The lessons of the Russian language and literature at school are very exciting, but there are also certain difficulties. One of them is essay writing. In this task, we need to shorten the teacher's story or the available information without losing the main idea. That is why today we will consider possible ways to compress text and consolidate the knowledge gained with specific examples. Be sure to watch them, they will help you figure out the method. We will take elementary examples for review.

Before we look at ways to compress text, you need to understand that you can’t mindlessly delete parts of it (sentences and paragraphs). It is necessary to penetrate, to understand the main idea. It is best to divide the entire text into semantic blocks, title each one, based on the plan received, and continue work.

Exception

There are many ways to compress text. Sentences can be combined, shortened, simplified, but the first thing we want to pay attention to is such a way as an exception.

This does not mean that you can just take and throw away a sentence that is too long, no, it can be noticeably shortened by eliminating some words. What can be omitted from the original text without losing its meaning? Here's a small list for you:

• synonyms;
• repetitions;
• homogeneous members of the proposal;
• a fragment that does not carry a semantic load;
• sentences with descriptions and reasoning.

Carefully reread the original sentence and the resulting one. The second should be compact, but without sacrificing meaning. To make it more clear, we give an example.

"On the Christmas tree hung incredibly beautiful balls, garlands, sweets, it shimmered in various colors: yellow, red, blue, green." We have specially given a very simple example for training. Try to apply text compression methods yourself, or rather, exclusion and generalization. We get: "A lot of toys hung on the Christmas tree, which shimmered in different colors." The meaning has not been lost, but the sentence is several times shorter than the original one.

Generalization

In order to get on the exam, you just need to know how to compress the text of the presentation. Now we turn to the second - generalization. We already resorted to this method in the last example when we replaced the names of various Christmas tree decorations with one word “toys”. We have summarized a few minor parts. How to act? We find similar complex sentences, isolate the homogeneous in them and find a speech form with which they can be replaced.

"Dandelions, buttercups, daisies, poppies, tulips and bluebells grew in the meadow." What one word can replace this endless enumeration? Of course, "flowers". We get a compact sentence: "Different flowers grew in the meadow."

The ways of compressing the text of the presentation are diverse, but most often they use generalization. What else can we combine? If in the text several sentences in a row tell about the same thing, then one complex sentence can be made.

Simplification

We looked at some ways to compress text with examples, but did not pay attention to simplification. It is a very important tool in this kind of work. Let's get started!

We can simplify a complex and long sentence, that is, break it down into simple ones. Of course, this technique must be used in conjunction with others. Almost any complex sentence can be replaced by a simple one. Let's not forget this feature. Let's check?

"I had already gone to bed when the last rays of the sun were slowly leaving behind the roofs of the houses." We get "I went to bed at sunset." Another example: "Mom got up early today to have time to prepare a birthday cake on Get "Mom got up early to bake a cake."

You can also use the technique of translating direct speech into indirect speech or formulating the main idea of ​​the text in your own words.

tricks

In order to shorten the text, some tricks are often paid attention to. So, let's highlight the main ways to compress text to make it easier to remember:

• replacement;
• exception;
• merge.

What can we replace: fragments of text, complex sentences with simple ones, dialogue with indirect speech. We exclude everything that does not carry a semantic load: repetitions, synonyms, sentences with a description or reasoning. Sentences of the same type are subject to merging if they are talking about the same thing.

Compression technique

First, we carefully read the text and divide it into semantic blocks, so we draw up a plan, on which we will rely when writing the presentation.

We highlight the main idea. We are looking for "useless" fragments of text that can be immediately removed. We simplify complex, large phrases and sentences. We apply all the methods and tools for compression that were given in this article. Do not forget to replace direct speech with indirect speech, so the amount of text will decrease significantly.

I tend to agree with you.
I almost always agree with you.
I tend to go to bed early in winter.
I usually go to bed early in the winter.

Have a tendency to

The English Have a tendency to drink tea, not coffee.
The British tend to drink tea rather than coffee.

Note: Have a tendency to usually used in writing, not in speech.

Generalization with less shade of agreement

Generally speaking

Generally speaking, more men than women use the Internet.
In general, men use the Internet more than women.

In most cases

In most cases, wars are caused by land disputes.
In most cases, wars start over land disputes.

In some cases

In some cases, English beaches are unsafe for swimming.
In some cases, English beaches are not safe for swimming.

Mostly, often, sometimes

The words Mostly, often, sometimes placed before the main verb, or after the verb to be .

We Are mostly concerned with costs.
We are mainly concerned with costs.
They Mostly Go to the cinema at weekends.
They usually go to the cinema on weekends.
eating chocolate Sometimes Causes migraines.
Sometimes eating chocolate can trigger a migraine.
He Is sometimes difficult to work with.
Sometimes it is difficult to work with him.
English people Often Complain about the weather.
The English often complain about the weather.

The social properties of phenomena can be defined using concepts of various levels of abstraction or generalization. The level of generalization is determined by the scope of the concept.

The scope of the concept the class of objects promised in the concept is called, and the set of features by which the objects in this concept are generalized and distinguished are called content.

Types of concepts

A concept with an Empty volume is a concept that does not include a single phenomenon that exists in reality. (Martian.)

A single concept (a concept with a single volume) is a concept that includes one phenomenon that exists in reality. (Russia)

A generalizing concept (a concept with a multiple scope) is a concept that includes more than one object observed in reality. (quality of life, crime)

Features of Generalizing concepts and working with them

¨ Generalizing concepts cannot be observed, since the phenomena they express do not exist in reality.

¨ To identify the relationship between the Object and the Subject of the study, an assessment of their state is required based on empirical facts that must be observed.

¨ To determine the empirical facts that need to be observed in the course of the study, it is necessary to translate generalizing concepts into single concepts.

The translation of generalizing concepts into single concepts begins already at the stage of conceptualization during the transition from the essential definition to the content, from the essential quality to the internal content, that is, when the essential quality is decomposed into meaningful properties.

9. What are concepts with different levels of generalization? List and disclose the requirements for operational concepts as variables.

Operational Concepts as Social Research Variables

1.From operational concepts to variables

Operational concepts create only a research base. It is necessary to select those operational concepts that will be used in this study.

The selected operational concepts are the variables of sociological research.

2. The concept of variables

A variable is a means by which one can distinguish between units of study, that is, the observation of a change in the state of which (means) allows this distinction to be made.

In other words, with the help of these means, one unit of study can be distinguished from another.

Requirements for operational concepts based on their role as variables

A) For operational concepts to be variable, it is necessary that they set a certain range of changes in the state of research units for classification, dividing them according to the types of the phenomenon under study.

If operational concepts do not set a certain range of changes in the state of research units for classification, separating them according to the types of the phenomenon under study, then an error has occurred in choosing these concepts for use as variables.

B) Whether there will be an operational concept of a variable or not depends on the problem situation

Depending on the problem situation, the operational concept may or may not specify a certain range of changes in the state of research units for classification, separating them according to the types of the phenomenon under study.

C) The operational concept as a variable must be empirically interpretable

The variable is the basis for highlighting the empirical facts to be measured. In order to be able to distinguish one state of a variable from another, it must be possible to observe empirical differences that make it possible to distinguish one state of a variable from another.

As a result of the above reasoning, we can formulate a clarifying definition of the variable.

A variable is an empirically interpreted concept that takes on two or more values.

4. The role of the operational concept as a variable

The operational concept as a variable plays the role of a means of generalization of empirically observed individual states of the phenomena under study.

A variable is not a single concept, because it includes not single states of the phenomenon under study, but classes of states.

A variable that expresses various states of the phenomenon under study makes it possible to establish a relationship between socially significant types of the phenomena under study.

All of the above means that the Variable involves working not with single facts, but with mass facts, which allows:

1. fix a set of classes of states;

2. establish a dependency between these classes, since single states do not allow such a dependency to be established.

Measurement of a single state only establishes the fact that when this mother uses an engaging style of disciplining, this adolescent is prone to cheating. At the same time, it remains unclear whether the style of discipline used influenced the formation of such a tendency.

In principle, any information system faces the same questions. How to collect information? How to interpret it? In what form and how to remember it? How to find patterns in the collected information and in what form to write them down? How to respond to incoming information? Each of the issues is important and inextricably linked to the others. In this cycle, we are trying to describe how these questions are solved by our brain. In this part, we will talk about, perhaps, the most mysterious component of thinking - the procedure for searching for patterns.

Interaction with the outside world leads to the accumulation of experience. If there are any patterns in this experience, then they can be isolated and subsequently used. The presence of patterns can be interpreted as the presence of something in common in the memories that make up the experience. Accordingly, the selection of such common entities is commonly called a generalization.

The task of generalization is a key task in all disciplines that are in any way connected with data analysis. Mathematical statistics, machine learning, neural networks all revolve around the problem of generalization. Naturally, the brain did not stand aside, and as we can sometimes observe from our own experience, it also sometimes copes well with generalization.

Despite the fact that generalization arises always and everywhere, the generalization problem itself, if we consider it in a general form, remains rather vague. Depending on the specific situation in which it is required to perform generalization, the formulation of the generalization problem can vary in a very wide range. Different formulations of the problem give rise to very different and sometimes completely dissimilar solution methods.

The variety of approaches to generalization creates the feeling that the generalization procedure is something collective and that, apparently, there is no universal generalization procedure. However, it seems to me that a universal generalization is possible and it is precisely this that is characteristic of our brain. As part of the approach described in this cycle, we managed to come up with a surprisingly beautiful (at least it seems to me so) algorithm that includes all the classical variations of the generalization problem. This algorithm not only works well, but the most amazing thing is that it fits perfectly into the architecture of biological neural networks, which makes us believe that, indeed, the real brain works somewhere like this.

Before describing the algorithm of such a universal generalization, let's try to figure out what forms of generalization are usually distinguished and, accordingly, what and why the universal approach should include.

Philosophical-semantic approach to the generalization of concepts

Philosophy deals with semantic constructions. Simply put, he expresses and writes down his statements in phrases in natural language. The philosophical-semantic approach to generalization is as follows. Having concepts united by a certain specific feature, it is required to move on to a new concept, which gives a broader, but less specific interpretation, free from a specific feature.

For example, there is the concept of "wristwatch", which is described as: "a time indicator attached to the hand with a strap or bracelet." If we get rid of the specific feature "fixed on the arm ...", we will get a generalized concept of "watch", like any instrument that determines time.

In the watch example, the very name of the wristwatch contained a hint for generalization. It was enough to discard the superfluous word and the required concept was obtained. But this is not a regularity, but a consequence of the semantics built “from the opposite”, when we already know the result of the generalization.

Pure generalization problem

As Frank Rosenblatt put it, the task of pure generalization is: “In a ‘pure generalization’ experiment, a model of the brain or perceptron is required to move from a selective response to one stimulus (say, a square located on the left side of the retina) to a similar stimulus that does not activate none of the same sensory endings (square on the right side of the retina)" (Rosenblatt, 1962).

The emphasis on "pure" generalization implies the absence of "clues". If we were previously shown a square in all possible positions of the retina and given the opportunity to remember all this, then recognition of the frame would become trivial. But according to the condition, the square was shown to us in one place, and we must recognize it in a completely different place. Convolutional networks solve this problem due to the fact that they initially contain the rules for “drag and drop” of any figure throughout the retina space. By knowing how to "move" the image, they can take a square seen in one place and "try it on" to all possible positions on the retina.

Searching for a “T” shaped pattern at different image positions (Fukushima K., 2013)

We solve the same problem in our model by creating a space of contexts. The difference from convolutional networks is who goes to whom - “mountain to Magomed” or “Magomed to mountain”. In convolutional networks, when analyzing a new picture, each previously known image varies in all possible positions and is “tried on” to the analyzed picture. In the context model, each context transforms (shuffles, rotates, scales) the analyzed picture as it is prescribed by its rules, and then the “shifted” picture is compared with “stationary” previously known images. This, at first glance, a small difference leads to a subsequent very strong difference in approaches and their capabilities.

Related to the problem of pure generalization is the problem of invariant representation. Having a phenomenon that appears before us in different forms, it is required to describe these representations invariantly in order to recognize the phenomenon in any of its manifestations.

Classification problem

There are many objects. There are predefined classes. There is a training sample - a set of objects about which it is known which classes they belong to. It is required to construct an algorithm that reasonably assigns any objects from the original set to one of the classes. In mathematical statistics, classification problems are referred to as discriminant analysis problems.

Induction is related to generalization in two ways. First, when one speaks of a set of objects, it is implied that something previously served as the basis for uniting these objects into a single set. That is, there were some mechanisms that made it possible to make a preliminary generalization.

Secondly, if we find by induction a certain attribute that is characteristic of the elements of a certain group that describes a certain concept, then we can use this attribute as characterizing for referring to this group.

For example, we find that there are mechanical instruments with a distinctive dial and hands. By external similarity, we make a generalization and attribute them to the watch class, and form the corresponding concept.

Now we can take the next generalization step. We can say that everything that allows you to keep track of time can be attributed to the “clock”. Now we can also call the sun, which measures the day and school bells, counting the lessons, hours.

Logical induction has much in common with the semantic generalization of concepts. But semantic generalization makes a slightly different emphasis. The semantic approach speaks of the features that make up the description of the concept, and the possibility of discarding some of them in order to obtain a more general formulation. At the same time, the question remains open - where should such definitions of concepts come from that will make it possible to make the transition to generalization "through discarding". Incomplete logical induction just shows the way of formation of such descriptive features.

Discretization problem

When dealing with continuous quantities, it is often necessary to switch to their description in discrete values. For each continuous value, the choice of the quantization step is determined by the accuracy of the description that needs to be preserved. The resulting fragmentation intervals combine various values ​​of a continuous quantity, putting them in correspondence with certain discrete concepts. Such a procedure can be attributed to generalization by the fact that the values ​​are combined based on their falling into the quantization interval, which indicates their certain generality.

Correlation of concepts

By generalizing in any of the possible ways, we can represent the result of the generalization through a system of concepts. At the same time, generalized concepts do not simply form a set of elements independent of each other, but acquire an internal structure of relationships.

For example, the classes obtained as a result of clustering form a certain spatial structure in which some classes are closer to each other, some further.

When using the description of something through factors, a set of factorial weights is used. Factor weights take real values. These values ​​can be approximated by a set of discrete concepts. At the same time, these discrete concepts will be characterized by a system of relations "more - less".

Thus, each time we are interested not only in highlighting generalizations, but also in the formation of a certain system in which it will be clear how these generalizations correlate with all other generalizations.

A somewhat similar situation arises in the analysis of natural language. The words of the language have certain relationships. The nature of these connections may be different. We can talk about the frequency of joint manifestation of words in real texts. We can talk about the similarity of their meanings. It is possible to build a system of relations based on transitions to more general content. Such constructions lead to different types of semantic networks.

2 a.m. before writing a summary essay for an exam at school or college. Unfortunately, you have no idea what a general essay is, much less how to write it. Fear not, WikiHow is here to help! A synthesizing essay or synthesizing work combines various ideas and information from multiple sources into a cohesive whole. Writing a summary essay requires the ability to categorize information and present it in an organized way. While this skill develops in high school and college, it also comes in handy in the business and advertising world. Skip to step 1 to learn how to write a summary essay.

Steps

Part 1

Explore the topic

Understand the purpose of the summary essay. The purpose of a summarizing essay is to find constructive connections between parts of a work or several works, with the aim, ultimately, of presenting and confirming an idea on a particular topic. In other words, as you study a topic, you will be looking for connections that can build a conclusive chain of evidence for a particular point of view on the topic. The types of summary essay can be classified as follows:

Choose a topic suitable for a summary essay. Your topic should be broad enough to bring together several related sources, but not so broad as to bring together disparate sources. If you have the freedom to choose a topic, reading the sources beforehand can help you decide what to write about. However, if you are writing a summary essay at school, you may be given a topic or have to choose from a list.

• An example of a general topic, narrowed down within reasonable limits for a general essay: Instead of the broad topic of social media, you can discuss your opinion on the impact text messages have had on the English language.

1. Carefully select and carefully read your sources. If you are taking an AP test, the sources will be provided to you. You should select at least three sources for your essay, and possibly one or two more, depending on the amount of time you have available to study the topic and write the paper. Look for material in your sources that is related to the reason you are writing your essay (i.e. your argument).

   Develop a thesis statement. After reading the sources that you have received or found yourself, you will have to formulate your opinion on your topic. Your thesis will be the main idea presented in the essay. You should cover the topic and express your point of view on this topic. The thesis must be formulated as a complete sentence. Depending on the essay, your thesis statement can be either the first sentence of the opening essay or the last sentence of the first paragraph.

   • Example: Sending text messages had a positive impact on the English language, as it helped millennials create their own form of the language.

2. Reread sources to find ideas that support your thesis. Review your sources and select key quotes, statistics, ideas, and facts that support your thesis. Write them down. You will use them throughout the essay.

   • If you plan to accept the opponents' claims and refute their theory, you should also find some quotations that go against your thesis and think about ways to refute them.
   • Example:: For the thesis statement above, an excellent solution would be to include quotes from linguists discussing new words that were formed through "texting" communication, statistics that show that the English language has changed almost every generation, and facts that show that students still know grammar and spelling (your opponents will cite this argument as the main reason that text messages had negative influence on English).

   Part 2

   Plan your essay

   1. Plan your essay. You can either do this as a simple plan on paper or formulate it in your head, but you must decide how to present your material in the most beneficial way. If you are writing this paper for a subject matter mastery test, be aware that reviewers will be looking for a specific structure. This structure looks like this:

      • Introductory paragraph: 1. An introductory sentence that acts like a fishing rod hook, capturing the reader's interest. 2. Determining the issue you will be discussing. 3. Your thesis statement.
      • Body: 1. Begin with a sentence that explains the reason why your thesis should be supported. 2. Your explanation and opinion on the topic of the question. 3. Evidence from your sources that supports the claim you just made. 4. Explanation of the significance of the source(s).
      • Concluding paragraph: 1. Indicate the importance of your topic through the evidence and reflections discussed in the article. 2. Thoughtful or suggestive completion of work.

   2. Use a more creative structure to present your abstract. Sometimes you must use a more complex structure than the one listed above. You can use one or more of these methods to organize your essay:

      • Example / illustration. This can be a detailed paraphrase, a summary, or a direct quote from your source material that supports your point of view. You may use more than one example or illustration if your work requires it. But you should not make a series of examples out of your work instead of proving your thesis.
      • Scarecrow method. With this technique, you present an argument that is the opposite of the argument in your essay, and then show weaknesses and shortcomings with counterarguments. This structure shows your awareness of opposing opinions and your willingness to respond to them. You present a counterargument immediately after the thesis, followed by a rebuttal, and end with a positive argument that supports your thesis.
      • concession method. The concession method is constructed similarly to the scarecrow method, but it recognizes the validity of the counterargument by showing that the original argument is stronger. This structure is well suited in case readers take the opposite point of view.
      • Comparison and contrast. This structure compares similarities and highlights differences between two objects or sources to show all facets. Using this structure requires careful reading of the source material to find major points of similarity and difference. This kind of essay can present its arguments source by source or by similarities or differences.

   3. Properly structure secondary information. Although most summary essays focus entirely on proving the thesis, some papers present ideas found in the sources instead of focusing on the author's point of view. There are two main ways to construct this kind of summary essay:

      • Summary. This structure is a summary of each of your sources, reinforcing the case for your thesis. This provides concrete evidence for your point of view, but generally does not provide an opportunity to present your own opinion. This structure is most commonly used by review articles.
      • List of arguments. This is a series of sub-points that follow from the main thesis of your work. Each argument is supported by evidence. As with the summary, the arguments should become more and more powerful, the strongest argument should be the last one.

   Part 3

   Write your essay

   1. Write a draft according to your plan. Be prepared to deviate from your plan if you find new ideas and information that support your thesis. If you are writing a summary on an exam, you will only have time to write one draft, so write it as best you can.

      • Your essay should have an introductory paragraph that includes your thesis, a main body that provides evidence to support your thesis, and a conclusion that summarizes.

   2. Write in the third person. Use the pronouns "he", "she", use full, unambiguous sentences. Provide enough information to make your arguments persuasive. You should write in the active voice as much as possible, although the passive voice is acceptable if you use first person ("I") or second person ("you").

   3. Use transitions between paragraphs to make your thoughts flow logically. Transitions are a great opportunity to show where your sources complement each other: "Halström's price-fixing theory is supported by Pennington's Economics Climber, where she notes the following:

      • Lengthy quotes of three or more lines should generally be combined into a block to draw readers' attention to them.