe. Subsequently, his influence extended to a number of neighboring areas, including Hadhramaut and the eastern regions of Arabia. After the collapse of the union (529 AD), Mecca became the most important political center of Arabia, where in 570 AD. Prophet Muhammad was born. During this period, the country became the object of struggle between the Ethiopian and Persian dynasties. All R. 6th c. The Arabs, led by the Quraysh tribe, managed to repel the attack of the Ethiopian rulers who were trying to capture Mecca. In the 7th century AD in the western part of the Arabian Peninsula, a new religion arose - Islam, and the first Muslim theocratic state was formed - the Arab Caliphate with its capital in Medina. Under the leadership of the caliphs at the end of the 7th century. wars of conquest are unfolding outside the Arabian Peninsula. The relocation of the capital of the caliphates from Medina, first to Damascus (661) and then to Baghdad (749), led to the fact that Arabia became the outskirts of a huge state. In the 7th–8th centuries most of the territory of modern Saudi Arabia was part of the Umayyad caliphate, in the 8th-9th centuries. - Abbasids. With the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate, many small independent state formations arose on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. Hijaz, which retained the importance of the religious center of Islam, at the end of the 10th-12th centuries. remained in vassal dependence on the Fatimids, in the 12th-13th centuries. - Ayyubids, and then - Mamluks (since 1425). In 1517 Western Arabia, including Hijaz and Asir, were subject to the Ottoman Empire. All R. 16th century the power of the Turkish sultans extended to Al-Hasa, an area on the coast of the Persian Gulf. From that moment until the end of the First World War, Western and Eastern Arabia were (intermittently) part of the Ottoman Empire. Nejd, whose population was made up of Bedouins and farmers of the oases, enjoyed much greater independence. This whole area was a huge number of small feudal state formations with independent rulers in almost every village and city, constantly at war with each other.

The first Saudi state. The roots of the state structure of modern Saudi Arabia lie in the religious reform movement of the mid-18th century, called Wahhabism. It was founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792) and supported by Muhammad ibn Saud (r. 1726/27-1765), the leader of the Anayza tribe who inhabited the Ad-Diriya region in central Najd. By the mid-1780s, the Saudis had established themselves throughout Najd. They managed to unite part of the tribes of central and eastern Arabia into a religious and political confederation, the purpose of which was to spread the Wahhabi teachings and the power of the Nejd emirs to the territory of the entire Arabian Peninsula. After the death of al-Wahhab (1792), Ibn Saud's son, Emir Abdel Aziz I ibn Muhammad al-Saud (1765–1803), assumed the title of imam, which meant the unification of both secular and spiritual power in his hands. Relying on the alliance of the Wahhabi tribes, he raised the banner of the "holy war", demanding from the neighboring sheikhs and sultanates the recognition of the Wahhabi doctrine and joint action against the Ottoman Empire. Having formed a large army (up to 100 thousand people), Abdel Aziz in 1786 set about conquering neighboring lands. In 1793, the Wahhabis captured El-Khasa, stormed El-Katif, where they finally fortified by 1795. An attempt by the Ottoman Empire to restore its power over El-Khasa failed (1798). Simultaneously with the struggle for the Persian Gulf region, the Wahhabis launched an offensive on the Red Sea coast, raiding the outskirts of Hijaz and Yemen and capturing oases located along the borders. By 1803, almost the entire coast of the Persian Gulf and the islands adjacent to it (including Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and most of Oman and Muscat) were subjugated by the Wahhabis. In the south, Asir (1802) and Abu Arish (1803) were conquered. In 1801 Abdulaziz's armies invaded Iraq and ravaged the Shiite holy city of Karbala. After killing over 4,000 citizens and taking the treasure, they retreated back into the desert. The expedition sent after them to Arabia was defeated. Attacks on the cities of Mesopotamia and Syria continued until 1812, but outside the Arabian Peninsula, the teachings of al-Wahhab did not find support among the local population. The destruction of the cities in Iraq restored the entire Shiite community against the Wahhabis. In 1803, as a sign of revenge for the desecration of the shrines of Karbala, Abdel Aziz was killed by a Shiite right in the Ad-Diriya mosque. But even under his heir, Emir Saud I ibn Abdul Aziz (1803-1814), Wahhabi expansion continued with renewed vigor. In April 1803, Mecca was taken by the Wahhabis, a year later - Medina, and by 1806 the entire Hijaz was subjugated.

From the end of the 18th century the frequent Wahhabi raids began to worry the rulers of the Ottoman Empire more and more. With the capture of the Hejaz by the Wahhabis, the power of the Saudis extended to the holy cities of Islam - Mecca and Medina. Almost the entire territory of the Arabian Peninsula was included in the Wahhabi state. Saud was given the title "Khadim al-Haramain" ("servant of the holy cities"), which gave him the opportunity to claim supremacy in the Muslim world. The loss of the Hejaz was a serious blow to the prestige of the Ottoman Empire, whose clergy issued a fatwa, an official religious edict, outlawing the followers of al-Wahhab. The army of the Egyptian ruler (wali) Muhammad Ali was sent to suppress the Wahhabis. However, in December 1811 the Egyptian army was completely defeated. Despite the first defeat and the desperate resistance of the Wahhabis, the Egyptians took Medina in November 1812, and in January of the following year, Mecca, Taif and Jeddah. They restored the annual pilgrimage to the holy places, which had been banned by the Wahhabis, and returned control of the Hijaz to the Hashemites. After the death of Saud in May 1814, his son Abdullah ibn Saud ibn Abdel Aziz became the emir of Nejd. In early 1815, the Egyptians inflicted a series of heavy defeats on the Wahhabist forces. The Wahhabis were defeated in Hijaz, Asir and in strategically important areas between Hijaz and Najd. However, in May 1815, Muhammad Ali had to urgently leave Arabia. Peace was signed in the spring of 1815. Under the terms of the agreement, the Hijaz came under the control of the Egyptians, and the Wahhabis retained only the regions of Central and North-Eastern Arabia. Emir Abdullah promised to obey the Egyptian governor of Medina, and also recognized himself as a vassal of the Turkish Sultan. He also pledged to secure the Hajj and return the treasures stolen by the Wahhabis in Mecca. But the truce was short-lived, and in 1816 the war resumed. In 1817, as a result of a successful offensive, the Egyptians took the fortified settlements of Er-Rass, Buraida and Unayza. The commander of the Egyptian forces, Ibrahim Pasha, having enlisted the support of most of the tribes, in early 1818 invaded Najd and in April 1818 laid siege to Ed-Diriya. After a five-month siege, the city fell (September 15, 1818). The last ruler of Ed-Diriya, Abdullah ibn Saud, surrendered to the mercy of the victors, was sent first to Cairo, then to Istanbul, and was publicly executed there. Other Saudis were taken to Egypt. Ed-Diriya was destroyed. Fortifications were demolished in all the cities of Najd and Egyptian garrisons were placed. In 1819, the entire territory that previously belonged to the Saudis was annexed to the possessions of the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali.

The second Saudi state. However, the Egyptian occupation lasted only a few years. The dissatisfaction of the indigenous population with the Egyptians contributed to the revival of the Wahhabi movement. In 1820, an uprising broke out in Ad-Diriya, led by Misrahi ibn Saud, one of the relatives of the executed emir. Although it was suppressed, a year later, the Wahhabis again managed to recover from the defeat and, under the leadership of Imam Turki ibn Abdallah (1822–1834), the grandson of Muhammad ibn Saud and cousin of Abdullah, who returned from exile, restored the Saudi state. From the destroyed Ed-Diriya, their capital was moved to Riyadh (c. 1822). In an effort to maintain friendly relations with the Ottoman rulers of Iraq, Turki recognized the nominal suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. The Egyptian troops sent against the Wahhabis perished from hunger, thirst, epidemics and partisan raids. The Egyptian garrisons remained in Qasim and Shammar, but they were driven out from there in 1827. Having broken the resistance of the recalcitrant Bedouin tribes, the Wahhabis recaptured the coast of El-Khasa by 1830 and forced the sheikhs of Bahrain to pay tribute to them. Three years later, they subjugated the entire coast of the Persian Gulf south of El Qatif, including part of the territory of Oman and Muscat. Under the control of Egypt, only Hijaz remained, which was transformed into an Egyptian province headed by a governor. Despite the loss of central and eastern Arabia, the Egyptians continued to influence the political life of these areas. In 1831 they supported the claims to the Wahhabi throne of Mashari ibn Khalid, Turki's cousin. A long period of struggle for power began in the country. In 1834, Mashari, with the help of the Egyptians, took control of Riyadh, killed the Turki, and sat in his place. However, a month later, Faisal ibn Turki, relying on the support of the army, dealt with Mashari and became the new ruler of Najd (1834-1838, 1843-1865). This turn of events did not suit Muhammad Ali. The reason for the new war was Faisal's refusal to pay tribute to Egypt. In 1836, the Egyptian expeditionary army invaded Najd and a year later captured Riyadh; Faisal was captured and sent to Cairo, where he stayed until 1843. Khalid I ibn Saud (1838–1842), son of Saud and brother of Abdullah, who had previously been in Egyptian captivity, was put in his place. In 1840, Egyptian troops were withdrawn from the Arabian Peninsula, which was used by the Wahhabis, who expressed dissatisfaction with Khalid's pro-Egyptian course. In 1841, Abdullah ibn Tunayan declared himself the ruler of Nejd; Riyadh was captured by his supporters, the garrison was destroyed, and Khalid, who at that moment was in Al-Has, fled by ship to Jeddah. Abdullah's reign also proved short-lived. In 1843, he was overthrown by Faisal ibn Turki, who returned from captivity. In a relatively short time, Faisal managed to restore the virtually collapsed emirate. Over the next three decades, the Wahhabi Najd again began to play a leading role in the political life of central and eastern Arabia. During this period, the Wahhabis twice (1851-1852, 1859) tried to establish their control over Bahrain, Qatar, the Treaty Coast and the hinterland of Oman. For a short moment, the Saudi dominion again extended over a large area from Jabal Shammar in the north to the borders of Yemen in the south. Their further advance on the coast of the Persian Gulf was stopped only by the intervention of Great Britain. At the same time, the central government of Riyadh remained weak, vassal tribes often fought among themselves and raised uprisings.

After the death of Faisal (1865), intertribal struggle was supplemented by dynastic strife. Between the heirs of Faisal, who divided Nejd between his three sons, a fierce internecine struggle broke out for the "senior table". In April 1871, Abdullah III ibn Faisal (1865–1871), who ruled in Riyadh, was defeated by his half-brother Saud II (1871–1875). In the next five years, the throne changed hands at least 7 times. Each side created its own groupings, as a result of which the unity of the Wahhabi community was violated; tribal associations were no longer subordinate to the central authority. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, the Ottomans occupied Al-Hasa in 1871, and a year later - Asir. After the death of Saud (1875) and a brief period of chaos, Abdullah III (1875–1889) returned to Riyadh. He had to fight not only with his brother Abdarakhman, but also with the sons of Saud II.

Against the backdrop of this struggle, the Saudis were pushed into the shadows by the rival Rashidid dynasty, which ruled from 1835 the emirate of Jabel Shammar. For a long time, the Rashidids were considered vassals of the Saudis, but gradually, having taken control of the trade caravan routes, they gained power and independence. Pursuing a policy of religious tolerance, Shammar emir Mohammed ibn Rashid (1869-1897), nicknamed the Great, managed to put an end to dynastic civil strife in the North of Arabia and unite Jabel Shammar and Qasim under his rule. In 1876, he recognized himself as a vassal of the Turks and, with their help, began to fight against the emirs from the House of Saud. In 1887, Abdullah III, once again overthrown by his nephew Muhammad II, turned to Ibn Rashid for help. In the same year, the Rashidids took Riyadh, placing their own governor in the city. Being in fact as hostages in Hail, the representatives of the Saudi dynasty recognized themselves as vassals of Ibn Rashid and pledged to regularly pay tribute to him. In 1889, Abdullah, appointed governor of the city, and his brother Abdarahman were allowed to return to Riyadh. Abdullah, however, died the same year; he was replaced by Abdarakhman, who soon tried to restore the independence of Nejd. In the Battle of El Mulaid (1891), the Wahhabis and their allies were defeated. Abdarakhman fled with his family to Al-Khasa, and then to Kuwait, where he found refuge with the local ruler. Rashidid governors and representatives were appointed to the captured areas of Riyadh and Qasim. With the fall of Riyadh, Jabal Shammar became the only major state on the Arabian Peninsula. The possessions of the Rashidid emirs extended from the borders of Damascus and Basra in the north to Asir and Oman in the south.

Ibn Saud and the formation of Saudi Arabia. The power of the Saudi dynasty was restored by the emir Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud (full name Abd al-Aziz ibn Abdarahman ibn Faisal ibn Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Saud, later known as Ibn Saud), who returned in 1901 from exile and started a war against Rashidid dynasty. In January 1902, Ibn Saud, with the support of the ruler of Kuwait, Mubarak, with a small detachment of his supporters, captured Riyadh, the former capital of the Saudis. This victory allowed him to gain a foothold in Nejd and receive support from both religious leaders (who proclaimed him the new emir and imam) and local tribes. By the spring of 1904, Ibn Saud had regained his control over much of southern and central Najd. To fight the Wahhabis, the Rashidids in 1904 turned to the Ottoman Empire for help. Ottoman troops sent to Arabia forced Ibn Saud to go on the defensive for a short while, but were soon defeated and left the country. In 1905, the military successes of the Wahhabis forced the governor (wali) of the Ottoman Empire in Iraq to recognize Ibn Saud as his vassal in Najd. The possessions of Ibn Saud nominally became the district of the Ottoman vilayet of Basra. Left alone, the Rashidids continued to fight for some time. But in April 1906 their emir Abdel Aziz ibn Mitab al-Rashid (1897–1906) died in battle. His successor Mitab hastened to make peace and recognized the rights of the Saudis to Nejd and Qasim. Through an exchange of letters, the Turkish Sultan Abdul-Hamid confirmed this agreement. Ottoman troops were withdrawn from Qasim, and Ibn Saud became the sole ruler of central Arabia.

Like his ancestors, Ibn Saud sought to unite Arabia into a unitary theocratic state. This goal was facilitated not only by his military and diplomatic successes, but also by dynastic marriages, the appointment of relatives to responsible posts and the involvement of ulema in solving state problems. Unstable elements hindering the unity of Arabia remained the Bedouin tribes, who retained the tribal organization and did not recognize the state system. In an effort to achieve the loyalty of the largest tribes, Ibn Saud, on the advice of Wahhabi religious teachers, began to transfer them to settled life. To this end, in 1912, the military-religious brotherhood of the Ikhvans (Arabic for "brothers") was founded. All Bedouin tribes and oases who refused to join the Ikhwan movement and recognize Ibn Saud as their emir and imam, began to be seen as enemies of Nejd. Ikhvans were ordered to move to agricultural colonies (“hijras”), whose members were called to love their homeland, unquestioningly obey the imam-emir and not enter into any contacts with Europeans and residents of the countries they ruled (including Muslims). A mosque was erected in each Ikhwan community, which also served as a military garrison, and the Ikhwans themselves became not only farmers, but also warriors of the Saudi state. By 1915, more than 200 such settlements were organized throughout the country, including at least 60 thousand people who, at the first call of Ibn Saud, were ready to go to war with the "infidels."

With the help of the Ikhwans, Ibn Saud established complete control over Najd (1912), annexed Al-Khasa and the territories bordering Abu Dhabi and Muscat (1913). This allowed him to conclude in May 1914 a new agreement with the Ottoman Empire. In accordance with it, Ibn Saud became the governor (wali) of the newly formed province (vilayet) of Najd. Even earlier, Great Britain recognized Al-Khasa as the possessions of the Emir of Najd. Negotiations began between the two countries, which led to the fact that on December 26, 1915, an agreement on friendship and alliance was signed in Darin with the government of British India. Ibn Saud was recognized as the emir of Nejd, Qasim and Al-Khasa, independent of the Ottoman Empire, but pledged not to oppose England and coordinate his foreign policy with her, not to attack British possessions on the Arabian Peninsula, not to alienate his territory to third powers and not to enter into agreements with countries other than Great Britain, as well as again starting a war against the Rashidids, who were allies of the Ottoman Empire. For this concession, the Saudis received substantial military and financial assistance (in the amount of £60 per year). Despite the agreement, the Nejdi emirate did not take part in the First World War, limiting itself to spreading its influence in Arabia.

At the same time, as a result of a secret correspondence between the British High Commissioner in Egypt, McMahon, and the Grand Sheriff of Mecca, Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi, on October 24, 1915, an agreement was reached, according to which Hussein undertook to raise the Arabs to revolt against the Ottoman Empire. In exchange, Great Britain recognized the independence of the future Arab state of the Hashemites within its "natural borders" (part of Syria, Palestine, Iraq and the entire Arabian Peninsula, with the exception of the British protectorates and territories of Western Syria, Lebanon and Cilicia, which were claimed by France). In accordance with the agreement in June 1916, detachments of the Hijaz tribes, led by Hussein's son Faisal and the British colonel T.E. Lawrence, revolted. Assuming the title of king, Hussein declared the independence of the Hejaz from the Ottoman Empire. Using diplomatic recognition, on October 19, 1916, he proclaimed the independence of all Arabs from the Ottoman Empire and 10 days later took the title of "king of all Arabs." However, Great Britain and France, which secretly violated their obligations in the spring of 1916 (the Sykes-Picot agreement), recognized him only as the king of the Hijaz. By July 1917, the Arabs cleared the Hejaz from the Turks and occupied the port of Aqaba. At the final stage of the war, detachments under the command of Faisal and T.E. Lawrence took Damascus (September 30, 1918). As a result of the Truce of Mudros, concluded on October 30, 1918, the rule of the Ottoman Empire in the Arab countries was eliminated. The process of separation of the Hejaz (and other Arab possessions) from Turkey was finally completed in 1921 at a conference in Cairo.

After the end of the First World War, the activity of the Ikhwan movement on the borders of Najd led to clashes between the Saudis and most of the neighboring states. In 1919, in a battle near the city of Turab, located on the border between Hijaz and Nejd, the Ikhwans completely destroyed the royal army of Hussein ibn Ali. The losses were so great that the sheriff of Mecca had no strength left to defend the Hijaz. In August 1920, Saudi troops led by Prince Faisal ibn Abdulaziz al-Saud occupied Upper Asir; the emirate was declared a protectorate of Nejd (finally annexed in 1923). In the same year, the city of Hail, the capital of Jabal Shammar, fell under the blows of the Ikhwans. With the defeat in the following year of the forces of Muhammad ibn Talal, the last Rashidid emir, Jabal Shammar was annexed to the dominions of the Saudis. August 22, 1921 Ibn Saud was proclaimed the Sultan of Najd and dependent territories. In the next two years, Ibn Saud annexed al-Jawf and Wadi al-Sirhan, extending his authority over all of northern Arabia.

Encouraged by their successes, the Ikhwans continued their advance north, invading the border regions of Iraq, Kuwait, and Transjordan. Not wanting to strengthen the Saudis, Great Britain supported the sons of Hussein - King Faisal of Iraq and Emir of Transjordan Abdullah. The Wahhabis were defeated by signing the so-called Uqair on May 5, 1922. the "Muhammar Agreement" to demarcate the borders with Iraq and Kuwait; neutral zones were established in the disputed areas. A conference convened the following year by the British government to settle disputed territorial issues with the participation of the rulers of Iraq, Transjordan, Nejd and Hijaz ended without results. With the conquest of small principalities in the north and south, Saudi possessions doubled.

The adoption by King Hussein of the title of caliph of all Muslims led in 1924 to a new conflict between Nejd and Hijaz. Accusing Hussein of apostasy from Islamic tradition, Ibn Saud in June 1924 appealed to Muslims not to recognize him as caliph and convened a conference of ulema, at which a decision was made to wage war against the Hijaz. In August of the same year, the Ikhwans invaded the Hijaz and captured Mecca in October. Hussein was forced to abdicate in favor of his son Ali and flee to Cyprus. The Wahhabi offensive was continued the following year. Territorial concessions to Transjordan, as well as the aggravation of relations between King Hussein and England on the issue of belonging to Palestine, made it possible for Ibn Saud to achieve victory over Hijaz relatively easily. In December 1925, Saudi troops took Jeddah and Medina, after which Ali also abdicated. This event marked the fall of the Hashemite dynasty in Arabia.

As a result of the war, Hijaz was annexed to Najd. On January 8, 1926, at the Grand Mosque of Mecca, Ibn Saud was proclaimed the King of Hijaz and the Sultan of Najd (the Saudi state was named "The Kingdom of Hijaz, the Sultanate of Najd and the annexed areas"). On February 16, 1926, the Soviet Union was the first to recognize the new state and established diplomatic and trade relations with it. Hijaz, which was granted a constitution (1926), received autonomy within the united state; the son of Ibn Saud was appointed his viceroy (vice-king), under which a Consultative Assembly was created, appointed by him on the proposal of the "eminent citizens" of Mecca. The assembly considered bills and other issues that the governor put before him, but all his decisions were advisory in nature.

In October 1926, the Saudis established their protectorate over Lower Asir (the conquest of Asir was finally completed in November 1930). On January 29, 1927, Ibn Saud was proclaimed the king of Hijaz, Najd and the annexed regions (the state received the name "Kingdom of Hijaz and Najd and the annexed regions"). In May 1927 London was forced to recognize the independence of Hijaz-Najd; Ibn Saud, for his part, recognized the "special relations" of the sheikhs of Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and Treaty Oman with Great Britain (G. Clayton's treaty).

With the conquest of the Hijaz and the introduction of a new tax on pilgrims, the Hajj became the main source of revenue for the treasury (in the rest of the kingdom, except for the Hijaz, taxes were levied "in kind"). In order to promote the development of the Hajj, Ibn Saud took steps to normalize relations with the Western powers and their allies in the Arab countries. However, along this path, Ibn Saud encountered internal opposition in the person of the Ikhwans. The modernization of the country according to the Western model (the spread of such “innovations” as telephones, cars, the telegraph, sending the son of Saud Faisal to the “country of unbelievers” - Egypt) they regarded as a betrayal of the basic principles of Islam. The crisis in camel breeding, caused by the import of cars, further increased discontent among the Bedouins.

By 1926 the Ikhwan had become uncontrollable. Their raids on Iraq and Transjordan, announced as part of the fight against the "infidels", became a serious diplomatic problem for Najd and Hijaz. In response to the resumption of Ikhwan raids on the border areas of Iraq, Iraqi troops occupied the neutral zone, which led to a new war between the Hashemite and Saudi dynasties (1927). Only after the bombing of British aircraft on the troops of Ibn Saud, hostilities between the two states were stopped. Iraq withdrew its troops from the neutral zone (1928). On February 22, 1930, Ibn Saud made peace with King Faisal of Iraq (son of the former emir Hejaz Hussein), ending the Saudi-Hashimi dynastic feud in the Arabian Peninsula (1919–1930).

In 1928 the leaders of the Ikhwans, accusing Ibn Saud of betraying the cause for which they were fighting, openly challenged the authority of the monarch. However, the majority of the population rallied around the king, which gave him the opportunity to quickly put down the uprising. In October 1928, a peace agreement was concluded between the king and the rebel leaders. But the massacre of merchants in Nejd forced Ibn Saud to undertake a new military operation against the Ikhwans (1929). The actions of Ibn Saud were approved by the Ulema Council, which believed that only the king had the right to declare a "holy war" (jihad) and govern the state. After receiving a religious blessing from the ulema, Ibn Saud formed a small army from among the tribes and urban population loyal to him and inflicted a series of defeats on the Bedouin rebel factions. The civil war, however, continued until 1930, when the rebels were surrounded by the British in Kuwaiti territory, and their leaders were handed over to Ibn Saud. With the defeat of the Ikhwans, tribal associations lost their role as the main military support of Ibn Saud. During the civil war, the rebellious sheikhs and their squads were completely destroyed. This victory was the final stage on the way to the creation of a single centralized state.

Saudi Arabia in 1932-1953. On September 22, 1932, Ibn Saud changed the name of his state to a new one - the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This was supposed not only to strengthen the unity of the kingdom and put an end to Hijaz separatism, but also to emphasize the central role of the royal house in the creation of the Arabian centralized state. During the entire subsequent period of Ibn Saud's reign, internal problems did not present any particular difficulties for him. At the same time, the external relations of the kingdom developed ambiguously. The policy of religious intolerance led to the alienation of Saudi Arabia from the majority of Muslim governments, who considered the Saudi regime hostile and resented the complete control established by the Wahhabis over the holy cities and the Hajj. Border problems persisted in many places, especially in the south of the country. In 1932, with the support of Yemen, Emir Asir Hassan Idrisi, who in 1930 renounced his own sovereignty in favor of Ibn Saud, raised a rebellion against Saudi Arabia. His speech was quickly suppressed. In early 1934, there was an armed clash between Yemen and Saudi Arabia over the disputed region of Najran. In just a month and a half, Yemen was defeated and almost completely occupied by Saudi troops. The final annexation of Yemen was prevented only by the intervention of Great Britain and Italy, who saw this as a threat to their colonial interests. Hostilities were terminated after the signing of the Taif Treaty (June 23, 1934), according to which Saudi Arabia achieved recognition by the government of Yemen of joining Asir, Jizan and part of Najran. The final demarcation of the border with Yemen was carried out in 1936.

Border problems also occurred in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula after Ibn Saud in 1933 granted an oil concession to Standard Oil of California (SOKAL). Negotiations with Great Britain over the demarcation of borders with neighboring British protectorates and possessions - Qatar, Trucial Oman, Muscat and Oman and the Eastern Protectorate of Aden ended in failure.

Despite the mutual hostility that existed between the Saudi and Hashemite dynasties, in 1933 an agreement was signed with Transjordan, which put an end to years of tense enmity between the Saudis and the Hashemites. In 1936, Saudi Arabia took steps towards normalizing relations with a number of neighboring states. A non-aggression pact was signed with Iraq. In the same year, diplomatic relations with Egypt, which had been severed in 1926, were restored.

In May 1933, due to the reduction in the number of pilgrims in Mecca and tax revenues from the Hajj, Ibn Saud was forced to grant a concession for oil exploration in Saudi Arabia to Standard Oil of California (SOKAL). In March 1938, the California Arabian Standard Oil Company (CASOC, a subsidiary of the Standard Oil of California) discovered oil in El Has. Under these conditions, KASOK achieved in May 1939 a concession for the exploration and production of oil in a large part of the country's territory (commercial production began in 1938).

The outbreak of World War II prevented the full-scale development of the Al-Hasa oil fields, however, part of the loss of Ibn Saud's income was offset by British and then American aid. During the war, Saudi Arabia severed diplomatic relations with Nazi Germany (1941) and Italy (1942), but remained neutral until almost the end of the war (officially declared war on Germany and Japan on February 28, 1945). At the end of the war and especially after it, American influence increased in Saudi Arabia. In 1943, the United States established diplomatic relations with Saudi Arabia and extended the lend-lease law to it. In early February 1944, American oil companies began building a trans-Arabian oil pipeline from Dhahran to the Lebanese port of Saida. At the same time, the government of Saudi Arabia allowed the construction of a large American air base in Dhahran, which the United States needed for the war against Japan. In February 1945, US President Franklin Roosevelt and King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia signed an agreement on the US monopoly on the development of Saudi deposits.

Oil production, which increased significantly at the end of the war, contributed to the formation of the working class. In 1945, the first strike took place at the enterprises of the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO, until 1944 - CASOC). The board of the company was forced to satisfy the basic demands of the workers (increasing wages, reducing working hours and providing annual paid leave). As a result of new strikes in 1946–1947, the government adopted a labor law (1947), according to which a 6-day working week with an 8-hour working day was introduced at all enterprises in the country.

The development of the oil industry was the reason for the folding of the administrative management system. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the ministries of finance, internal affairs, defense, education, agriculture, communications, foreign affairs, etc. were created (1953).

In 1951, an agreement "on mutual defense and mutual assistance" was signed between the United States and Saudi Arabia. The United States received the right to further build an air force base in Dhahran (in Al-Khas), where the headquarters of ARAMCO was located. In the same 1951, a new concession agreement was signed with ARAMCO, according to which the company switched to the principle of "equal distribution of profits", deducting half of all its oil revenues to the kingdom.

Based on significantly increased resources, Ibn Saud again put forward territorial claims against the British protectorates of Qatar, Abu Dhabi and Muscat. In the disputed territories, ARAMCO search parties began to conduct survey work. After unsuccessful negotiations with Great Britain, the military forces of Saudi Arabia occupied the oasis of Al Buraimi, which belonged to Abu Dhabi (1952).

Saudi Arabia under Saud. In full scale, the changes caused by huge revenues from oil exports manifested themselves already during the reign of Ibn Saud's successor, his second son Saud ibn Abdul Aziz, who ascended the throne in November 1953. In October 1953, the Council of Ministers headed by Saud was established. That same month, the government cracked down on a massive strike involving 20,000 ARAMCO oil workers. The new king issued laws that prohibited strikes and demonstrations and provided for the most severe punishments (up to the death penalty) for speaking out against the royal regime.

In 1954, an agreement was reached between Saud and Onassis to create an independent oil transportation company, but ARAMCO, with the help of the US State Department, thwarted the deal.

Relations with neighboring states during this period remained uneven. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, relations between Saudi Arabia and a number of neighboring states improved somewhat, which was the result of the formation of the state of Israel and the hostile attitude towards it from the Arab countries. In foreign policy, Saud followed the precepts of his father and, together with Egyptian President Nasser, supported the slogan of Arab unity. Saudi Arabia opposed the creation of the "Middle East Cooperation Organization" (METO), formed by Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Great Britain (1955). On October 27, 1955, Saudi Arabia concluded a defensive alliance agreement with Egypt and Syria. That same month, British forces from Abu Dhabi and Muscat regained control of the oasis of Al Buraimi, which had been captured by the Saudi Arabian police in 1952. An attempt by Saudi Arabia to seek UN support failed. In 1956, an additional agreement was signed in Jeddah with Egypt and Yemen on a military alliance for 5 years. During the Suez Crisis (1956), Saudi Arabia took the side of Egypt, providing a loan of 10 million dollars, and sent its troops to Jordan. November 6, 1956 Saud announced the severance of diplomatic relations with Britain and France and the introduction of an oil embargo.

In 1956, a strike of Arab workers at ARAMCO enterprises and student unrest in Najd were brutally suppressed. Saud issued a royal decree in June 1956 banning strikes under threat of dismissal.

A turn in Saudi foreign policy began in 1957 after Saud's visit to the United States. Taking a sharply negative stance towards pan-Arabism and Nasser's social reform program, Saud reached an agreement in March 1957 with the Hashemite rulers of Jordan and Iraq. Islamists who emigrated from Egypt under pressure from Nasser found refuge in the country. In February 1958, Saudi Arabia opposed the formation by Egypt and Syria of a new state - the United Arab Republic (UAR). A month later, official Damascus accused King Saud of being involved in a plot to overthrow the Syrian government and preparing an assassination attempt on the Egyptian president. In the same 1958, relations with Iraq were practically interrupted.

Saud's huge expenses for personal needs, maintenance of the court, bribery of tribal leaders significantly undermined the Saudi economy. Despite annual oil revenues, by 1958 the country's debt had grown to $300 million, and the Saudi riyal devalued by 80%. Inefficient financial management of the kingdom and inconsistent domestic and foreign policy, the systematic intervention of the Saud in the internal affairs of other Arab countries led in 1958 to a crisis in public administration. Under pressure from members of the royal family, Saud was forced in March 1958 to transfer full executive and legislative power to the prime minister, who was appointed by his younger brother Faisal. In May 1958, the reform of the state apparatus was launched. A permanent Council of Ministers was formed, the composition of which was appointed by the head of government. The cabinet was responsible to the prime minister, the king retained only the right to sign decrees and veto. In parallel, the financial control of the government over all the income of the kingdom was established, and the expenses of the royal court were also significantly cut. As a result of the measures taken, the government managed to balance the budget, stabilize the exchange rate of the national currency and reduce the state's internal debt. However, the struggle within the ruling house continued.

Relying on the tribal aristocracy and a group of liberal-minded members of the royal family, headed by Prince Talal ibn Abdulaziz, Saud in December 1960 regained direct control over the government and again took over as prime minister. Along with the sons of Saud, Talal and his supporters were included in the new cabinet, who advocated political reforms, general parliamentary elections and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.

During this period, political associations arise that advocate the democratization of public life, the creation of a responsible government, the development of national industry and the use of the country's wealth in the interests of the entire population: the Freedom Movement in Saudi Arabia, the Liberal Party, the Reform Party, the Front of National reforms." However, the government failed to take any real steps towards reforming the regime. In protest against the continuation of the conservative traditionalist policy, Prince Talal resigned and in May 1962, together with a group of his supporters, fled to Lebanon, and then to Egypt. In the same year, in Cairo, he formed the Saudi Arabia National Liberation Front, which advocated radical socialist reforms in the country and the establishment of a republic. The flight of Talal, as well as the overthrow of the monarchy in neighboring Yemen and the proclamation of the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR) in September 1962, led to the rupture of diplomatic relations between Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Republic (UAR).

For the next five years, Saudi Arabia was effectively at war with Egypt and the YAR, providing direct military assistance to the deposed Imam of Yemen. The war in Yemen reached its climax in 1963, when Saudi Arabia, in connection with the threat of an Egyptian attack, announced the start of a general mobilization. The deterioration of relations between Saudi Arabia and Syria belongs to the same period, after the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (Baath) came to power in this country in March 1963.

Saudi Arabia under Faisal. In October 1962, due to the deteriorating economic situation in the country, the Cabinet of Ministers was again headed by Prince Faisal. He carried out a number of reforms in the economy, the social sphere and the field of education, which the liberals insisted on. The government abolished slavery and the slave trade (1962), nationalized the port of Jeddah, issued laws protecting the position of Saudi industrialists from foreign competition, provided them with loans, exempted them from taxes and duties on the import of industrial equipment. In 1962, the state company PETROMIN (General Directorate of Oil and Mining Resources) was established to control the activities of foreign companies, the extraction, transportation and marketing of all minerals, as well as the development of the oil refining industry. It was supposed to carry out other large-scale reforms in the field of public administration: the adoption of a constitution, the creation of local authorities and the formation of an independent judiciary headed by the Supreme Judicial Council, which includes representatives of secular and religious circles. Attempts by the opposition to influence the situation in the country were severely suppressed. In 1963–1964, anti-government demonstrations were suppressed in Hail and Najd. In 1964, conspiracies were uncovered in the Saudi army, which caused new repressions against "unreliable elements." Faisal's projects and the funds needed to modernize the armed forces fighting in North Yemen meant that the king's personal expenses had to be reduced. On March 28, 1964, by decree of the royal council and the council of the ulema, the powers of the king and his personal budget were cut (Crown Prince Faisal was declared regent, and Saud the nominal ruler). Saud, who regarded this as an act of arbitrariness, tried to win the support of influential circles in order to regain power, but failed. On November 2, 1964, Saud was deposed by members of the royal family, whose decision was confirmed by a fatwa (religious decree) of the Ulema Council. November 4, 1964 Saud signed the abdication and in January 1965 went into exile in Europe. This decision ended a decade of internal and external instability and further consolidated conservative forces at home. Faisal ibn al-Aziz al-Faisal al-Saud was proclaimed the new king, retaining the post of prime minister. In March 1965, he appointed his half-brother, Prince Khalid ibn Abdulaziz al-Saud, as the new heir.

Faisal declared his first priority the modernization of the kingdom. His first decrees were aimed at protecting the state and the nation from potential internal and external threats that could interfere with the development of the kingdom. Cautiously but decisively, Faisal followed the path of introducing Western technologies in industry and the social sphere. Under him, the reform of the education and health systems was developed, and national television appeared. After the death of the Grand Mufti in 1969, a reform of religious institutions was carried out, a system of religious bodies controlled by the king was created (Council of the Assembly of Leading Ulemas, the Supreme Qadi Council, the Administration of Scientific (Religious) Research, Decision-Making (Fatwas), Propaganda and Leadership, etc.).

In foreign policy, Faisal made great progress in resolving border disputes. In August 1965, a final agreement was reached on the demarcation of the borders between Saudi Arabia and Jordan. In the same year, Saudi Arabia agreed on the future contours of the border with Qatar. In December 1965, an agreement was signed on the delimitation of the continental shelf between Saudi Arabia and Bahrain on joint rights to the offshore Abu Saafa field. In October 1968, a similar agreement was signed on the continental shelf with Iran.

In 1965, Saudi Arabia and Egypt organized a meeting of representatives of the Yemeni opposing sides, at which an agreement was reached between Egyptian President Nasser and King Faisal of Saudi Arabia to end foreign military interference in the affairs of the YAR. However, hostilities soon resumed with renewed vigor. Egypt has accused Saudi Arabia of continuing to provide military assistance to supporters of the ousted Yemeni imam, and announced the suspension of the withdrawal of its troops from the country. Egyptian aircraft attacked the bases of the Yemeni monarchists in southern Saudi Arabia. Faisal's government responded by closing several Egyptian banks, after which Egypt proceeded to confiscate all property owned by Saudi Arabia in Egypt. In Saudi Arabia itself, a number of terrorist attacks have been carried out against the royal family and citizens of the United States and Great Britain. 17 Yemenis were publicly executed on charges of sabotage. The number of political prisoners in the country in 1967 reached 30,000.

The sympathy that Faisal might have felt for King Hussein of Jordan as his fellow monarch, as well as an opponent of all kinds of revolutions, Marxism and republican sentiment, was overshadowed by the traditional rivalry between the Saudis and the Hashemites. Nevertheless, in August 1965, a 40-year-old dispute between Saudi Arabia and Jordan over the border was resolved: Saudi Arabia recognized Jordan's claims to the port city of Aqaba.

Egyptian and Saudi differences were not resolved until the Khartoum Conference of Arab Heads of State in August 1967. This was preceded by the third Arab-Israeli war ("Six-Day War", 1967), during which the government of Saudi Arabia declared its support for Egypt and sent its own military units (20 thousand soldiers, who, however, did not take part in the hostilities). Along with this, the Faisal government resorted to economic leverage: an embargo was announced on oil exports to the United States and Great Britain. However, the embargo did not last long. At the Khartoum Conference, the heads of government of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia decided to allocate £135 million annually to the “victim states of aggression” (UAR, Jordan). Art. to restore their economy. At the same time, the embargo on oil exports was also lifted. In exchange for economic assistance, Egypt agreed to withdraw its troops from North Yemen. The civil war in the YAR continued until 1970, when Saudi Arabia recognized the republican government, withdrew all its troops from the country and stopped military assistance to the monarchists.

With the end of the civil war in YAR, Saudi Arabia faced a new external threat - the revolutionary regime in the People's Republic of South Yemen (PRSY). King Faisal provided support to groups of the South Yemeni opposition that fled after 1967 to the YAR and Saudi Arabia. At the end of 1969, armed clashes erupted between the PRJ and Saudi Arabia over the oasis of Al-Wadeyah. The reason for the aggravation of the crisis was the alleged oil and water reserves in the region.

In the same year, an attempted coup d'état prepared by Air Force officers was prevented by the authorities; about 300 people were arrested and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment. High wages and privileges eased the discontent in the officer corps.

In 1970, Shiite unrest again occurred in Qatif, which were so serious that the city was blockaded for a month.

The Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation concluded between the USSR and Iraq in 1972 reinforced Faisal's fears and prompted him to try to unite neighboring countries into a coalition to fight the "communist threat".

New disputes with neighbors were caused by the formation in 1971 of the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Setting a condition for its recognition of the solution of the issue of al-Buraimi, Saudi Arabia refused to recognize the new state. Only in August 1974, after lengthy negotiations, was it possible to remove most of the questions on the oasis of El Buraimi. As a result of the agreement, Saudi Arabia recognized the rights of Abu Dhabi and Oman to the oasis, and in turn received the territory of Sabha Bita in the southern part of Abu Dhabi, two small islands and the right to build a road and an oil pipeline through Abu Dhabi to the Gulf coast.

During the Arab-Israeli war of 1973, Saudi Arabia sent small military units to participate in military operations on the Syrian and Egyptian fronts. At the end of the war, the country provided gratuitous financial assistance to Egypt and Syria, reduced oil production and its supply to countries that supported Israel in October-December, established a (temporary) embargo on oil exports to the United States and the Netherlands in order to force them to change their policy in the Arab world. Israeli conflict. The oil embargo and the 4-fold increase in oil prices contributed to the strengthening of the economy of the Arab oil-producing states. With the signing of truce agreements between Israel, Egypt and Syria in 1974 (both mediated by US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger) and the visit to Saudi Arabia (June 1974) of US President Richard M. Nixon, relations between Saudi Arabia and the United States were normalized. The country has made efforts to reduce the growth of world oil prices.

Saudi Arabia under Khaled (1975–1982). On March 25, 1975, King Faisal was assassinated by one of his nephews, Prince Faisal ibn Musaid, who returned to the country after studying at an American university. The killer was arrested, declared mentally ill and sentenced to death by decapitation. The king's brother, Khaled ibn Abdulaziz al-Saud (1913–1982), ascended the throne. Due to Khalid's failing health, virtually all executive power was transferred to Crown Prince Fahd ibn Abdulaziz al-Saud. The new government continued Faisal's conservative policies, increasing spending on the development of transport, industry and education. Thanks to huge oil revenues and its military-strategic position, the role of the kingdom in regional politics and international economic and financial issues has increased. The treaty concluded in 1977 between King Khaled and US President Ford further strengthened US-Saudi relations. At the same time, the Saudi government condemned the peace agreements between Israel and Egypt, concluded in 1978-1979, and broke off diplomatic relations with Egypt (restored in 1987).

Saudi Arabia was influenced by the rising tide of Islamic fundamentalism that followed the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1978-1979. In 1978, large anti-government demonstrations again took place in Qatif, accompanied by arrests and executions. The tension in Saudi society was openly manifested in November 1979, when armed Muslim oppositionists led by Juhayman al-Oteibi captured the al-Haram mosque in Mecca, one of the Muslim shrines. The rebels were supported by part of the local population, as well as hired workers and students of some religious educational institutions. The rebels accused the ruling regime of corruption, deviation from the original principles of Islam and the spread of the Western way of life. The mosque was liberated by Saudi forces after two weeks of fighting that killed more than 300 people. The capture of the Great Mosque and the victory of the Islamic revolution in Iran provoked new actions of Shiite dissidents, also suppressed by the troops and the National Guard. In response to these speeches, Crown Prince Fahd announced in early 1980 plans to create an Advisory Council, which, however, was only formed in 1993, and to modernize the administration in the Eastern Province.

To provide external protection for its allies, the United States agreed in 1981 to sell several AWACS airborne tracking systems to Saudi Arabia, which caused a backlash in Israel, which feared the military balance in the Middle East. In the same year, Saudi Arabia took part in the establishment of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), a group of six Arabian Gulf states.

On the other hand, in an effort to counter internal threats from religious extremists, the government of Saudi Arabia began to actively assist Islamist movements in various regions of the world, and above all, in Afghanistan. This policy coincided with a sharp increase in oil export revenues - between 1973 and 1978, Saudi Arabia's annual profits rose from $4.3 billion to $34.5 billion.

Modern Saudi Arabia. In June 1982, King Khaled died and Fahd became king and prime minister. Another brother, Prince Abdullah, commander of the Saudi National Guard, was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. King Fahd's brother, Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (b. 1928), minister of defense and aviation, became second deputy prime minister. Under King Fahd, the Saudi economy was in serious trouble. The decline in world demand and oil prices that began in 1981 led to a reduction in Saudi oil production from 9 million barrels per day in 1980 to 2.3 million barrels in 1985; revenues from oil exports fell from $101 billion to $22 billion. The balance of payments deficit in 1985 amounted to $20 billion, and foreign exchange reserves also declined. All this led to the aggravation of many internal political, social and religious contradictions fueled by the tense foreign political situation in the region.

During the Iran-Iraq war, during which Saudi Arabia economically and politically supported the Iraqi government, Ayatollah Khomeini's followers repeatedly organized riots in an attempt to disrupt the annual hajj to Mecca. Saudi Arabia's tough security measures have usually prevented major incidents. In response to the unrest of Iranian pilgrims that took place in Mecca in March 1987, the country's government decided to reduce their number to 45 thousand people a year. This caused an extremely negative reaction from the Iranian leadership. In July 1987, about 25,000 Iranian pilgrims attempted to block the entrance to the Haram Mosque (Beit Ullah), fighting with security forces. More than 400 people died as a result of the riots. Khomeini called for the overthrow of the Saudi royal house to avenge the death of the pilgrims. The Saudi government has accused Iran of organizing riots in support of its demand for the extraterritoriality of Mecca and Medina. This incident, along with Iranian air raids on Saudi oil tankers in the Persian Gulf in 1984, forced Saudi Arabia to break off diplomatic relations with Iran. Numerous terrorist attacks have been carried out against Saudi agencies abroad, most notably the offices of the national airline, Saudi Arabia. Responsibility for the killings of Saudi diplomats was claimed by the Shia groups "Party of God in Hijaz", "Faithful Soldiers" and "Generation of Arab Anger". Several Saudi Shiites were convicted and executed for bombing Saudi oil facilities in 1988. In 1989, Saudi Arabia accused Iran of being involved in two terrorist attacks during the 1989 Hajj. In 1990, 16 Kuwaiti Shiites were executed for committing terrorist attacks. During 1988–1991, Iranians did not participate in the Hajj. Normalization of relations with Iran occurred after the death of Khomeini in 1989. In 1991, the Saudis approved a quota of 115,000 Iranian pilgrims and allowed political demonstrations in Mecca. During the Hajj in 1990, more than 1,400 pilgrims were trampled to death or suffocated in the underground tunnel that connects Mecca with one of the sanctuaries. The incident, however, was not related to Iran.

The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 had significant military, political and economic consequences for Saudi Arabia. Having completed the occupation of Kuwait, Iraqi troops began to concentrate on the border with Saudi Arabia. To counter the Iraqi military threat, Saudi Arabia has mobilized and turned to the United States for military assistance. The Fahd government allowed the temporary deployment of thousands of US and allied military forces to Saudi territory. At the same time, the country hosted approx. 400 thousand refugees from Kuwait. During this period, in order to compensate for the loss of oil supplies from Iraq and Kuwait, Saudi Arabia increased its own oil production many times over. During the Gulf War, King Fahd personally played a huge role, by his influence he convinced many Arab states to join the anti-Iraq coalition. During the Persian Gulf War (1991), the territory of Saudi Arabia was repeatedly bombarded by Iraq. At the end of January 1991, the Saudi cities of Wafra and Khafji were captured by Iraqi units. The battles for these cities were called the largest battle in the history of the country with enemy forces. Saudi forces participated in other combat operations, including the liberation of Kuwait.

After the Gulf War, the government of Saudi Arabia came under intense pressure from Islamic radicals who demanded political reforms, strict adherence to Sharia law, and the withdrawal of Western troops, especially American ones, from the sacred land of Arabia. Petitions were sent to King Fahd calling for increased government powers, greater public participation in political life, and greater economic justice. Following these actions, the creation in May 1993 of the "Committee for the Protection of Legal Rights" followed. However, the government soon banned this organization, dozens of its members were arrested, and King Fahd demanded that the Islamists stop their anti-government agitation.

Pressure from liberals and conservatives forced King Fahd to embark on political reforms. On February 29, 1992, at an official meeting of the government, three royal decrees were adopted (“Fundamentals of the system of power”, “Regulations on the Advisory Council” and “The system of territorial structure”), which fixed the general principles of the state structure and government of the country. In addition to them, in September 1993, the King adopted the "Act of the establishment of the Consultative Council", according to which the members of the Consultative Council were appointed and its powers were explained. In December 1993, the first meeting of the Advisory Council took place. In the same year, the reform of the Council of Ministers and the administrative reform were announced. By royal decree, the country was divided into 13 provinces, headed by emirs appointed by the king. In the same 1993, the members of 13 provincial councils and the principles of their activities were announced. In 1994, the provinces, in turn, were divided into 103 districts.

In October 1994, as a counterbalance to the Ulema Council, an advisory body of extremely conservative theologians, the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs was formed, consisting of members of the royal family and members appointed by the king (headed by Minister of Defense Sultan), as well as the Council for Islamic Requests and Leadership (led by the Minister of Islamic Affairs, Abdullah al-Turki).

The war with Iraq had a serious impact on the country's economy. The economic problems became apparent in 1993 when the US insisted that Saudi Arabia pay for US expenses during the Gulf War. According to experts, this war cost the country $70 billion. Low oil prices did not allow Saudi Arabia to compensate for financial losses. Budget deficits and declining oil prices in the 1980s forced the Saudi government to cut social spending and reduce the kingdom's foreign investment. Despite its own economic difficulties, Saudi Arabia thwarted Iranian plans to artificially raise the price of oil in March 1994.

War on terrorism. However, attempts at structural reforms have not been able to resolve the contradictions that have been brewing in Saudi society. Coalition troops were withdrawn from Saudi Arabia at the end of 1991; about 6 thousand American soldiers remained in the country. Their stay on Saudi soil was in blatant contradiction with the tenets of Wahhabism. In November 1995, the first terrorist attack against American citizens took place in Riyadh - a bomb exploded in a car parked outside the building of the Saudi National Guard Program Office; 7 people were killed and 42 wounded. In June 1996, after the execution of 4 Islamists who organized the explosion, a new attack followed. June 25, 1996 near the US military base in Dhahran, a mined fuel truck was blown up. The explosion killed 19 American servicemen and injured 515 people, incl. 240 US citizens. The Movement for Islamic Change in the Arab Peninsula - Jihad Wing, as well as two previously unknown groups, the Gulf Tigers and the Fighting Defenders of Allah, claimed responsibility for the attacks. While the Saudi government condemned the attacks, many prominent Saudis and religious groups have voiced their opposition to the US military presence in Saudi Arabia. In November 1996, 40 Saudis were accused of complicity in a terrorist attack after being imprisoned for several months. In December of the same year, the government approved additional security measures for American facilities in the country.

Relations between Saudi Arabia and the United States deteriorated further after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on New York and Washington. This was due to the fact that most of the participants in the attack (15 out of 19) were subjects of the Saudi kingdom. In September 2001, Saudi Arabia severed diplomatic relations with the Taliban Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. At the same time, the government of Saudi Arabia denied the United States the right to use the American military bases located on its territory for carrying out operations against terrorists. In Saudi Arabia itself, a debate unfolded about the role of the religious clergy, some of whose representatives spoke from openly anti-American and anti-Western positions. Voices began to be heard in society in favor of revising some of the concepts of the religious doctrine underlying the Wahhabi movement. In December 2001, King Fahd called for the eradication of terrorism as a phenomenon that does not comply with the norms of Islam. The government has frozen the accounts of a number of individuals and entities, including some Saudi charitable foundations. The information provided by Saudi intelligence helped to liquidate 50 companies in 25 countries through which the international terrorist network Al-Qaeda was financed.

American pressure on Saudi Arabia escalated in August 2002, when about 3,000 relatives of victims of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks filed suit against 186 defendants, incl. foreign banks, Islamic funds and members of the royal family of Saudi Arabia. All of them were suspected of involvement in helping Islamic extremists. At the same time, the existence of a collusion between Saudi Arabia and terrorists was alleged. All accusations from the American side were denied by the Saudi authorities; in protest against the prosecution, some Saudi investors threatened to withdraw their monetary assets from the US. In November 2002, the US CIA circulated to bankers around the world a list of 12 Saudi businessmen whom Washington suspects of financing the international terrorist network al-Qaeda. This came amid demands by a number of US congressmen to conduct an in-depth investigation into reports that Saudi Arabia provided funds to 19 terrorists who carried out the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States. Meanwhile, within the US administration itself, there seemed to be no consensus on how much pressure should be exerted on Saudi Arabia. Speaking in Mexico City, US Secretary of State Colin Powell stressed that the US must be careful not to "break off relations with a country that has been a good partner of the US for many years and still remains a strategic partner of America."

In Saudi Arabia itself, the voices of supporters of reforms were getting louder. In 2003, petitions were sent to King Fahd demanding the democratization of political life, freedom of speech, independence of the judiciary, revision of the constitution, economic reforms, elections to the Consultative Council and the creation of civil institutions. Against the backdrop of deteriorating relations with the United States, the Saudi government has taken unprecedented steps to reform the system. In 2003, elections to local authorities were announced, and two human rights organizations were established (one under government patronage, the other independent). Identity cards for women were introduced. In the same year, Riyadh hosted the country's first human rights conference, which addressed the issue of human rights in the context of Islamic law.

The war in Iraq (2003) caused a deep division in the Arab world. Initially, Saudi Arabia's stance on US plans to overthrow Saddam Hussein's regime was intransigent. In August 2002, the country's authorities announced that they would not allow the use of American facilities located on the territory of the kingdom for strikes against Iraq, even if these strikes were sanctioned by the UN. Moreover, in October 2002, Saudi Arabia (for the first time since the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait) opened the border with Iraq. In preparation for the war, the government of Saudi Arabia repeatedly made attempts to find a diplomatic solution to the conflict. However, in early 2003 Riyadh's position changed dramatically. Already during the war in Iraq, the government of Saudi Arabia expressed its support for the United States, allowing coalition forces to use American airstrips and military bases located in the country. After the end of hostilities, Saudi Arabia participated in a conference on the reconstruction of Iraq (October 2003, Madrid), at which it announced that it would allocate $ 1 billion for the restoration of a neighboring state (500 million would be project financing, and another 500 million - commodity export).

In April 2003, the US announced that it would withdraw most of its troops from Saudi Arabia, as their presence was no longer needed with the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime. The presence of a foreign army in an extremely conservative Islamic country was a strong irritant that played into the hands of Islamic radicalism. One of the main reasons for the attack on September 11, 2001, according to Saudi terrorist Osama bin Laden, was the presence of US troops in the home of Islam's holy sites, Medina and Mecca. The new war in Iraq (2003) contributed to the further activation of radical Islamists. On May 12, 2003, suicide bombers carried out four attacks in Riyadh on a complex of buildings occupied by foreigners; 34 people died and 160 were injured. On the night of November 8/9, 2003, a group of suicide bombers organized a new attack. During it, 18 people were killed and more than 130 people were injured, mostly foreign workers from the Middle East. It is assumed that al-Qaeda was behind all the attacks. The US and other countries have once again questioned Saudi Arabia's willingness to fight terrorism. In July 2003, the US Congress issued a strong statement on the issue of Saudi financing of terrorist organizations and harboring government officials involved in the September 11, 2001 attacks. Although the Saudi government arrested a large number of terrorist suspects in 2002, the country, according to international experts, still remains a stronghold of Islamic radicalism.

King Fahd of Saudi Arabia died on August 1, 2005. And about. Crown Prince Abdullah, Fahd's brother, became the ruler.

Kirill Limanov

"The country of two mosques" (Mecca and Medina) - this is how Saudi Arabia is often called differently. The form of government of this state is an absolute monarchy. Geographic information, a brief history and information about the political structure of Saudi Arabia will help to get a general idea about this country.

General information

Saudi Arabia is the largest state on the Arabian Peninsula. It borders Iraq, Kuwait and Jordan to the north, UAE and Qatar to the east, Oman to the southeast, and Yemen to the south. It owns more than 80 percent of the peninsula, as well as several islands in the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea.

More than half of the country's territory is occupied by the Rub al-Khali desert. In addition, in the north is part of the Syrian desert, and in the south is An-Nafud - another large desert. The plateau in the center of the country is crossed by several rivers, which usually dry up during the hot season.

Saudi Arabia is exceptionally rich in oil. The profit from the sale of "black gold" is partly invested by the government in the development of the country, partly invested in industrialized countries and used to provide loans to other Arab powers.

The form of government in Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy. Islam is recognized as the state religion. Arabic is the official language.

The name of the country was given by the ruling dynasty in it - the Saudis. Its capital is the city of Riyadh. The population of the country is 22.7 million people, mostly Arabs.

Early history of Arabia

In the first millennium BC, the Minean kingdom was located on the shores of the Red Sea. On the east coast was Dilmun, which was considered the political and cultural federation in the region.

In 570, an event occurred that determined the further fate of the Arabian Peninsula - Muhammad, the future prophet, was born in Mecca. His teaching literally turned the history of these lands, subsequently influenced the features of the form of government of Saudi Arabia and the culture of the country.

The followers of the prophet, known as caliphs (caliphs), conquered almost all the territories of the Middle East, bringing Islam. However, with the advent of the caliphate, whose capital was first Damascus, later Baghdad, the significance of the prophet's homeland gradually lost its importance. At the end of the 13th century, the territory of Saudi Arabia was almost entirely under the rule of Egypt, and two and a half centuries later these lands were ceded to the Ottoman Porte.

Rise of Saudi Arabia

In the middle of the 17th century, the state of Nazhd appeared, which managed to achieve independence from the Porte. In the middle of the 19th century, Riyadh became its capital. But the civil war that broke out a few years later led to the fact that the weakened country was divided among the neighboring powers.

In 1902, the son of the sheikh of the Dirayah oasis, Abdul-Aziz ibn Saud, managed to take Riyadh. Four years later, almost all of Nazhd was under his control. In 1932, emphasizing the special significance of the royal house in history, he officially gave the country the name Saudi Arabia. The form of government of the state allowed the Saudis to achieve on its territory.

Since the middle of the last century, this state has become the main ally and strategic partner of the United States in the Middle East region.

Saudi Arabia: form of government

The constitution of this state officially proclaims the Koran and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad. However, in Saudi Arabia, the form of government and the general principles of power are determined by the Basic Nizam (law), which came into force in 1992.

This act contains a provision that Saudi Arabia is a sovereign system of power in which it is monarchical. country is based on Sharia law.

The king from the ruling family of the Saudis is also the religious leader and the highest authority in relation to all kinds of power. At the same time, he holds the post of supreme commander of the army, has the right to make appointments to all important civil and military posts, and to declare war in the country. He also oversees that the overall political direction meets the norms of Islam and supervises the implementation of Sharia principles.

Government departments

The executive power in the state is exercised by the Council of Ministers. The king holds the post of its chairman, it is he who is engaged in its formation and reorganization. The Nizams, approved by the Council of Ministers, enact royal decrees. The ministers head the respective ministries and departments, for the activities of which they are responsible to the king.

It is also carried out by the king, under which there is an Advisory Council with deliberative rights. The members of this council express their opinion on the draft Nizams adopted by the ministers. The Chairman of the Advisory Council and sixty of its members are also appointed by the King (for a term of four years).

The Supreme Judicial Council is at the head of the judiciary. On the recommendation of this council, the king appoints and removes judges.

Saudi Arabia, whose form of government and state structure is based on the almost absolute power of the king and the veneration of the Islamic religion, officially does not have any trade unions or political parties. Serving a religion other than Islam is also prohibited here.