Significant people of the late 18th century. History of Russia XVIII century

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XVIII century in the history of Russia

The 18th century in the history of Russia is a cruel, even merciless century of the reign of Peter I, who decided to change Russia in a short time, the time of archery riots and palace coups, the reign of Catherine the Great, peasant wars and the strengthening of serfdom.

But at the same time, this period of Russian history is characterized by the development of education, the opening of new educational institutions, including Moscow University, the Academy of Arts. In 1756, the first theater appeared in the capital of the Russian Empire.

The end of the 18th century is the heyday of the work of the artists Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky, Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov, Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky, the sculptor Fedot Shubin.

Now let's take a closer look at the main events of the 18th century and the historical characters of that time. At the end of the 17th century, in 1676, Alexei Mikhailovich died, and his son Fyodor Alekseevich ascended the throne. Peter Alekseevich, who later became Emperor Peter I, will become Tsar in 1682.

In 1689, Peter, at the suggestion of his mother, Natalia Kirillovna Naryshkina, marries Evdokia Lopukhina, which means that he reaches the age of majority, as it was believed at that time.

Sophia, who wanted to remain on the throne, raised archers against Peter, but the rebellion was suppressed, after which Sophia was imprisoned in a monastery, and the throne passes to Peter, although until 1696 his brother Ivan Alekseevich was Peter's formal co-ruler. Peter I had a rather remarkable appearance. His height was 2 m. 10 cm, he was narrow in the shoulders, had long arms and an unusual gait, so that his close associates had to not only follow him, but run. From the age of 6, Peter began to learn to read and write and received an encyclopedic education at that time. Left without a father, Peter was engaged in self-education. With the permission of Princess Sophia, he creates a personal amusing guard, and later it was these two amusing regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky that played a big role when Peter came to power. In addition, the young tsar's favorite pastime was shooting the boyars with steamed turnips. Gradually, the king also had "favorite" close associates, and these were different people. Alexander Danilovich Menshikov, or simply Aleksashka, the son of a palace groom, who from the position of the royal batman became the most serene prince, the richest man, the "German" (Dutchman) Franz Lefort, who became the tsar's main adviser after his accession to the throne. It was Lefort who advised Peter to establish foreign trade, but the problem was one of the two well-known Russian troubles - roads, Russia needed access to the sea through Sweden, Turkey. Peter I undertakes two trips to Azov, the second of which was successful and ended with the foundation of the Taganrog fortress (on Cape Taganiy Rog). The war with Turkey that began in 1697 showed that Russia needed loans, allies and weapons. For this, the Great Embassy is sent to Europe, in which Peter I was listed as a simple person - constable Peter Alekseevich. He was the first Russian tsar to visit Europe. Returning from a trip, and plunging back into life in Russia, Peter hated it, decided to completely redo it, and, as you know, he succeeds. The reforms of Peter I, with which he began his transformations, were as follows:

He disbanded the archery army, created a mercenary army, which he dresses in an almost European uniform and puts foreign officers at the head;

He transferred the country to a new chronology, from the Nativity of Christ, the old was conducted from the creation of the world. January 1, 1700 in Russia began to celebrate the New Year;

He carried out a city reform - self-government was introduced in the cities, burmisters were put at the head of the cities. Although this "Europeanization" of cities was completed;

He ordered every 10 thousand households to build 1 ship, as a result, Russia received a large fleet.

In 1700, Peter I decides to start a war with Sweden, which ended in 1721. The Northern War began unsuccessfully, Peter was defeated near Narva, fled the battlefield even before the battle began, but repented of this and decided to rebuild his army.

Transformations were made based on the needs of the troops. For the war, cannons were needed, as a result, the bells of Russian churches are poured onto them, then metallurgical enterprises are built.

By the middle of the century, 75 metallurgical enterprises operated in the country, which fully met the country's needs for pig iron, almost half of the products were exported. It was necessary to arm the army, so arms factories are being built. In addition, Peter I orders the construction of linen factories. Shipbuilding, rope, leather and glass production are developing.

Shipyards built galleys, which played a decisive role in the defeat of the Swedes at Gangut.

Peter introduces military service - recruitment - from 20 households 1 person went to serve for 25 years, he also introduces compulsory service to the nobility for 25 years. These measures made it possible to quickly create a new army - 20,000 sailors and 35,000 ground troops.

Peter I understands that Russia needs knowledge and money. To do this, he forced hundreds of young nobles and boyars to go abroad to study, fiscal officers were assigned to monitor them, created a number of technical universities (Higher Artillery School), where Western professors were teachers. In order to encourage not only nobles, but also ordinary people to study, Peter issues a decree according to which everyone who graduates from the gymnasium and knows foreign languages will receive the nobility.

To raise the economy, the king in 1718-1724. introduces a poll tax (a male soul).

The tax was heavy and exceeded the solvency of the people of the Russian Empire. This has led to an increase in arrears.

To stop the theft, since everyone was actively stealing, and the first thief was Menshikov, the tsar orders not only the suspect, but his entire family to be hung on the rack.

A number of additional fees are introduced - a fee for a beard, for wearing a Russian dress, those who did not drink coffee were fined.

In order not to spend money on hired labor, Peter I introduces serf labor. Villages were assigned to factories, artisans were assigned to cities. By a decree of 1736, factory workers were assigned to manufactories forever and were called "eternally given."

This form of labor hindered the development of Russia, got rid of it only in the 19th century.

In addition, Peter I seeks to develop trade. They impose customs duties on imported goods much more than on exported goods. As a result, by the end of the Northern War, Russia had a developed economy, but it was a serf. The time of Peter's reign is the time of transformations in Russia, the time of reforms. In addition to those listed above, Peter carried out administrative and social reforms, and he also changed the judicial system.

Rice. 1. - Peter I:

Administrative reforms of Peter I:

1. Peter divides the country into provinces, at the head of the provinces was the governor-general, whose only form of punishment was the death penalty;

2. Peter in 1711-1721 abolished the order system, created collegiums-prototypes of ministries. The head of the collegium was appointed by the king "according to the mind, and not according to the nobility of the family", that is, a good education was needed for service;

3. In 1711, the Senate became the highest state body, which, in the absence of the king, performed its functions;

4. At the head of all state power was Emperor Peter I. This title was approved by Peter himself in 1721 after the end of the war with Sweden.

Social policy of Peter I.

In 1722, the "Table of Ranks" was introduced, according to which all service people were divided into 14 categories, the lowest rank was the ensign. Those who rose to the 8th category received the nobility. The judicial system was changed - "they were judged not with a word, but with a pen", that is, all court cases were drawn up in writing and judged on the basis of written laws, which made it possible for judges to take new bribes.

In 1703, St. Petersburg became the capital of Russia, which was built on the bones of serfs. Peter I forcibly resettled about 1000 nobles in St. Petersburg.

In 1725, together with the death of Peter I, the era of palace coups began. During the reign of Catherine I, from 1725 to 1727, and Peter II, from 1727 to 1730, Menshikov performed the functions of emperor. During the reign of Anna Ioanovna, from 1730 to 1740, and Ioan Antonovich, from 1740 to 1741, various kinds of German adventurers were in power.

Under Elizabeth Petrovna, who ascended the throne in November 1741, the Shuvalovs played a prominent role, the Razumovskys, favorites of the Empress. Peter III Fedorovich became Elizabeth's heir. He pursued a policy that the Russian nobility did not accept.

As a result, in 1762, after another coup, the wife of Peter III, Catherine II, ascended the throne at the age of 33. It was announced that her husband Peter was killed "accidentally".

Rice. 2. - Catherine II:

34 years of the reign of Catherine II went down in history as the "golden age of the nobility", because she pursued a pro-noble policy. Following her husband, Peter III, she allowed the nobles not to serve, held a general land survey in 1765, that is, divided the land among the nobles. There was an opportunity to buy and sell a pledge, which did not give the treasury a penny, but all the nobility was on the side of Catherine. In addition, she gave the nobles for their service, 600 thousand serfs, for example, Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov got several thousand people. In the interests of the nobility, it deprives the peasants of their last rights - under the fear of hard labor it was forbidden to complain about the landowner, it was allowed to trade serfs "at retail", that is, families were mercilessly split up. Thus, if for the nobility the end of the 18th century was the golden period of history, then for the peasants it was the most terrible period of slavery. During her reign, Catherine II relied on the personal devotion of favorites, brought up a whole galaxy of Russian politicians, suppressed revolutions by all means, was sick of the ideas of the philosopher Voltaire, read the books of Rousseau and Montesquieu, but perceived the Enlightenment in her own way, in an original way. She believed that enlightenment should affect only the upper strata of society, did not give freedom to the peasants, because this would lead to a revolt. Catherine II was especially frightened by the Pugachev rebellion (1773-75), in which serfs, Cossacks, working people, Bashkirs, Kalmyks participated. The peasant war was defeated, but Catherine learned the main lesson from it - you can’t give freedom to the peasants, and did not abolish serfdom.

Transformations of Catherine the Great:

1. Abolished state monopolies on tobacco and some other activities, which contributed to their development;

2. She created a number of educational institutions, for example, the Free Economic Society, the Institute of Noble Maidens. So, in the Free Economic Society, they studied and introduced agriculture, technical innovations (for each invention they gave prizes), potatoes are being introduced through the efforts of this society (the initiator is Andrey Bolotov);

3. Under Catherine, the construction of manufactories expanded, new industries appeared, such as hosiery, the number of manufactories increased by 2 times, while they were not only serfs, but also hired, i.e., the first workers from the peasants appeared (the right to otkhodnichestvo), foreign investments;

4. Development of new lands. To develop new territories in the south of the country (Crimea, Kuban, South Ukraine), she gives them to the nobles. After a couple of years, he realizes that this is ineffective and invites "foreigners" - the Greeks founded Mariupol, the Armenians - the village of Chaltyr, the Bulgarians bring viticulture. In addition, Catherine announces that those peasants who run away and settle in new lands will be free;

5. Catherine II did not sell Alaska to America, but rented it out for 100 years so that the Americans would master it.

After the death of Catherine II, her son Paul I (1796-1801) becomes emperor. Under him, domestic policy was also pro-noble and pro-serf. thinking psychological personality

Serfdom is becoming more widespread. However, relations between the emperor and the nobility become extremely tense, after the next innovations of Paul I.

Pavel banned meetings of the nobility in the provinces, he, at his whim, could exile some nobles and elevate others. In addition, the break in relations with England hit the income of the landowners, because agricultural products were exported there. The result of this policy was a conspiracy, Paul was killed in 1801 and his son Alexander ascended the throne.

Thus ended the 18th century in Russia. Thus, the 18th century in the history of Russia was characterized by the following:

1. Ever since the reign of Peter I, a tradition has been established that all reforms are carried out by the state;

2. The modernization of Russia is carried out according to the catch-up option, and we take from the West what we like;

3. Modernization is carried out at the expense of its own people, that is, Russia is a self-colony;

4. Any modernization is accompanied by bureaucratization.

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West and East in the 18th century………………………………………9

Mishina I.A., Zharova L.N."Golden Age" of European

absolutism …………………………………………………….15

I.A. Mishina

L.N. Zharova

Europe on the way of modernization of social and spiritual life. Characteristics of the Enlightenment

XV-XVII centuries in Western Europe is called the Renaissance. However, objectively, this era should be characterized as the era of the Transition, because it is a bridge to the system of social relations and culture of the New Age. It was in this era that the prerequisites for bourgeois social relations were laid, the relationship between church and state changed, and the worldview of humanism was formed as the basis of a new secular consciousness. The formation of the characteristic features of the era of the New Age was carried out in full in the 18th century.

The XVIII century in the life of the peoples of Europe and America is the time of the greatest cultural, socio-economic and political shifts. In historical science, the era of modern times is usually associated with the establishment of bourgeois relations in Western Europe. Indeed, this is an important socio-economic characteristic of this era. But in modern times, simultaneously with this process, other global processes took place that engulfed the structure of civilization as a whole. The formation of the era and the New Age in Western Europe meant a civilizational shift: the destruction of the foundations of traditional European civilization and the establishment of a new one. This shift is called modernization.

Modernization is a complex multifaceted process that has been taking place in Europe for a century and a half and has covered all spheres of society. In the sphere of production, modernization meant industrialization- ever-increasing use of machines. In the social sphere, modernization is closely connected with urbanization- the unprecedented growth of cities, which led to their predominant position in the economic life of society. In the political sphere, modernization meant democratization political structures, laying the foundations for the formation of civil society and the rule of law. In the spiritual realm, modernization is associated with secularization- the release of all spheres of public and private life from the tutelage of religion and the church, their secularization, as well as the intensive development of literacy, education, scientific knowledge about nature and society.

All these processes, inextricably linked with each other, have changed the emotional and psychological attitudes of a person, his mentality. The spirit of traditionalism gives way to attitudes towards change and development. A man of traditional civilization was confident in the stability of the world around him. This world was perceived by him as something unchanging, existing according to the originally given Divine laws. The man of the New Age considers it possible to know the laws of nature and society and, on the basis of this knowledge, change nature and society in accordance with his desires and needs.

State power, the social structure of society is also deprived of divine sanction. They are interpreted as a human product and are subject to change if necessary. It is no coincidence that the New Age is the era of social revolutions, conscious attempts to forcibly reorganize social life. On the whole, we can say that the New Age has created a New Man. A man of the New Age, a modernized man, is a mobile person who quickly adapts to the changes taking place in the environment.

The ideology of the Enlightenment became the ideological basis for the modernization of public life in modern times. 18th century also called in Europe Age of Enlightenment. The figures of the Enlightenment left a deep mark on philosophy, science, art, literature and politics. They developed a new worldview, designed to liberate human thought, free it from the framework of medieval traditionalism.

The philosophical basis of the Enlightenment worldview was rationalism. The ideologists of the Enlightenment, reflecting the views and needs of the bourgeoisie in its struggle against feudalism and its spiritual support of the Catholic Church, considered reason as the most important characteristic of a person, a prerequisite and the most vivid manifestation of all his other qualities: freedom, self-activity, activity, etc. Man, as a rational being, from the point of view of the Enlightenment, is called upon to rebuild society on reasonable grounds. On this basis, the people's right to a social revolution was declared. F. Engels noted an essential feature of the ideology of the Enlightenment: “The great people who in France enlightened their heads for the approaching revolution were extremely revolutionary. They did not recognize any external authorities of any kind. Religion, the understanding of nature, the political system - everything had to be subjected to the most merciless criticism, everything had to appear before the court of reason and either justify its existence or abandon it, the thinking mind became the only measure of everything that exists ”(Marx K., Engels F. Soch., V.20, p.16).

Europe of the 18th century was still an integral entity in terms of civilization. The peoples of Europe differed in the level of economic development, political organization, and the nature of culture. Therefore, the ideology of the Enlightenment in each country differed in its national characteristics.

In the most striking, classical forms, the ideology of the Enlightenment developed in France. French Enlightenment of the 18th century had a significant impact not only on their own country, but also on a number of other countries. French literature and the French language became fashionable in Europe, and France became the center of all European intellectual life.

The largest representatives of the French Enlightenment were: Voltaire (Francois Marie Arouet), J.-J. Rousseau, C. Montesquieu, P. A. Holbach, C. A. Helvetius, D. Diderot.

Socio-political life of France in the XVIII century. characterized by great vestiges of feudalism. In the struggle against the old aristocracy, the enlighteners could not rely on public opinion, on the government, which was hostile to them. In France, they did not have such influence in society as in England and Scotland, they were a kind of “renegades.

Most prominent figures of the French Enlightenment were persecuted for their beliefs. Denis Diderot was imprisoned in the Château de Vincennes (royal prison), Voltaire - in the Bastille, Helvetius was forced to renounce his book "On the Mind". For censorship reasons, the printing of the famous Encyclopedia, which was published in separate volumes from 1751 to 1772, was repeatedly suspended.

Constant conflicts with the authorities created the reputation of the French Enlighteners as radicals. For all their radicalism, the French enlighteners showed moderation and caution when one of the basic principles on which European statehood was based - the principle of monarchism - was put up for discussion.

In France, the idea of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial was developed by Charles Montesquieu (1689 - 1755). Studying the causes of the emergence of a particular state system, he argued that the country's legislation depends on the form of government. He considered the principle of "separation of powers" to be the main means of ensuring the rule of law. Montesquieu believed that the "spirit of the laws" of a particular people is determined by objective prerequisites: climate, soil, territory, religion, population, forms of economic activity, etc.

The conflicts between the French enlighteners and the Catholic Church were explained by its ideological intransigence and dogmatism, and this ruled out the possibility of a compromise.

The characteristic features of the Enlightenment, its problems and the very human type of the enlightener: philosopher, writer, public figure - were most clearly embodied in the work and life of Voltaire (1694-1778). His name became, as it were, a symbol of the era, gave the name to a whole ideological movement of European scale - Voltairianism.

A large place in the work of Voltaire is occupied by historical works: "The History of Charles XII" (1731), "The Age of Louis XIV" (1751), "Russia under Peter the Great" (1759). In the writings of Voltaire, the political antagonist of Charles XII is Peter III, a monarch-reformer and enlightener. For Voltaire, the independent policy of Peter came to the fore, limiting the powers of the church to purely religious matters. In the book An Essay on the Morals and Spirit of Nations, Voltaire wrote: "Each man is shaped by his age, very few rise above the morals of their time." He, Voltaire, was what the 18th century created him, and he, Voltaire, was among those enlighteners who rose above him.

Part of the French enlighteners hoped for cooperation with the authorities in solving specific problems of governing the country. Among them stood out a group of physiocratic economists (from the Greek words "physis" - nature and "kratos" - power), headed by Francois Quesnay and Anne Robert Turgot.

The consciousness of the unattainability of the goals of the Enlightenment by peaceful, evolutionary paths prompted many of them to join the irreconcilable opposition. Their protest took the form of atheism, sharp criticism of religion and the church, characteristic of materialist philosophers - Rousseau, Diderot, Holbach, Helvetius, and others.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778) in the treatise "On the public dialect ..." (1762) substantiated the right of the people to overthrow absolutism. He wrote: “Any law, if the people have not approved it directly, is invalid. If the English people consider themselves free, they are gravely mistaken. He is free only during the election of members of parliament: as soon as they are elected, he is a slave, he is nothing. In ancient republics and even monarchies, the people were never representatives, the word itself was unknown.

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, Pakhsaryan N.. The authors of the articles that make up the sections of the monograph present various aspects of the emotional life of the `age of reason`, embodied in philosophical writings, poetry, drama, prose, as well as ...
XVIII century: laughter and tears in the literature and art of the Enlightenment, Pakhsaryan N. The authors of the articles that make up the sections of the monograph present various aspects of the emotional life of the "age of reason", embodied in philosophical writings, poetry, dramaturgy, prose, as well as ...

1700–1721- The Northern War of Russia (as part of the Northern Alliance - Denmark, Poland and Saxony) with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea.

1705–1706- Astrakhan uprising. Archers, soldiers, townspeople and workers took part. It was caused by a sharp increase in taxes and duties, an increase in the arbitrariness of local authorities and garrison officers, and a decrease in monetary and grain salaries for soldiers. Suppressed by the royal troops.

1705. - introduction of mandatory recruitment.

1707–1708- an uprising led by K. Bulavin. Covered the Don Army Region, the Russian Don region, part of the Volga region and partly the Zaporizhzhya Sich.

Reasons: the introduction of new heavy taxes, the attack of the state on the autonomy and self-government of the Don, the demand for the return of fugitive peasants. The main goal of the movement: the restoration of class privileges of the Cossacks. Suppressed by the royal troops.

1708–1710- Reform of administrative management (introduction of provincial management).

Forest Swedish troops under the command of General Lewenhaupt.

1709., 27th of June- Battle of Poltava. The defeat of the Swedes and the flight of Charles XII to Turkey.

1711. - Establishment of the Governing Senate (directed the work of all state institutions, dealt with the recruitment of the army, the development of trade and industry, controlled finances).

1711. - Prut campaign of Peter I. Russian troops led by Peter I are surrounded by superior Turkish forces on the river. Prut (Moldova). Under a peace treaty with Turkey, Russia was forced to abandon Azov.

1711–1765– years of life of M.V. Lomonosov. 1714. - Decree of Peter I on single inheritance (equalized estates and estates).

1714., July 27- the victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedish at Cape Gangut in the Baltic. It allowed the transfer of hostilities to Swedish territory, significantly strengthened the positions of Russian troops in Finland.

1718–1721- Establishment instead of orders of collegiums. Carrying out judicial reform (depriving governors of judicial powers). Tax reform (introduction of a poll tax instead of household taxation).

1720., July 27- the victory of the Russian fleet near the island of Grengam in the Baltic. It made it possible for the Russian troops to fortify themselves in the region of the Aland Islands and accelerated the conclusion of the Nystadt peace.

1721., August 30- the conclusion of the Nystadt peace treaty between Russia and Sweden. Russia received Livonia with Riga, Estonia with Revel and Narva, part of Karelia with Kexholm, Ingermanland (Izhora land), the islands of Ezel, Dago and other lands from Vyborg to the Kurland border. She returned to Sweden Finland, occupied by Russian troops, and paid her 2 million efimki as compensation.

1721. - Establishment of the Spirit of the Sheep College (future Holy Synod). The abolition of the patriarchy.

1721. - the proclamation of Peter I the emperor, Russia - the empire.

1722. - publication of the "Table of Ranks" - a legislative act that determined the procedure for the service of officials.

1722. - issuance of a decree on succession to the throne (the reigning emperor was given the right to arbitrarily appoint an heir).

1722–1723- Caspian campaign. The purpose of the campaign: to ensure trade relations between Russia and the eastern countries, to assist the Transcaucasian peoples in liberation from Iranian domination and to prevent Turkish expansion in the Transcaucasus. It ended with the liberation of Dagestan and Azerbaijan and their annexation to Russia.

1724. – Adoption of the Customs Tariff (introduction of a 75% duty on the import of foreign goods).

1725–1762- the era of palace coups.

1725–1727- reign of Catherine I.

1726. - Establishment of the Supreme Privy Council (the highest state institution in Russia for solving the most important state issues). Disbanded by Empress Anna Ioannovna.

1727–1730- reign of Peter II.

1730–1740- the reign of Anna Ioannovna. "Bironovshchina".

1740–1741- the reign of Ivan Antonovich, the great-nephew of Anna Ioannov-na, under the regency, first Biron, then - the mother of Anna Leopoldovna.

1741–1761- the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna.

1754. - Establishment of the Noble and Merchant Loan Banks. 1756–1763- The Seven Years' War. It was fought by the Prussian King Frederick II in alliance with Great Britain and Portugal against Austria, Russia, France, Sweden, Spain and Saxony. Causes of the war: the aggravation of the Anglo-French struggle for colonies in North America and the East Indies and the clash of Prussian policy with the interests of Austria, France and Russia. The Russian government sought to stop the expansion of Prussia in the Baltic states, expand the territory towards Poland, and connect the trade routes of the Baltic and Black Seas. The victories of the Russian army near Gross-Jegersdorf (1757), Kunersdorf (1759).

In 1761, Russian troops entered Berlin. It ended with the signing of the Paris Peace Treaty and the victory of Great Britain over France in the struggle for colonies and commercial superiority.

1761–1762- the reign of Peter III Fedorovich, son of Anna Petrovna and Karl Friedrich.

1762. - the adoption by Peter III of the "Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility" (the release of the nobles from compulsory service to the state).

1762–1796- reign of Catherine II.

1764. - the abolition of the hetman's rule in Ukraine. Transfer of control of the Left-Bank Ukraine to the Little Russian Collegium.

1764. - issuance of a decree on the secularization of church and monastery lands and the transfer of 2 million monastic peasants to the state category.

1767–1768- the activities of the Legislative Commission in order to develop a new set of laws. Disbanded by Catherine II after the start of the war with Turkey.

1768. - the creation of assignation banks, which began issuing paper money.

1768–1774- Russian-Turkish war. According to the Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace treaty, the Crimean Khanate passes under the protectorate of Russia. Russia receives the mouths of the Dnieper and the Southern Bug and part of the steppe between them, the cities of Azov, Kerch, Kinburn, the right to free navigation on the Black Sea and the passage of merchant ships through the Black Sea straits.

1772, 1793, 1795- partitions of Poland - the first between Russia, Prussia and Austria, the second - between Russia and Prussia, the third - Russia, Prussia and Austria. Right-bank Ukraine and Belarus, the Southern Baltic States went to Russia.

1773–1775- peasant war led by E. Pugachev. Participants: peasants, Cossacks, working people, national minorities. It covered the Orenburg Territory, the Urals, the Urals, Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga regions. Causes of the war: the strengthening of serfdom and exploitation, the restriction of Cossack self-government, the introduction of army orders in the Cossack regiments. Has been defeated.

1775. - carrying out by Catherine II of the provincial reform (the abolition of the provinces, the separation of administrative, judicial and financial bodies at all levels). 1783. - the entry of Crimea into the Russian Empire.

1783. - Signing of the Treaty of St. George. The transition of Eastern Georgia under the protectorate of Russia.

1785. - issuance of letters of commendation to the nobility and cities (fixing the class rights and privileges of the nobility, the class structure in cities, the creation of city governments).

1787–1791- Russian-Turkish war.

Reasons: the aggravation of the Eastern Question in connection with the outbreak of the Greek uprising against Turkish rule in 1821, the desire of Turkey to return the Crimea and other territories that were ceded to Russia during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768–1774. It ended with the Peace of Yassy (confirmed the annexation of the Crimea and Kuban to Russia and established the Russian-Turkish border along the Dniester River).

1796–1801- reign of Paul I.

1797. - the abolition of the order of succession to the throne established by Peter I. Restoration of succession to the throne by birthright in the male line.

1797. - the publication by Paul I of a manifesto on a three-day corvee and a ban on landowners to force peasants to work on Sundays and church holidays.

1799., April-August- Italian campaign of Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov during the war of the second coalition (Great Britain, Austria, Russia, Turkey, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies) against France. Liberation of Italy from French domination.

1799., September October- Swiss campaign of Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov during the war of the II coalition (Great Britain, Austria, Russia, Turkey, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies) against France. Russia's exit from the war, the conclusion of an alliance with Napoleon, the break in relations with England.

We present you all the dates in the history of Russia, which are structured according to the chronology of events, and also divided by historical eras and times. Please note that only the main events are collected here, all these dates are periodically updated and supplemented so that in the end you will find all possible dates here.

➤Dates of Kievan Rus➤Dates of Specific Rus➤Dates of the 17th century➤Dates of the 18th century➤Dates of the 19th century ➤Dates of the 20th century

Important dates in the history of Russia during the period of Kievan Rus

StartEventEnd

862	Calling Rurik to reign
882	Prince Oleg captured Kyiv
907, 911	Oleg's campaigns against Constantinople
941	Unsuccessful campaign of Igor Constantinople
945	The uprising of the Drevlyane tribe, after which Prince Igor was killed
957	Princess Olga was baptized in Constantinople
988	Russia adopts Christianity as the state religion
1016	Acceptance of Russian Truth
1097	Congress of princes in Lyubech
1136	Novgorod was declared a Republic
1147	Moscow is mentioned for the first time in chronicles
1169	Andrei Bogolyubsky captures Kyiv

All dates in the history of specific Russia

StartEventEnd

31 May 1223	Battle on the Kalka River
1237	The invasion of Batu Khan and his hordes	1240
March 4, 1238	Battle on the City River between Russia and the Horde. Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich died in battle
1240	Tatar-Mongol yoke	1480
April 5, 1242	Battle on the Ice
15 July 1240	Neva battle
1327	Revolt in Tver. After him, Moscow began to rise above other cities and principalities
8 September 1380	Battle of Kulikovo
1478	Novgorod became subordinate to Moscow
1480	Great standing on the river Ugra
1547	Ivan 4 (the Terrible) declares himself tsar
1549	The work of the Chosen Rada	1560
1549	Convocation of the first Zemsky Sobor
1552	Accession of the Kazan Khanate to Russia (capture of Kazan)
1556	Accession of the Astrakhan Khanate to Russia (capture of Astrakhan)
1558	Livonian War	1583
1565	Oprichnina	1572
1591	Uglich case - the murder of Tsarevich Dmitry

Dates of the history of Russia - 17th century

StartEventEnd

1603	Time of Troubles in Russia	1613
1606	Rebellion of Ivan Bolotnikov	October 10, 1607
1610	Seven Boyars	1613
October 26, 1612	The liberation of Moscow from the Polish invaders, as a result of the militia
1613	Zemsky Sobor elected the Romanovs to reign
1632	Smolensk war	1634
1648	Salt riot in Moscow
1653	Patriarch Nikon is carrying out church reform. In fact, the church schism began	1656
January 8, 1654	Ukraine was annexed to Russia
1654	War between Russia and Poland	1667
July 25, 1662	Copper riot in Moscow
1666	Rebellion of Vasily Us
1667	Uprising (peasant war) by Stapan Razin	1671
1689	Princess Sophia was exiled to a monastery
1697	The Great Embassy of Tsar Peter 1 to Europe	1698

Dates of the history of Russia in the 18th century

StartEventEnd

1700	North War	1721
May 27, 1703	The city of Saint Petersburg was founded
1705	Bashkir uprising	1711
1705	Astrakhan uprising	1706
1707	Rebellion of Kondraty Bulavin	1710
June 27, 1709	Poltava battle
1721	Peter 1 declares himself Emperor of Russia
1725	Palace coups in Russia	1762
1756	Seven Years' War	1762
1768		1774
1773	Rebellion of Emulyan Pugachev	1775
1787	War between Russia and Turkey	1791
1799	Suvorov performs a "feat" - Swiss and Italian campaigns

Dates of the history of Russia in the 19th century

StartEventEnd

March 11, 1801	Assassination of Paul 1
1801	Reign of Alexander 1	1825
1801	Georgia was annexed to the Russian Empire
1802	Reforms of Mikhail Speransky	1810
1803	Decree "On free cultivators" adopted
1804	War between Russia and Iran	1813
1805	War between Russia and France	1807
1806	War between Russia and Turkey	1812
1807	Peace of Tilsit
1808	War between Russia and Sweden	1809
1809	Finland was included in the Russian Empire
June 12, 1812	Patriotic War with Napoleonic France
August 26, 1812	Battle of Borodino
October 7, 1812	Napoleon gives the order to retreat from Moscow
1813	Foreign campaign of the Russian army	1814
1817	War in the Caucasus (annexation of Dagestan and Chechnya)	1864
1825	The reign of Nicholas 1	1855
December 14, 1825	Decembrist uprising on Senate Square
1826	War between Russia and Persia	1828
1828	War between Russia and Turkey	1829
1830	cholera riots	1831
1853	Crimean War	1856
November 18, 1853	Sinop battle
1855	Reign of Alexander 2	1881
1867	Sale of Alaska to the USA
1877	War between Russia and Turkey	1878
March 1, 1881	Assassination of Alexander 2
1891		1905
1894	Construction of the Siberian Railway	1917
1895	A. Popov invented the radio
1898	1st Congress of the RSDLP (held in Minsk)

Dates of Russian history 20th century

StartEventEnd

1903	2nd Congress of the RSDLP (held in Brussels and London)
1904	Russo-Japanese War	1905
January 9, 1905	Bloody Sunday
December 9, 1905	Uprising in Moscow	December 19, 1905
1906	The beginning of Stolypin's agrarian reform
September 1, 1917	Russia was proclaimed a Republic
March 3, 1918	Signing of the Brest peace treaty
December 30, 1922	Documents on the formation of the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) were signed
January 21, 1924	Vladimir Lenin (Ulyanov) died
1924	The first Constitution of the USSR was adopted
September 18, 1934	USSR was admitted to the League of Nations
December 1, 1934	S.M. was killed in Leningrad. Kirov. In the future, this served as the beginning of mass repressions.
August 23, 1939	Signing of the Molotov-Ribbetrop non-aggression pact between Germany and the USSR
September 1, 1939	Beginning of World War II
November 30, 1939	The USSR starts a war against Finland
March 13, 1940	USSR and Finland sign a peace treaty
June 16, 1940	The Red Army (Red Army) enters the Baltic
June 28, 1940	The Red Army enters the territory of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina
June 22, 1941	The beginning of the Great Patriotic War (Germany invades the territory of the USSR)	May 9, 1945
July 7, 1941	Kyiv defensive operation (beginning of the war)	September 26, 1941
July 10, 1941	Battle for Smolensk	September 10, 1941
September 8, 1941	The beginning of the defense of Leningrad is one of the landmark events of the WWII period
September 30, 1941	Defense of Moscow	December 5, 1941
December 6, 1941	Counteroffensive near Moscow (part of the defense of the capital)	January 10, 1942
July 17, 1942	Defense of Stalingrad	November 19, 1942
July 28, 1942	The famous order "Not a step back!" is signed, it is known under the number 227
November 29, 1942	Soviet troops began to liberate Ukraine
July 5, 1943	Battle of Kursk (Kursk salient)	August 23, 1943
November 6, 1943	Red Army liberated Kyiv
November 19, 1942	The defeat of the Germans near Stalingrad (one of the stages of the battle)	February 2, 1943
January 18, 1943	There was a breakthrough of the besieged Leningrad
November 28, 1943	Tehran Conference	December 1, 1943
March 17, 1991	Referendum on the preservation of the USSR (76.4% of the votes for preservation)
June 12, 1991	Boris Yeltsin won the election of the President of the RSFSR (57.3% of the vote)
December 8, 1991	Signed "Bolovezhsky agreement"
December 25, 1991	Mikhail Gorbachev resigns as President of the USSR
September 1993	B.N. Yeltsin signs a decree on constitutional reforms
October 3, 1993	Armed clashes in Moscow. Shelling of the White House	October 4, 1993
December 1994	The armed forces of the Russian Federation were brought into Chechnya to restore constitutional order
December 31, 1994	Storming the city of Grozny
1996	The Russian Federation is admitted to the Council of Europe
1998	The Russian Federation is a member of the G8
September 1999	Counter-terrorist operation in Chechnya (beginning of the second Chechen campaign)
March 2000	Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin elected President of Russia

These are all the dates in the history of Russia that every person who considers Russia their homeland should know. After all, knowing history is a necessity that gives an understanding of who we really are, as well as for understanding the lessons that history teaches us. These key dates are updated periodically.

Key dates in Russian history 18th century

1700 - Transition to a common European account of years

1702 - Capture of the Noteburg fortress by the Russians.

1703 - The first Russian newspaper Vedomosti.

1705 - The beginning of the Astrakhan uprising (until 1706) and the Bashkir uprising (until 1711)

1708 - The beginning of the regional reform - the establishment of eight provinces (until 1710). Introduction of civil type

1709 - Battle of Poltava (June 27). Flight of Charles XII to Turkey. Accession to Russia of Estonia and Livonia. Treaty of Copenhag with Denmark

1710 - The loss of the Baltic States by the Swedes. Russia went to the Baltic.

1711 - Establishment of the Senate. Prut campaign of Peter and the Prut peace treaty with Turkey; Russia's loss of the Sea of Azov.

1712 - Transfer of the capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg

1713 - Convention on the withdrawal of Russian troops from Germany. Truce with Turkey for 25 years.

1715 - Allied treaty with Hanover

1716 - Bookmark Omsk. Famine in Russia. Opening of the port of Okhotsk

1717 - Establishment of nine colleges - the beginning of the replacement of orders by colleges (until 1721). Russian-Prussian-French treaty

1718 - Tax reform - the introduction of poll taxation. Start of construction of the Ladoga Canal (until 1732), First revision (until 1724)

The second stage of the regional reform is the division of the country into 11 provinces, 50 provinces and districts

1721 - Peace of Nystadt (August 30). End of the Northern War. Peter 1 emperor. Regulations of the Chief Magistrate. The establishment of the Synod. Spiritual regulation.

1722 - Introduction of the "Table of Ranks". "Charter on the Succession to the Throne". Shop reform. Establishment of the post of Prosecutor General under the Senate (Senate supervision).

1723 - Peace treaty with Persia

1724 - Treaty of Constantinople with Turkey:

1725 - Opening of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. The beginning of the reign of Catherine I (until 1727)

1726 - Establishment of the Supreme Privy Council

1727 - The introduction of the hetmanship in Ukraine (until 1734).

1731 - The second single customs tariff. Cancellation of distinctions between a fiefdom and an estate. Opening of the Ladoga Canal. Allowing free trade to foreigners.

1733-1735 - Participation of Russia in the War of the Polish Succession. Strengthening of Russian positions in Poland.

1735 - War with Turkey (until 1739). Bookmark Orenburg. The beginning of a new Bashkir uprising (until 1741)

1739 - Belgrade peace with Turkey. Russia received Zaporozhye and returned Azov.

1740 - Allied treaty with Prussia.

1741 - Palace coup (November 25). Abolition of the Cabinet of Ministers. War with Sweden (until 1743) 1743 "Eternal Peace" with Sweden

1747 - Restoration of the hetmanship in Ukraine (until 1764)

1752 - Foundation of the Naval Cadet Corps

1753 - Abolition of internal customs

1754 - Abolition of the death penalty

1755 - Opening of the Moscow University "Subsidy Convention" with England for four years' anti-Prussian defensive alliance 1756

Anti-Prussian Versailles Treaty of Alliance with France and Austria

1757 - Russia enters the Seven Years' War.

1762 - "Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility" (February 18). Liquidation of the Secret Office. Establishment of the State Bank. Concluding first a separate peace, and then a diplomatic alliance with Prussia. Palace coup - abdication of Peter III from the throne (June 28) in favor of his wife Catherine. Death of Peter III

1764 - The final liquidation of the hetmanship in Ukraine.

1766 - Invention of the world's first Russian steam engine by Ivan Polzunov

1768 - The beginning of the Russian-Turkish war (until 1774)

1771 - Plague epidemic in Moscow.

1772 - First partition of Poland between Russia, Austria and Prussia. Russia ceded Eastern Belarus with Gomel, Mogilev, Vitebsk and Polotsk

1773-1775 - Peasant war under the leadership of E.I. Pugachev.

1774 - On July 10, the Kuchuk-Kainarji peace was signed with Turkey: Russia received the mouth of the Dnieper, Don, Bug, the steppe between the Bug and the Dnieper, the fortresses of Kerch and Yenikale. Turkey recognized the independence of Crimea

1776 - Sending the first Russian merchant ship to America

1780 - The final design of the division of the merchants into three guilds.

1783 - Manifesto "On the adoption of the Russian state" of the Crimea, Taman and Kuban (April 8). Treaty of Georgievsky - Eastern Georgia, led by Heraclius II, recognized the power of Russia over itself, rejecting the dominion of Iran (July 24)

1784 - Opening of the Moscow printing house by I.

I. Novikov

1787-1791 - Russian-Turkish war. Commander-in-Chief of the Russian troops A. V. Suvorov

1788 - War with Sweden (until 1790). Capture of Ochakov

1790 - Peace with Sweden.

1791 - Yassky peace with Turkey (December 29): Turkey recognized the independence of the Crimea Taman, the Russian-Turkish border was recognized as passing along the Dniester, the steppes between the Southern Bug and the Dniester passed to Russia

1793 - Russian-Prussian convention on the division of Poland. Central Belarus and Right-bank Ukraine passed to Russia.

Russo-English Convention on Common Action against France

1794 - War with Poland. Capture of Warsaw

1795 - The third partition of Poland. Russia ceded Western Belarus, Western Volhynia, Lithuania, the Duchy of Courland. The Polish king abdicated.

1797 - Trade agreement with England. The prohibition of the sale of serfs without land. Introduction of press censorship

1798 - Participation of Russia in the II European anti-Napoleonic coalition consisting of England, Austria and Turkey.

1800 - Decree on the prohibition of the importation of books from abroad. Severing relations with Austria and England. Negotiations for an alliance with France. The first edition of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign"

Major events of the 18th century

Peter I issued a decree forbidding kneeling at the sight of the sovereign and taking off his hat in winter, passing by his palace.

(May 16 according to the Julian calendar) Founding of St. Petersburg.

For the first time in Europe, Peter I introduced a mandatory recruitment, from which only civil officials, the clergy and some categories of peasants were exempted.

An uprising of the Ural Bashkirs began (1705 - 1711), dissatisfied with the arbitrariness of Russian officials.

Peter I issued a Decree on the formation of the first marine regiment in Russia

Administrative reform. Russia is divided into 8 (then 11) provinces: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kiev, Kazan, Azov, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk and Siberia. They, in turn, were divided into provinces (about 50), headed by governors.

(according to the Julian calendar - June 27) The victory of Russian troops over the Swedes in the Battle of Poltava

Instead of the managed Boyar Duma, a Senate of 9 members and a chief secretary was created as a temporary commission for governing the country in the absence of the tsar.

Marriage of Tsarevich Alexei to Princess Sophia Charlotte of Wolfenbüttel.

Saint Petersburg officially became the capital of the country. Peter I forced all the higher nobility to move there.

Under the governors, councils of landrats elected by the local nobility were established.

The wedding of Peter I with a former maid from Livonia Marta Skavronskaya (later Catherine I).

The new status of the nobility: hereditary possessions (patrimonies) and lands received for service merge into a single concept of "estates".

All the landlords complain only about their service.

The second trip of Peter I to the west.

Peter I arrived in Paris, where he talked with the regent, visited the academy, the Sorbonne, the observatory, the opera and met with the young Louis XV.

Restructuring of the central government: the old orders were replaced by collegiums, each consisting of 11 members. Judicial reform: governors are deprived of judicial powers. tax reform.

Tsarevich Alexei, who had fled abroad, was returned to St. Petersburg and put on trial. He refuses to inherit the throne.

The former princess Evdokia was exiled to a monastery on the shores of Lake Ladoga.

(June 15, Julian calendar.) Tsarevich Alexei, sentenced to death, dies in prison from torture.

Peter I issued a Decree on the construction of the first brewery in St. Petersburg (on the Vyborg side).

Tsarevich Peter, the official heir, died.

(October 11, Julian calendar.) The Senate abolished the title of tsar and proclaimed Peter I emperor.

(November 7 to the Julian calendar.) In 1721, a metallurgical plant and a fortress were laid on the Iset River, which later became the city of Yekatrinburg.

Ukraine is deprived of the right to self-government and free election of a hetman. Its management is entrusted to the Little Russian Collegium.

Peter I issued a decree on succession to the throne: the reigning emperor is given the right to arbitrarily appoint an heir.

(January 13 according to the Julian calendar) Edition of the "Table of Rags".

(November 7, according to the Julian calendar) The metallurgical plant and the fortress on the Iset River were put into operation and in honor of the Empress and with her consent was named Yekatrinburg.

(according to the Julian calendar 08.11) On the night of November 19-20, the regent of the infant emperor IVAN VI, Ernst Johann BIRON, was overthrown by Burchardt MINICH, imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress and sentenced to death (later replaced by exile in Pelym). The regent was the mother of Ivan VI ANNA LEOPOLDOVNA.

Tsesarevich Peter (III) married Sophia Frederica of Anhalt-Tserbskaya (Catherine II).

The future King of France Louis XVIII (1755.11.17 - 1824.09.16) was born.

(November 17, O.S.) The Russian Imperial Academy of Arts was established in St. Petersburg.

(according to the Julian calendar, December 25, 1761) Peter III Fedorovich, the son of Anna Petrovna and Karl Friedrich, ascended the throne.

Peter III abolished the Secret Chancellery and abolished torture.

Peter III reduces the tax on salt and abolishes customs duties.

Issued banknotes for 5,000 rubles.

Manifesto on granting liberties and freedom to the Russian nobility - exemption from military service.

(according to the Julian calendar on April 13) Peter III makes peace with Prussia.

(according to the Julian calendar, May 29) Peter III concludes an alliance with Prussia and sends Russian troops (Z.G. Chernyshev) to help the Prussians.

(according to the Julian calendar on June 14) Peter III opened the Lutheran church in Oranienbaum and equalizes its rights with the Orthodox.

(according to the Julian calendar on June 28) A coup d'etat - the Orlov brothers with Panin at the head of the guard proclaim Catherine the Empress.

(according to the Julian calendar June 29) Abdication of Peter III.

(according to the Julian calendar July 6) Peter III was killed under mysterious circumstances.

The Senate approves the coup d'etat.

The Senate passes the Decree on the abolition of all monopolies.

(according to the Julian calendar September 02) Catherine II was crowned in Moscow.

(according to the Julian calendar on September 21) Khrushchev-Guryev's conspiracy to enthrone Ivan Antonovich, who was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress, was revealed.

Church lands are transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economics.

(according to the Julian calendar March 31) A new alliance with Prussia over Poland.

Trip of Catherine II to Courland.

(according to the Julian calendar July 4) Ivan Antonovich was killed during an attempt by V.Ya.Mirovich to organize his escape from the fortress.

(according to the Julian calendar June 26) "Order" Catherine II - a presentation of her political theories.

(according to the Julian calendar on February 18) A Confederation was formed in Poland with a center in Bar - military clashes between the Confederates and the Russian garrisons.

(according to the Julian calendar September 25) The beginning of the Russian-Turkish war. Prussia sends financial aid to Russia (according to the agreement).

Russian troops take the Khotyn fortress (the way to Moldova)

Alexei Orlov with a squadron raises an uprising against the Turks in the Balkans.

(according to the Julian calendar October 01) Treaty with Prussia on the protection of dissidents (Protestants and Orthodox) in Poland.

The George Cross was established in Russia.

Alexei Orlov burns the Turkish fleet, hiding in Chesma Bay.

P.A. Rumyantsev breaks the forces of the Grand Vizier.

Meeting of Frederick II (Prussia) and Joseph II (Austria), concerned about the strengthening of Russia.

P.I. Panin takes the Bendery fortress in Bessarabia.

Prince Henry of Prussia arrives in St. Petersburg to mediate in concluding peace with Turkey.

Russian troops occupy the Crimea.

(according to the Julian calendar, December 24, 1771) Secret treaty between Catherine II and Frederick II on the division of Poland.

(according to the Julian calendar on February 08) Catherine II's secret treaty with Joseph II on the division of Poland.

(according to the Julian calendar July 25) The first partition of Poland - the right bank of the Western Dvina and Eastern Belarus (Polotsk, Vitebsk, Mogilev).

Ernst Johann Biron (December 3, 1690 - December 28, 1772), count of Courland, favorite of Anna Ivanovna, died. He was known as a great lover and connoisseur of horses. The Austrian ambassador at the St. Petersburg court, Count Ostein, testified: "He talks about horses like a man, and about people like a horse." Once Biron asked the court jester Kulkovsky: - What do the Russians think of me? “Your Grace, some consider you God, others consider you Satan, but no one considers you a man,” Kulkovsky answered.

Emelyan Pugachev, under the name of Peter III, who miraculously escaped, begins an uprising of the Yaik Cossacks.

Mikhelson defeats the Pugachev detachments near Tsaritsyn and takes 18,000 prisoners.

(according to the Julian calendar December 14) Emelyan Pugachev was captured.

(according to the Julian calendar January 10) The execution of Emelyan Pugachev.

King Louis XVI of France appeared before the court of the Convention.

(according to the Julian calendar on November 06) Catherine II died (nee German princess Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst)

Coronation of Emperor Paul I in Moscow. By his first decree, Paul abolished the order of succession to the throne by testament established by Peter I and introduced inheritance by birthright through the male line. .

France has adopted the metric system.

Russia in the 18th century.

1. Features of the historical process in Russia in the 18th century.

2. Reforms of Peter 1 and their impact on the history of Russia.

3. The era of palace coups and its consequences.

4. "Enlightened Absolutism" by CatherineII.

5. PavelI.

1. The 18th century is in many ways a turning point in world and Russian history, a time of violent social upheavals. It contained the grandiose reforms of Peter I, which radically changed the face of Russia, an endless series of palace coups. This is the time of the great reforms of Catherine II, the heyday of Russian culture, the time of sharp class battles (peasant wars led by K. Bulavin (1707-1709), E. Pugachev (1773-1775).

The 18th century is the heyday, and then the crisis of the feudal system. In Europe, the decline of absolutism begins. In Russia, at that time, feudalism was experiencing a period of apogee, but since the end of the century, the crisis of the feudal system has been intensifying, however, unlike the West, the crisis of feudalism was accompanied not by a narrowing of its scope, but by spreading to new territories. The 18th century is the time of constant wars for the expansion of the territory of Russia. Back in the 17th century, Siberia, the Far East, and Ukraine became part of Russia. In the 18th century, it included Northern Kazakhstan, the Baltic states, Belarus, the Baltic, the Black and Azov seas. The multinationality of Russia grew. In the 18th century, the population more than doubled (37.5 million people). New big cities are emerging. At the beginning of the century, Russia is experiencing an industrial boom. In agriculture, serfdom continues to dominate. The basis of the social structure was the estate principle. The taxable estates were artisans, peasants, philistines, merchants up to 1 guild. The boyars are increasingly losing their leading positions. During the time of Catherine the Second, the nobles, who received huge benefits, became the first estate. The privileged classes also included foreigners, clergy, Cossack foremen.

In the 18th century, the nature of power changed. Under Peter I, absolutism (autocracy) was finally established. Subsequently, there is a transformation of absolutism into the regime of the enlightened monarchy of Catherine II. The 18th century was characterized by constant, comprehensive intervention of the state in the affairs of society, the role of a catalyst for many processes was played by wars - out of 36 years of the reign of Peter I, Russia fought for 29 years.

2. In the 17th century Russia remained a deeply patriarchal state. The Russian tsars Michael (1613-1645) and his son Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676) were old people, and Russia needed to be modernized. The first attempts at reforms were carried out by the son of Alexei - Fedor (1676 -1682). Alexei had 11 children, and he was an exemplary family man. Under the influence of Sophia, the sister of Peter I, after the death of Fedor, Peter I and Ivan V were proclaimed kings (Ivan V is the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in the line of the Miloslavskys). Only in 1689 did Peter overthrow Sophia (she died in a monastery), and in 1696 Peter I became the sole tsar. He ruled for 36 years - from 1689 to 1725. He is considered the largest reformer in Russia.

Peter was a classic supporter of the ideology of rationalism. His ideal was a regular state headed by a sage on the throne. He believed that the state is the fruit of creation not of God, but of man, it can be built like a house. Therefore, it is necessary to invent wise laws that the sage on the throne will put into practice. The state is a tool to make society happy (illusion). Peter wanted clear laws for all occasions. The main idea of Peter is the modernization of Russia "from above" (without the participation of the people), according to the European model. From Peter to the present day, there has been a tendency to catch up with the West, from which we have lagged behind "thanks" to the Mongol-Tatars.

In the first years, Peter looked closely and outlined a plan for reforms (amusing troops, amusing ships). He travels abroad, visits France, Holland, England, Switzerland, Belgium, where he gets acquainted with the experience of Europe. As a simple soldier, Peter participated in two campaigns against Azov. Peter knew 15 crafts, he sought to adopt all the best in the West. Peter is difficult to compare with anyone else. He was a genius, but next to him there were no people of the same rank.

He was a man of enormous stature (2m 4 cm) and gigantic strength.

The main reforms of Peter turned out to be in tune with the interests of Russia. The first recruitment was held in 1705, and the last - in 1874. That is, recruitment sets lasted 169 years.

The Senate, the main governing body of the country, existed for 206 years - from 1711 to 1917.

The synod, the state governing body of the church, existed for 197 years, from 1721 to 1918.

The poll tax existed for 163 years - from 1724 to 1887. Before the poll tax, there was a household.

Peter's reforms were comprehensive and affected all spheres of life. The Petrine system of government was distinguished by: unification and militarization (out of 36 years of Peter's reign, Russia fought for 29 years), centralization and excessive differentiation of functions. Under Peter, the book “Honest Mirrors of Youth” was published, it gave a description of the behavior of young people in different places and in different situations.

The reforms affected the management system. New authorities were created: the Senate, the prosecutor's office (1722) and the Synod, the institute of fiscals (the eye of the sovereign - secret inspection).

In 1718, instead of the Orders, Collegiums were created - collective management bodies (Commerce Collegium, Manufactory Collegium, Berg Collegium, etc.).

Peter changed the system of territorial administration. He introduced the Town Hall and Zemsky huts - the main tax collectors. Town Hall - in the capital cities, zemstvo - in the field.

In 1708, a regional reform was carried out, according to which 8 provinces were created, headed by governors general. After 10 years, the country was divided into 50 provinces. In 1720, Peter created the main magistrate - the body for the administration of territories.

The General Regulations was created - a collection of basic legislative acts.

Peter I destroys the Boyar Duma, but breeds bureaucracy - the Senate, the Synod.

His reforms in the field of economy and culture were radical. From the beginning of the 18th century Peter begins building an industrial base in the Urals, a fleet. In the conditions of the Northern War, he carries out a monetary reform - reduces the amount of metal in money.

Trying to protect Russian industry from competition, he is pursuing an active policy of protectionism (protecting his industry through high customs tariffs) and mercantilism (encouraging his own entrepreneurs). The economy is booming. The number of manufactories increased 10 times. Russia's exports exceeded imports by almost 2 times (surplus).

Under Peter, the life and traditions of society change radically. In 1703, he creates an ideal city - St. Petersburg - a model for the whole country.

Peter introduced a new chronology - from the birth of Christ - the Julian calendar (from the creation of the world). The New Year does not begin on September 1st, but on January 1st. Peter introduced the celebration of the New Year (this tradition of bringing spruce branches came from Peter). He created the first library, the first public newspaper Vedomosti, the first museum, the first state theater. He developed the idea of creating the Academy of Sciences, but Peter died in January 1725, and the Academy was created according to his project, but after his death.

Peter created a wide network of primary schools, digital schools, a network of parish schools, education becomes a priority area. The first specialized institutions appear: artillery, medical schools, mathematical and navigational sciences (Sukharev Tower). Peter changes household traditions, he organizes assemblies (parties), where young people played chess and checkers. Peter brought in tobacco and coffee. The nobles learned the art of etiquette. Peter introduced European clothing and the shaving of beards. There was a beard tax of 100 rubles (5 rubles could buy 20 cows).

In 1721, Peter took the title of emperor, and in 1722 he introduced the Table of Ranks (ladder to the future), according to which the entire population was divided into 14 ranks (chancellor, vice-chancellor, secret adviser, etc.).

Thus, Peter's reforms radically changed Russia. The French sculptor Etienne Maurice Falcone captured the image of Peter in the form of a sculpture of the Bronze Horseman, in which the horse personifies Russia, while the rider is Peter.

The ideal of Peter - a regular state - turned out to be a utopia. Instead of the ideal, a police state was created. The price of Peter's reforms was too high. He acted on the principle "The end justifies the means."

Peter is a figure of enormous historical scale, complex and contradictory. He was smart, inquisitive, hardworking, energetic. Having not received a proper education, he, nevertheless, possessed extensive knowledge in various fields of science, technology, crafts, and military art. But many qualities of Peter's character were due to the nature of the harsh era in which he lived, determined his cruelty, suspicion, lust for power. Peter liked being compared to Ivan the Terrible. In achieving his goals, he did not disdain any means, he was cruel to people (1689 chopped off the heads of archers, looked at people as material for the implementation of his plan). During the reign of Peter in the country, taxes increased by 3 times and the population decreased by 15%. Peter did not stop before using the most sophisticated methods of the Middle Ages: he used torture, surveillance, and encouraged denunciations. He was convinced that in the name of the state good, moral standards can be neglected.

Merits of Peter:

Peter made a gigantic contribution to the creation of a mighty Russia with a strong army and navy.

He contributed to the creation of industrial production in the state (a giant leap in the development of productive forces).

His merit is the modernization of the state machine.

Reforms in the field of culture.

However, the nature of their implementation was reduced to the mechanical transfer of cultural stereotypes of the West, the suppression of the development of national culture.

Peter's reforms aimed at the Europeanization of Russia are grandiose in scope and consequences, but they could not ensure the long-term progress of the country, because. were carried out by force and consolidated a rigid system based on forced labor.

2 . With the light hand of V.O. Klyuchevsky, the period from 1725 to 1762. 37 years of our history began to be called "the era of palace coups." Peter I changed the traditional order of succession to the throne. Previously, the throne passed in a direct male descending line, and according to the manifesto of February 5, 1722, the monarch himself appointed his successor. But Peter did not have time to appoint an heir. A power struggle between the two factions began. One supported Catherine I - the wife of Peter (Tolstoy, Menshikov), the other - the grandson of Peter I - Peter II (the old aristocracy). The outcome of the case was decided by the guards. From 1725 to 1727 Catherine I ruled. She was incapable of governing. In February 1726, the Supreme Privy Council was created, headed by Menshikov. Before her death, Catherine drew up a decree on succession to the throne (testament), according to which power was to belong to Peter II - the grandson of Peter I, the son of Tsarevich Alexei, and then Anna Ioannovna - the niece of Peter I, then Anna Petrovna and Elizabeth Petrovna (daughter of Peter I). After the death of Catherine I, Peter II came to the throne - a boy of 12 years old, the son of Alexei, under whom Menshikov ruled. In the autumn of 1727, Menshikov was arrested and stripped of his ranks and ranks. Under him, affairs were managed by a secret council, and the main occupations of Peter II were hunting and love joys.

After the death of Peter II, Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740) came to power. She was the daughter of Ivan V, the brother of Peter I. She was not distinguished by intelligence, beauty, or education. She handed over control to Ernst Biron, Duke of Courland (since 1737). The reign of Anna Ioannovna was called "Bironism". During her reign, the autocracy was strengthened, the duties of the nobles were reduced and their rights were expanded over the peasants. Before her death, Anna Ioannovna announced her successor to the infant John VI Antonovich, the son of her niece. Biron was regent under Ivan, and then his mother, Anna Leopoldovna.

On November 25, 1741, Elizabeth Petrovna, the daughter of Peter I, came to power, overthrowing the young Ivan with the help of the Guards. She ruled for 20 years - from 1741 to 1761. The cheerful and loving empress did not devote much time to public affairs. Her policy was distinguished by caution and softness. She was the first in Europe to abolish the death penalty. Klyuchevsky called her "a smart and kind, but disorderly and wayward Russian young lady."

Peter III (Karl Peter Ulrich - son of Anna Petrovna - daughter of Peter I and Duke Karl Friedrich) ruled for 6 months (from December 25, 1761 to June 28, 1762) (born 1728-1762). His wife was Catherine II the Great. Peter was not respected either by his wife, or by the courtiers, or by the guards, or in society.

On June 28, 1762, a palace coup took place. Peter III was forced to abdicate, and a few days later he was killed.

4. The era of palace coups is ending, the Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II begins.

Like Peter I, Catherine II went down in history under the name of Catherine the Great. Her reign became a new era in the history of Russia. The beginning of the reign was difficult for Catherine in moral terms. Peter III was the legitimate sovereign, the grandson of Peter the Great, and Catherine was actually called Sophia Frederica-August, the German princess Anhald of Zerbst. She showed herself as a patriot of the Russian land. For the first 15 years, she did not play a significant role in state affairs. She persistently studied the Russian language and literature, the works of ancient authors, the works of French enlighteners, the traditions and customs of the Russian people. Catherine's first steps spoke of her mind. One of her decrees reduced taxes on bread and salt. Catherine was the first to inoculate herself against smallpox and saved the lives of thousands of peasants.

She was crowned in Moscow on September 22, 1762 (she awarded everyone who helped her - the participants in the coup received land with serfs, ranks, money). Catherine was a typical Westerner. She tried to introduce the ideas of enlightenment and freedom in Russia. Catherine was a supporter of autocracy and a prominent follower of Peter I. She wanted to create in Russia a regime of enlightened absolutism - a regime in which the monarch cares about the freedom, welfare and enlightenment of the people. The monarch is the sage on the throne. True freedom, according to Catherine, consisted in strict observance of the law. She came up with the idea of limiting state intervention in the economy, defended the freedom of entrepreneurship. Catherine provided extensive benefits to manufactories. Its main goal is to strengthen the social support of absolutism, making the nobles the first estate. Until 1775, reforms were carried out spontaneously (spontaneously), and from 1775 the second stage of reforms began, which finally established the power of the nobility in Russia.

Catherine tried to develop new legislation based on the principles of the Enlightenment. In 1767, a commission was created to review Russian laws, which received the name laid down. The commission was made up of deputies from different class groups - the nobility, townspeople, state peasants, Cossacks. The deputies came to the commission with instructions from their electors. Catherine turned to the Commission with the Order, which used the ideas of Montesquieu, the Italian lawyer Beccaria on the state and laws. In December 1768, the Commission stopped its work in connection with the Russian-Turkish war. The main goal - the development of the Code - has not been achieved. But this helped Catherine to get acquainted with the problems and needs of the population.

The largest act of Catherine was Letter of Complaint to the nobility and cities in 1785. It determined the rights and privileges of the nobility. It finally took shape as a privileged class. In this document, the old privileges were confirmed - the right to own peasants, lands, subsoil, freedom from the poll tax, recruitment duty, corporal punishment, the transfer of noble titles by inheritance and freedom from public service.

In the Letter of Complaint to the cities, all the rights and privileges of the cities described by previous legislation were listed: the exemption of the top merchants from the poll tax and the replacement of recruitment duty with a cash contribution. The charter divided the urban population into 6 categories and defined the rights and obligations of each of them. The privileged group of citizens included the so-called. eminent citizens: merchants (capital over 50 thousand rubles), wealthy bankers (at least 100 thousand rubles), and urban intelligentsia (architects, painters, composers, scientists). Another privileged group included the guild merchants, which were divided into 3 guilds. The merchants of the first two guilds were exempted from corporal punishment, but the last one was not. The letter of grant to the cities introduced a complex system of city self-government. The most important body of self-government was the city-wide “Meeting of the City Society”, which was assembled once every three years, at which officials were elected: the mayor, burgomasters, assessors of the magistrate, etc. The executive body was the six-vowel Duma, which consisted of the mayor and six vowels - one from each category of the urban population.

Senate reform

It was divided into 6 departments with 5 senators each. At the head of each was the Chief Prosecutor. Each department had certain powers: the first (headed by the Prosecutor General himself) was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second - judicial in St. Petersburg, the third - transport, medicine, science, education, art, the fourth - military land and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow Judicial Department. The general powers of the Senate were reduced, in particular, it lost its legislative initiative and became the body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest judicial authority. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

Before the reform, senators could sit back and considered it their task to be present in the institution, and in departments the ability to hide behind others was reduced. The effectiveness of the work of the Senate has increased significantly.

The Senate became the body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court, but lost the legislative initiative, which passed to Catherine.

Since 1764, Catherine has been holding land secularization and peasants. 1 million peasants were taken away from the church. The church became part of the state machine. In the same year, Catherine liquidated the autonomy of Ukraine.

Catherine tried to solve the peasant issue - to limit the power of the landowners, but the nobles and the aristocracy did not support these attempts, and subsequently decrees were issued that strengthened the power of the landowners.

In 1765, a Decree was adopted on the right of landowners to exile peasants to Siberia without trial. In 1767 - about the prohibition of peasants to complain about the landowners. The time of Catherine is the time of serfdom. Taxes on peasants increased by 2 times. In the 1960s and 1970s, a wave of peasant uprisings swept through.

In 1765, Catherine founded the Free Economic Society - the first Russian scientific society (K.D. Kavelin, D.I. Mendeleev, A.M. Butlerov, P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky), which existed until 1915. It published the first statistical-geographic study of Russia, promoted the introduction of new agricultural techniques in agriculture, and discussed economic problems. By decree of Catherine, the Encyclopedia of Labour, Crafts and Arts, banned in the West, is being translated in Russia.

In 1765, Catherine issued two Decrees: "On General Land Surveying", according to which the nobles secured the previously received lands and "On distillation", according to which the nobles received a monopoly on the production of alcohol.

In 1775, the provincial reform. The country was divided into 50 provinces with 10-12 counties in each province. The post of governors, noble assemblies were introduced. A special chamber of public charity was created, which took care of education and health care (schools, hospitals, shelters).

Catherine died in 1796, she reigned for 34 years. By the standards of that time, Catherine lived a long life, died at 66 years old. Her reforms turned out to be ineffective and ineffective, cut off from Russian reality.

To prepare for the seminar

From the Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius:

Catherine, the daughter of Prince Christian-August of Anhalt-Zerbst, who was in the Prussian service, and Princess Johanna-Elisabeth (nee Princess of Holstein-Gottorp), was related to the royal houses of Sweden, Prussia and England. She was educated at home: she studied German and French, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, and theology. Already in childhood, her independent character, curiosity, perseverance and, at the same time, a penchant for lively, outdoor games, manifested itself. In 1744, Catherine and her mother were summoned to Russia by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, baptized according to Orthodox tradition under the name of Catherine Alekseevna and named the bride of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (the future Emperor Peter III), whom she married in 1745.

Catherine set herself the goal of winning the favor of the Empress, her husband and the Russian people. However, her personal life was unsuccessful: Peter was infantile, so during the first years of marriage there was no marital relationship between them. Paying tribute to the cheerful life of the court, Catherine turned to reading French enlighteners and works on history, jurisprudence and economics. These books shaped her worldview. Catherine became a consistent supporter of the ideas of the Enlightenment. She was also interested in the history, traditions and customs of Russia. In the early 1750s. Catherine began an affair with the Guards officer S.V. Saltykov, and in 1754 gave birth to a son, the future Emperor Paul I, but the rumors that Saltykov was Paul's father are unfounded. In the second half of the 1750s. Catherine had an affair with the Polish diplomat S. Poniatowski (later King Stanislaw August), and in the early 1760s. with G. G. Orlov, from whom she gave birth in 1762 to a son, Alexei, who received the surname Bobrinsky. The deterioration of relations with her husband led to the fact that she began to fear for her fate if he came to power and began to recruit supporters for herself at court. The ostentatious piety of Catherine, her prudence, sincere love for Russia - all this contrasted sharply with the behavior of Peter and allowed her to gain authority both among the high-society capital society and the general population of St. Petersburg.

Accession to the throne

During the six months of the reign of Peter III, Catherine's relationship with her husband (who openly appeared in the company of E. R. Vorontsova's mistress) continued to deteriorate, becoming clearly hostile. There was a threat of her arrest and possible deportation. Catherine carefully prepared a conspiracy, relying on the support of the Orlov brothers, N. I. Panin, K. G. Razumovsky, E. R. Dashkova and others. On the night of June 28, 1762, when the emperor was in Oranienbaum, Catherine secretly arrived in St. Petersburg and In the barracks of the Izmailovsky regiment, she was proclaimed an autocratic empress. Soldiers from other regiments soon joined the rebels. The news of Catherine's accession to the throne quickly spread throughout the city and was greeted with enthusiasm by the people of St. Petersburg. To prevent the actions of the deposed emperor, messengers were sent to the army and to Kronstadt. Meanwhile, Peter, having learned about what had happened, began to send proposals for negotiations to Catherine, which were rejected. The empress herself, at the head of the guards regiments, set out for Petersburg and on the way received Peter's written abdication from the throne.

Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent connoisseur of people, she skillfully selected her assistants, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine's time was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers, artists, and musicians. In dealing with subjects, Catherine was, as a rule, restrained, patient, tactful. She was an excellent conversationalist, able to listen carefully to everyone. By her own admission, she did not have a creative mind, but she was good at capturing any sensible thought and using it for her own purposes. During the entire reign of Catherine, there were practically no noisy resignations, none of the nobles was disgraced, exiled, let alone executed. Therefore, there was an idea of Catherine's reign as the "golden age" of the Russian nobility. At the same time, Catherine was very vain and valued her power more than anything in the world. For the sake of her preservation, she is ready to make any compromises to the detriment of her beliefs.

Attitude towards religion and the peasant question

Catherine was distinguished by ostentatious piety, considered herself the head and defender of the Russian Orthodox Church, and skillfully used religion in her political interests. Her faith, apparently, was not too deep. In the spirit of the time, she preached religious tolerance. Under her, the persecution of the Old Believers was stopped, Catholic and Protestant churches, mosques were built, but the transition from Orthodoxy to another faith was still severely punished.

Catherine was a staunch opponent of serfdom, considering it inhumane and contrary to the very nature of man. In her papers, many harsh statements on this subject, as well as discussions about various options for the elimination of serfdom, have been preserved. However, she did not dare to do anything concrete in this area because of the well-founded fear of a noble rebellion and another coup. At the same time, Catherine was convinced of the spiritual underdevelopment of the Russian peasants and therefore was in danger of granting them freedom, believing that the life of the peasants among caring landowners was quite prosperous.

Catherine came to the throne with a well-defined political program based, on the one hand, on the ideas of the Enlightenment and, on the other, taking into account the peculiarities of the historical development of Russia. The most important principles for the implementation of this program were gradual, consistent, taking into account public sentiment.

the first years of her reign, Catherine carried out reform of the Senate (1763), made the work of this institution more efficient; carried out the secularization of church lands (1764), which significantly replenished the state treasury and eased the situation of a million peasants; liquidated the hetmanate in Ukraine, which corresponded to her ideas about the need to unify administration throughout the empire; invited German colonists to Russia for the development of the Volga and Black Sea regions. In the same years, a number of new educational institutions were founded, including the first in Russia educational institutions for women(Smolny Institute, Catherine School). In 1767, she announced the convening of a Commission to draft a new code, consisting of elected deputies from all social groups of Russian society, with the exception of serfs. Catherine wrote for the Commission "Instruction", which was essentially a liberal program of her reign. Catherine's appeals, however, were not understood by the deputies of the Commission, who were arguing over petty issues. In the course of their discussions, deep contradictions between individual social groups, a low level of political culture and the frank conservatism of the majority of the members of the Commission were revealed. At the end of 1768 the Legislative Commission was dissolved. Ekaterina herself appreciated the experience of the Commission as an important lesson that introduced her to the moods of different sections of the country's population.

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