Many parameters of gasoline engines depend on the correct operation of spark plugs.

Serviceability control and their timely replacement is a condition for the correct operation of the vehicle.

Causes of their natural and premature wear

The spark plug works in extremely extreme conditions:

• high temperature in the working cylinder;
• aggressive environment in the form of a mixture of fuel, air and oil;
• high pressure during ignition;
• high voltage and temperature of electric spark.

The simultaneous action of these factors leads to an increase in the processes of their natural wear. This process can be greatly accelerated in the following cases:

• reduction of compression, wear of valve stem seals due to oil ingress into the working volume;
• incorrect installation of the ignition angle, leading to the formation of increased soot;
• selection of candles that do not correspond to the brand of the engine;
• misfiring in cylinders;
• incorrect ratio of gasoline / air in case of malfunctions of the flow meter, air leakage;
• incorrect operation of the injectors.

Signs that you need to replace them

The main sign of the need to replace candles is misfiring (triple). This is not always due to problems with candles. In order to finally decide on the need for their mandatory replacement, the easiest way is to install a known-good one instead of a problematic candle.

It is easiest to determine a possibly faulty spark plug with the engine running. To do this, it is necessary to sequentially disconnect the high-voltage wires (or the connector of an individual ignition coil) from each of them. The non-working cylinder will be the one, when disconnected from which the nature of the engine operation does not change.

Also signs of the required replacement of spark plugs are:

• visual malfunction (contamination, soot in the gap area, change in the normally gray color of soot, its moistening, mechanical chips on the insulator);
• unstable engine speed;
• increased opacity of exhaust gases;
• engine detonation;
• message or on-board computer.

How often should spark plugs be changed

Each manufacturer indicates the period or mileage of candles uptime. This period is calculated for engines with a service life of not more than five years. If the car is equipped with an older engine, the service life (mileage) of the spark plugs is reduced.

There is no clear gradation of mileage and terms for replacing spark plugs. Experienced motorists consider it right to carry out a technical inspection and replace them before the start of each autumn-winter season of operation. If the car is not operated in the cold season, it is rational to carry out control and their necessary replacement in the spring.

Video - when to change spark plugs and why it is important:

Guided by the indications of the car's mileage, the replacement of spark plugs should be done after 15 - 20 thousand kilometers. Iridium and platinum plugs can easily withstand a run of 100,000 km or more, but this is also with a relatively new engine.

Internal combustion engines running on gas have an increased combustion temperature of the fuel-air mixture, their service life should be reduced by 20-30%. Another factor in a similar reduction in the replacement of spark plugs is the use of low-quality gasoline.

Their extraordinary replacement is carried out after a major and major emergency repair, long-term parking of the car.

Replacement sequence

Despite the apparent simplicity, this operation should be taken responsibly. Replacement should be done with a complete set (!). Partial replacement of one or two "walking" candles is possible only for a short time.

A different gap and type of candles, their condition leads to an indispensable failure of the ignition timing, increased detonation, and contributes to increased engine wear.

Based on reference data. Don't rely on "these are the best" recommendations. It is better to purchase products only from trusted manufacturers.

As the main tool for replacing candles, it is better to use a special long head with rubber inserts to grip the candle being removed. Before buying it, you should measure the diameter of the landing design hole.

The standard sizes of candle heads are 16 and 21. The length of the landing zone can be different, up to 180 millimeters in certain engine models. In some cases, a candle tube can be used, but it should be borne in mind that its reliability is less. It is even worse to use special keys from unknown manufacturers in beautiful packages. They can break at the first unscrewing.

The sequence of dismantling candles:

• remove the installed high-voltage wires, having previously noted or photographed the sequence of their installation;
• if the car has individual ignition coils or a block of coils in the near-candle space, dismantle them (in V-shaped engines, this process can be complicated by the need to dismantle part of the intake manifold and other engine elements);
• be sure to check the installation areas of the candles for the presence of foreign objects (when removing the candle, fragments of insulation, other objects can fall directly into the cylinder, cause big problems);
• securely install the candle key, applying medium force, proceed to unscrewing;
• in case of difficulty in the dismantling process, it is necessary to use special means for decoking threaded connections, do not try to apply excessive force;
• remove the candle (if the holding gum has come off, you can do this using the tip of the high-voltage wire);
• it is better to install a plug or throw a clean rag on the vacated hole of the candle (there are many cases when, during the repair process, nuts, washers and other “surprises” get there, that is, into the cylinder).

Video - replacing spark plugs with Renault Logan and Largus (8 valves):

The installation of new ones is carried out, guided by the rules:

• with a clean rag, clean the installation site from oils, dirt (if this place is not available for visual inspection, it is better not to do this: trying to remove contamination from the top of the threaded connection, you can redirect it to the thread);
• when installing new ones, it is necessary to check once again that the seating depth of the candle matches the old one;
• the initial direction of the candle to the seat is done carefully with the help of a candle key, you should not “throw” the candle, this can change the gap;
• pre-twisting should be done with a little effort; if movement is difficult, it is necessary to unscrew and start twisting the candle again;
• the final “squeezing” of the candle is carried out with an average force (a torque wrench is used for this at the service station, the tightening torque is set in the range from 15 to 35 Nm, depending on the thread diameter and type of fit);

• the last step in the installation of candles is the installation of high-voltage wires.

Why change spark plugs if the old ones work?

Theoretically, they can last ten years or more, especially if they are periodically cleaned.

There is an opinion that spark plugs should be changed only when there are obvious signs of wear, repairs associated with ignition problems and the engine as a whole. However, old, albeit serviceable, spark plugs can adversely affect engine performance:

• changing the gap area affects the ignition timing;
• minor misfires lead to increased detonation, mechanical stress;
• dirty candles can cause a breakdown of the ignition coil, high-voltage wires, runner resistor;
• incorrectly working candles affect the environmental performance of the internal combustion engine.

The most dangerous problem with rare spark plug changes is coking of the threaded connection area.. This is fraught with the possibility of thread breakage, damage to the candle during dismantling. In turn, such a malfunction can lead to the need for a major overhaul, even replacing the cylinder block.

Therefore, experienced motorists before the next autumn-spring season of car operation carry out their preventive dismantling and assembly. At the same time, it is possible (and necessary) to make a visual inspection of them.

Serviceable and serviced spark plugs are one of the main factors for the stable operation of a gasoline engine.

Video - spark plug wear and when to change them:

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Comments on the article:

Egor

The main sign that makes you pay attention to candles is, of course, "triple" when the engine is running. Sometimes it helps to flush the spark plug, remove carbon deposits and check the gap, or replace the spark plug with a spark plug of the same model.

Sergey Vasilevich

The main rule - do not pour any rubbish into the gas tank and everything will be in order with candles. In general, everything is fine in the article. And yet, if a new car is not worth bothering with candles at all, even if it is our auto industry.

Sergey

Candles changed a year ago, this decided to visually assess their condition. It turned out to be normal, only the reddish coating and soot were embarrassing. Surprisingly, the candles were perfectly washed with a rust cleaner (I was still working on thresholds that day). After soaking in a cleaner, with a brush and a rag, he removed all the plaque, they shone almost like new ones. Washed in water and dried. I checked the clearance before installation and it was within the normal range. Now they work great.

Michael

I check the condition of the candles every six months or every 10 thousand kilometers (whichever comes first). Usually high-quality candles are easily nursed for 50 thousand km. When checking, be sure to bend the electrodes of the mass by putting a probe 0.8 mm thick in the gap. Usually, over 10 thousand km, the electrodes burn out by one or two tenths of a millimeter, so I consider gap adjustment to be mandatory.
It is also necessary to clean the insulator from soot - either by sandblasting, or at least mechanically picking it up (carefully), since soot is a conductor, and if it is large, instead of a spark between the electrodes, a short circuit will occur through soot, and we will get misfires.

Anatoly

On the ToYoTa engine, you can’t get close to the candles and it’s difficult to check them yourself. And the master in the car service says that it’s not because of the troit ...

Vyacheslav

Now they sell such candles that even 10,000 do not pass (you have to make a replacement). Only the factory ones could serve me for 3 years (51 thousand mileage).

Andrew

If the car engine is new or after a major overhaul and runs smoothly without strain, then for a while you can forget about candles. Unless, as the author of the article objectively recommends, do not forget about the threaded connection. Another thing is when the engine "eats" oil. There carving will not rust. You will need to remove the candles often for cleaning and drying. About a couple of times a month and always have a new set of candles in stock.

Alexei

I also have candles for the third year. I can definitely say that you need to choose them carefully. On the market, I would not advise taking them, it is better - in trusted stores.

Ivan Kozin

I am very attentive to the issue of choosing candles, high-quality and reliable immediately remove a bunch of questions.

Oleg

I always change spark plugs before winter to start normally in cold weather. The car is already 10 years old, there were no problems. It’s better to change a small thing than to hit a big one later.

Sergey

You buy cheap candles - for a maximum of a month, you buy expensive ones - for a maximum of a year. With this market, damn it, everything will soon work strictly until the end of the warranty period.

Andrew

Most often, spark plugs fail due to improper operation of the fuel system. That's why I rarely change spark plugs.

Vadim

I change candles strictly according to the regulations: after 15,00 km of run or one year after installation. Never failed.

Oleg

In order not to be standing in the middle of the road, of course, you need to know the signs of candle failure and how to replace them. Previously, on Soviet cars, when there was practically no electronics in them, they took out a candle and looked to see if there was a spark on it when the engine was running. Now on modern machines, this is extremely dangerous, you can disable the ignition module, switch, burn the coil. Therefore, I do not recommend using old-fashioned methods. It is best to go to the service for computer diagnostics. True, if you know your car and it is not too fancy, you can remove the wires from the spark plugs one by one and listen to how the engine behaves. If you turn off a working candle, then its nature of work will change, as the specialists say, “it will start to triple”, in Russian the engine will shake violently. If nothing changes, we change the candle, it is junk. If nothing changes again, then the direct road to the service. And do not buy candles one at a time - change the set. When buying candles, be sure to take a vehicle registration certificate (there is a VIN number there) so that the seller can find the necessary candles in the catalog. And it is necessary to think about replacing them when: the engine “zatroil”, power dropped and fuel consumption increased.

Karpukhin Vitya

I think the spark plugs should be changed at every oil change. After all, they don’t cost much, and in principle they are consumables. Gone are the days when they were twisted to check the gap, clean with sandpaper, ignite on fire. In my opinion, they even stopped forging them, what's the point of copying a cheap consumable? Of course, there are especially thrifty ones who will drive 30-40 thousand km on candles, as my neighbor in the garages will say. But I still don't understand the savings. It’s better to spend three hundred than to listen to how the engine troit in the morning until it warms up or does not work smoothly at idle.

Dima

There were several problems with candles on a long journey, far from home. So now I carry a set of new candles with me. And I make a replacement every autumn, before the onset of cold weather. In winter, the most severe operating conditions, so only in autumn.

Dmitry

We all know very well that spark plugs need to be changed, that start-up, operation, efficiency, power, etc. depend on their quality. They are considered to be "consumables" with a limited service life, so the manufacturer of both the car and the candles themselves declares a certain resource for their products.
This figure is highly dependent on the type of spark plugs (single electrode, multi-electrode, platinum, iridium, etc.)
For single-electrode candles, the resource is 30 thousand km, for multi-electrode or with a silver electrode, the resource is at least 50 thousand. There are expensive candles with iridium or platinum electrodes that nurse up to 100,000 km. Of course, this is all theoretically within the walls of laboratories, so in practice I change the candles every year in the fall (winter, one of the worst operating conditions). Just write km. when they put candles, I think rarely anyone will. Therefore, we do what is convenient. So I tied this period to winter.
Now about the signs of the need to replace the candles. The first is the operation of the engine with interruptions, tripling, etc. We take out the candles and look - most often the electrode burned out. A large deposit on the candles is possible - this is the power system not working properly, there should be no deposit during normal combustion. Defects in the ceramic insulator are also possible, they can be found by a brown mark on the insulator.
And most importantly, I change all the candles as a set, so that after a while I won’t do it again. Good luck to everyone on the road.

Fed

I completely agree with those who change candles regularly, as soon as they hear, they feel a specific noise in their typewriter. Some start talking nonsense, like you can wash it, etc. The need for inventions is cunning ... Of course, you can rinse it to save some time, but it’s better to buy new ones and replace everything right away.

Nicholas

The last time I changed the spark plugs was after 20,000 km. In the fourth cylinder, the candle had a clear breakdown, small stripes appeared on the insulator. I did not change the wires, I did not touch the candles for the entire run. In my opinion, it is cheaper to change the entire kit than to conjure with flushing and cleaning. A lot depends on the fuel, so I try not to fill in any muck. Of course, it is difficult to guess where the quality is and where it is not, but I don’t stop by the “left” gas stations.

Oleg

The condition of the spark plugs affects the correct operation of the engine, so drivers need to know when and how to change the spark plugs. Previously, in Soviet times, in the era of a shortage of everything, we cleaned them, folded them, putting a gap, checked whether there was a spark on them, sometimes we were shocked, but we were not afraid of anything. Now, probably, rarely does anyone do this and do it right, since in a modern engine, checking a spark plug for a spark can cost a couple of orders of magnitude more than the candle itself. Such a check can easily disable the ignition module, coil, and God knows what else.
Replacing candles in a car is necessary in three classic cases:
1. The engine started to work unevenly or, as they say, troit;
2. The power of the motor has fallen, you began to accelerate with effort, i.e. the engine began to pull worse;
3. Significantly increased fuel consumption.
Then we go to the auto shop. We take with us the CPC (certificate of registration) because the VIN number is registered there. You can choose the right candles only by it, neither the make of the car, nor the engine power, nor the year of manufacture, namely the VIN number.
By the way, an experienced driver or a service station mechanic will tell you about an engine malfunction by the color of the spark plug electrode. If the red-brown color is bad gasoline, a black thick coating is oil getting into the mixture, the engine needs to be repaired, etc.

Danila

In order not to bother taking into account the distance traveled, I regularly change candles in the fall, since winter conditions are the most unfavorable for them. I judge the quality of the candles by the appearance of the electrode - by the color of the deposits on it. And also in terms of the stability of the engine, if the engine “troits” or does not work stably, the first thing I look at is the candles.

Andrew

I always do an audit of the car in the fall, since winter is the hardest time for a car. I change oil, filters, wiper blades and spark plugs (regardless of their condition). It is better to be safe than to stand on a frosty road in winter. I revise the removed candles and if they are in good condition, then I use them next spring. And in the fall for the second year I throw it away.

Basil

I carry out the replacement every 8-10 thousand, together with the replacement of engine oil, I think the original ones are better, there is no need to set a gap on them.

Anatoly

Candles of any gasoline engine work in extreme conditions. Many factors really influence their work, but in addition, the driver himself, on the degree of his ability to start the engine correctly, choose the right oils, high-quality gasoline, as well as the conditions for storing the car. In my life, I had to store the car in different conditions, and even under a canopy in winter, this affects the engine start and the serviceability of the candles. I had a Lada-ten car. It stood under a canopy in the yard, at an air temperature of minus 25 degrees below zero, it started up like a match, as soon as the temperature approached 30 degrees below zero, it did not start the first time, and if you continued to turn it, trying to start, nothing worked. Candles were filled with a combustible mixture and failed. Even blowing the engine did not help, only the replacement of candles was required. And here, first of all, you need to know that in order to change candles, you must have a candle key, which is completely different for all types and brands of cars. You also need to know that you need to change the entire set of candles at once and buy them only of those brands and models that are recommended for a particular car, in other cases, the thread length will be long, the thread diameter is not quite the same, it is better to immediately buy what you need.

Anton

I change candles not on how long they worked, or how many kilometers a car drove with working spark plugs. I try to change it every winter. In winter, the extremity of the work of candles increases, new ones will work flawlessly, which is very important for winter driving. That's when the car is not used in winter, it is used only in the summer season, then it is better to replace the spark plugs in the spring, the spark plugs that have stood in the engine for a long time without work can fail or even fail to start the engine.

Vitaly

I change the candles once a year, in the spring combining this procedure with an oil change. I only use the spark plugs recommended in the manual. This is much more reliable than waiting for some candle to fail on the road. You always have a set of spare spark plugs with you in the car, just in case for yourself or for that guy who is standing in the middle of the road. I always throw away the old (replaced) ones so as not to get confused. The savings will cost more. Annual mileage 13-15 thousand km.

Andrew

I changed candles, as a rule, when the engine started to triple, it started up in winter to minus 20 without problems. And we almost never have more.

A candle is an integral part of Orthodox worship, our sacrifice to God. A candle made of pure wax does not smoke, does not harm icons and people's health. The topics of our conversation with Aleksey Andreyevich Lisovsky, Deputy Head of the Novosibirsk Wax Plant, were the technology of candle production and the question of which candles Orthodox churches prefer.

- Candles from the Novosibirsk Wax Factory become available in Central Russia?

- Yes. After publications in your magazines, we received many calls, many temples tried our candles and appreciated their quality. So, new regions have appeared in the list of our partners, whose temples and shops buy candles from us. This is mainly Central Russia - in particular, more and more candles are being bought by the Moscow store Pravoslavnoye Slovo on Pyatnitskaya at the Church of the Life-Giving Trinity in Veshnyaki, which, in turn, sells them wholesale. When we spoke last time, we worked mainly with Siberia and the Far East. Now we supply candles to Kazakhstan and Ukraine, we are negotiating deliveries with Belarus and an Orthodox church in Thailand.

- Do the plant's capacities allow expanding the list of regions?

- Yes. We are pleased to offer cooperation to churches and dioceses throughout Russia. We have established supplies of raw materials - nothing prevents us from increasing production further. We have worked out schemes of transport deliveries: for example, candles arrive in Moscow in three days, in Khabarovsk - in six days

- What new products do you have?

- We began to produce bishop's candles - at one time we did not produce them, but we receive quite numerous requests to arrange their production. We are preparing to launch the production of deacon and wedding candles. Our main assortment is numbered temple candles and souvenir candles made of honeycombs, preserving the texture of honeycombs. We somehow started making souvenir candles, but church shops began to receive feedback that they were not selling well: people willingly bought candles each, but did not burn them, because it was a pity, and, accordingly, did not begin to purchase new ones. As I said, all our candles are made from pure natural wax, wicks are made from natural cotton.

You refer to customer feedback. Do you communicate with representatives of temples a lot?

Our phones work all day long. Waking up at six in the morning, I receive calls from the Far East, then Omsk, Chelyabinsk begin to call, later - Moscow and in the evening - Kaliningrad.

– And what kind of candles do our parishes prefer?

– Preference is given to classic natural wax candles, unpainted and unscented. Someone likes darker candles - we make them to order, but most choose light yellow candles.

- If the candles are not colored - due to what do they have a different color?

- The only thing we do is lighten the wax with hydrogen peroxide. The technology is absolutely harmless, it does not affect the quality of the candles, but it makes the wax pure. Wax can have a color from light yellow to dark brown. In Soviet times, it was divided into varieties depending on the degree of purification. Accordingly, raw materials of a higher grade cost more.

In the eighties, the division into varieties was canceled, so most beekeepers now melt the wax a minimum number of times, since some part of the mass is lost with each cleaning. Therefore, we have to additionally clean and clarify the wax.

- Does a wax church candle have to have a strong smell of honey?

- Not at all. Not everyone knows that natural wax candles do not necessarily have to have a pronounced honey aroma. Wax and honey are different things. Candles made from fresh wax have a strong smell. If the wax has lain a little or is clarified, the smell becomes weak.

Based on the article from the magazine "Sacristy" No. 38 (spring 2013) of the publishing house "Rusizdat", Alina Sergeychuk talked.

And they serve to ignite the fuel-air mixture in the engine cylinders from an electric spark that forms between the spark plug electrodes. Spark plugs must be changed every 30-90 thousand km, which directly depends on the operating conditions of the engine, the type of candles installed and the materials for their manufacture.

Read in this article

Why is it optimal to change spark plugs ahead of time?

Engine malfunctions indicate the need to check the candles. As already mentioned, spark plugs last from 30 thousand km, but this is only a theory that is based on ideal operating conditions. In practice, the average service life of budget single-electrode candles is no more than 15-20 thousand km. run.

The reduction of the planned resource of candles is strongly influenced by the quality of domestic fuel, city driving at low speeds, frequent and long engine idling. For this reason, even the most expensive multi-electrode iridium or platinum spark plugs are recommended to be changed at 15-20 thousand km. before the stated service life. Also, fake candles or low-quality products can be presented for sale, which usually do not even take care of 10 thousand km.

Signs of bad spark plugs

Let's start with the fact that a serviceable engine should work stably, smoothly and steadily both at idle and under load. Difficulty starting the engine, unstable operation of the engine at idle and in motion, increased fuel consumption, reduced power, are a list of the main symptoms that may indicate problems with spark plugs.

To check the condition of the spark plugs, regular inspections should be carried out. It is advisable to carry out this procedure in parallel with changing the oil for maintenance, that is, after 10-15 thousand km. As for the average driver who drives about 30 thousand km. for 12 months, in this case, ordinary single-electrode spark plugs should be changed at least 2 times a year.

How to check spark plugs

Signs of contamination or failure of spark plugs are manifested in the form of interruptions in the operation of the motor, an engine with dirty or problematic spark plugs troit. This happens due to the fact that at once all the candles usually do not fail. Interruptions begin in only one or two cylinders. The first step is to determine the candle that is out of order. There are several ways to check spark plugs:

• using a device or tester to check spark plugs;
• independent check of spark plugs;

To check the candles, you need to remove it, although there are ways to diagnose spark plugs on a car. Before starting the procedure, which involves removal, turn off the ignition and prepare a special candle or socket wrench. The tool will be needed to unscrew the candles. Then you need to inspect the high-voltage ignition armored wires. These wires usually have a special marking that contains information about the cylinder number. In the event that there is no such marking, you will need to independently mark the high-voltage spark plug wires in an accessible way.

The next step is to remove the tips (caps) from the spark plugs. Please note that you should not pull on the high voltage wire during this procedure, as you may damage the armored wires. To remove, hold on to the tip itself. After removing the candle caps, you can unscrew the candles with a wrench. V-engines will require a long, actuated wrench similar to a torque wrench. Also suitable for an elongated collar.

During removal, you should remember which cylinder each unscrewed candle corresponds to, since further inspection will allow you to determine possible malfunctions not only of the candles, but also of the engine by the condition of the spark plugs. You should start checking the spark plugs with a visual inspection and checking the condition of the insulator, as well as the electrodes. No cracks or melting, as well as other noticeable defects, are allowed. Next, the candles are installed on a special stand or checked by the device. As mentioned above, motorists also check the candle spark directly on the car or use a multimeter. We will talk about the various verification methods below.

Check spark plugs for spark

To check the spark plug for a spark, you need to alternately disconnect the high-voltage wires that connect the spark plugs and the breaker-distributor. You need to do this on a running car. After removing the wire, listen to the operation of the engine. If the operation of the motor has not changed, then this means that it was possible to find the failed element. In the event that, after disconnection, the motor starts to work even less stably, the test must be continued.

The next way to check the spark on spark plugs is to remove the high-voltage wire, after which the spark plug is unscrewed. Then the candle is inserted back into the cap of the armored wire and brought to the cylinder block. As a result, a clearly visible spark should appear on the candle, which will be accompanied by a characteristic crack. This method allows you to diagnose the operation of the ignition system, wire and candle.

As for checking the spark plug with a multimeter, this method is ineffective and can only detect a short circuit inside the spark plug. To check, one tester contact is applied to the plug base (threaded part), and the other to the plug inlet. The resulting spark should pierce from contact to contact by 3-4 mm.

We add that it is more correct to check the high-voltage ignition wires with a multimeter. This device is able to measure the resistance of the wire, after which it should be compared with the nominal. A voltage drop will indicate the need to replace the armored wire.

Another way is to check the spark plugs with a "gun". Such a "gun" for checking candles is a test stand that is available from candle sellers. The specified equipment allows you to check the spark plugs under pressure, that is, their operating conditions in the engine are partially simulated.

Checking the candle on the stand is carried out as follows:

• the spark plug is inserted into the groove;
• then a special cap is put on it;
• then it remains to press the trigger of the “pistol” to check the candles;

The appearance of a spark on the electrodes and the ignition of the signal light with a high degree of probability indicates the serviceability of the spark plug, although this verification method cannot guarantee full performance. The fact is that the pressure on the stand and in the engine is different. For this reason, a spark plug with a good spark previously tested on the stand may still not work after being installed on the engine. If the candle does not initially work on the stand, then this element should be replaced due to an obvious malfunction.

How to clean spark plugs yourself and set the gap between the electrodes

After removal and external inspection, the spark plug must be carefully cleaned of dirt, soot, soot and deposits. This can be done mechanically, using a brush that has bristles of medium hardness. You can also use an abrasive.

The mechanical method allows you to qualitatively remove carbon deposits, but the performance of the spark plug usually becomes worse. Such cleaning usually results in scratches, which then lead to overheating of the candle. For this reason, it is necessary to clean spark plugs from plaque as delicately as possible.

You can also clean spark plugs chemically:

• the candle is degreased and washed in gasoline;
• then the candles are dried for 30 to 60 minutes;
• then the candles are placed in a solution of ammonium acetate for 30-40 minutes;

After being removed from the cleaning solution, the spark plugs are cleaned with a soft bristle brush and dried again for about 30 minutes. Cleaning heavily soiled candles will be of lower quality compared to the mechanical method, and will also require more time.

The advantage is the reduced risk of mechanical damage. The completion of cleaning is to check the gap between the electrodes of the candles. The gap between the electrodes of the spark plug is also estimated after mechanical cleaning.

The gap in the norm should not differ from the mark of 0.7 mm. The specified gap must be checked using a special probe. If the gap differs, it must be adjusted. Spark plug gap adjustment is performed with a special tool, and the process itself assumes that the side electrode is bent or unbent from the central electrode. We add that bending the central electrode is prohibited, and bending the side electrode is carried out with extreme caution.

Engine condition by spark plug color

The serviceability of the motor and spark plugs is determined by the color of the plaque that is present on the electrodes. We will not describe all the possible options for diagnosing the condition of the engine by the color of the spark plugs, since this is the topic of a large separate article. We only note that the working candle normally has a light grayish-brown coating.

The appearance of black dry soot on the electrode indicates the need to check the internal combustion engine. Such deposits are formed when the engine is running on a highly enriched mixture. The spark plug can then be cleaned and screwed back into the engine for later use.

The presence of a white coating with a reflection on the electrode of the spark plug is evidence of overheating of the spark plugs. This can occur both due to improper selection of spark plugs according to the glow number, and as a result of the spark plug itself. In the latter case, the electrode gap should be checked. It is impossible to reuse candles with a white coating; a mandatory replacement will be required.

Installation of cleaned or new spark plugs in the engine at the initial stage is done by hand. In other words, the candles must be “baited” by hand, that is, carefully screwed into the candle wells without using a key. If the candle is easily screwed into the thread, then the element can be tightened with a key until the conical part contacts the cylinder head.

Remember, when tightening spark plugs, it is highly desirable to strictly observe the tightening torque, which is indicated in the technical documentation for a particular type of engine! Re-tightening a spark plug can lead to the need for subsequent repairs and other consequences. As for loose spark plugs, an under-twisted spark plug can cause engine malfunctions.

If new spark plugs after installation quickly changed color, overgrown with soot and again caused engine malfunctions, then the following options are possible:

• spark plugs are incorrectly selected;
• a counterfeit or defective product has been purchased;
• the motor is operated on low-quality gasoline or oil;
• there are engine malfunctions that quickly disable new spark plugs;

Finally, we add once again that spark plugs, as well as high-voltage spark plug wires, are “consumables”, that is, they need to be completely changed at regular intervals. If the engine previously had a malfunction that simultaneously disabled the candles, then after eliminating such a motor breakdown, it is also recommended to replace the set of spark plugs.

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Analysis of engine operation by the color of spark plugs. Gray, black, white, red and other colors of deposits and soot. How to properly diagnose.

How to check the operation of the engine by spark plugs. The main signs of engine malfunctions: the appearance of black, gray, red and white soot on candles.

Rise of the Grand Ducal Power.

The creation of a single state centered in Moscow meant that now there was one ruler in Russia - the only Grand Duke, a representative of the Moscow Rurik dynasty. Ivan III tried in every possible way to emphasize his special position.

In 1467, the first wife of Ivan III, Princess Maria of Tver, died. In 1472, he married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Palaiologos. As we know, the Byzantine state no longer existed. Therefore, by marrying a Greek princess, the Moscow prince became, as it were, the successor to the Byzantine dynasty. He made the emblem of his state a double-headed eagle - a symbol of the Byzantine Empire.

Seal of Ivan III (view from both sides) with the first image of the coat of arms of Russia in the form of a double-headed eagle Ivan III assumed a new title - the sovereign of all Russia. He proclaimed himself an autocrat, thereby emphasizing that he holds the land himself, that is, he does not submit to any other authority (primarily the authority of the Horde khans). At ceremonial receptions, Ivan III began to appear with a scepter and an orb - symbols of supreme rule. His head was crowned with a grand ducal crown - Monomakh's cap, he surrounded himself with a magnificent courtyard. Appeared the court ranks of the equerry, bed-keeper. In court ceremonies, Ivan III, in the Byzantine manner, begins to be called the title of king. The ritual of kissing the sovereign's hand is introduced.

State governing bodies.

With the advent of a single state in Moscow, central authorities are being formed. At the head of the state was the Grand Duke, Sovereign and Autocrat of All Russia. Only he had the right to legislate, Boyarin. The artist negotiates with other states, declares war, makes peace, mints coins. He led the most significant military campaigns.

The Grand Duke "held advice" with the Boyar Duma, which consisted of representatives of the old boyar families. With the inclusion of new lands in the Muscovite state, the princes of formerly independent principalities began to enter the Boyar Duma. The boyar duma consisted of representatives of two duma ranks: the boyars and the roundabouts, who were appointed by the grand duke. The numerical composition of the Duma was small: 10-12 boyars, 5-6 okolnichy.

There were two nationwide institutions that carried out grand ducal orders: the palace and the treasury. The palace, headed by a butler, was originally in charge of the lands of the Grand Duke - the palace. Then the butlers began to consider land disputes, ruled the court. After the annexation of new lands to the Moscow state or the liquidation of specific principalities, local palaces were created to manage these lands: Novgorod, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, etc. The treasurer headed the treasury. He controlled the collection of taxes and customs fees (duties). The state seal and the state archive were kept in the treasury. The Treasury also dealt with foreign policy issues.

The entire territory of the country was divided into counties. The borders of the counties coincided with the borders of the former specific principalities, and therefore they were all of different sizes. Counties were divided into smaller units: volosts and camps. The Grand Duke sent his governors to the county - governors, to the camps and volosts - volosts. They collected taxes, monitored the execution of princely decrees, and carried out court and reprisals. Governors and volostels did not receive a salary for their work. They kept the court fees and a certain part of the taxes. This procedure for keeping officials at the expense of the local population was called feeding.
Within the Muscovite state, destinies continued to exist, which were allocated only to the brothers and sons of the Grand Duke. But the rights of the specific princes were severely curtailed, and they were subordinate to the Grand Duke in everything.

People were appointed to all positions depending on the nobility of the family and on what positions their ancestors held. This order was called localism. The essence of localism was as follows: the earlier the rulers of certain principalities transferred to the service of the Moscow prince, the more honorary positions they received. Moreover, these places were assigned to their direct descendants. Localism hindered the humble in origin, but gifted people in their advancement in public service.

In 1497, Ivan III issued the Code of Laws - the first set of laws of a single state. It contained all the laws that existed in the Moscow principality. But now they became mandatory throughout the Russian state. In addition, the Sudebnik fixed important changes that had taken place in the distribution of land ownership and in the relationship between landowners and peasants.

Transformations in the army.

Changes in land ownership. The creation of a unified state was accompanied by an increase in the number of troops. There was only one way to ensure its combat readiness - to provide soldiers with land holdings for the duration of their service. When the vast Novgorod and Tver lands fell into the hands of Ivan III, he began to resettle (“place”) people who were in his service on them. Such people, placed on new lands, began to be called landowners, and their possessions - estates.

Unlike a patrimony, an estate is a conditional holding, that is, the land was given to a person under the condition of serving the Moscow prince and was not inherited. The landowner also had no right to sell or donate his land. Land holdings were small and could not be compared with the huge boyar estates.

Instead of squads, a single military organization was created - the Moscow army, the basis of which was the landowners. At the request of the Grand Duke, they had to come to the service armed, on horseback, and even bring with them a certain number of armed people from among their serfs or peasants - “horse, crowded and armed”.

The emergence of landownership and its rapid growth were associated with the desire of the Moscow princes to increase the layer of people on whom they could rely. The well-being of the landlords, the size of their possessions depended entirely on the sovereign. Therefore, they were interested in strengthening his power, in the existence of a single state.

A significant part of the land holdings in the Muscovite state were boyar estates. Boyar families owned their lands for more than one hundred years. Their ancestors received these possessions for service from the first princes of Vladimir or Moscow. Many princes and boyars of the former independent principalities also retained their lands. The votchinniki were less dependent on the Moscow prince than the landlords, and did not always agree with his policy.

There was an increase in church land ownership. The monasteries, the metropolitan, the bishops intensively bought up the lands of the estates, received them as payment for debts. But most often the church received land as a gift. People of that time believed that by donating property to the church, one could thereby atone for sins and avoid hell.

Restriction of freedom of peasants.

The emergence of the Cossacks. The creation of a unified state at first improved the position of the peasants. The cessation of strife and hostilities on the territory of the country led to the rise of peasant farms. The bans on the transfer of peasants from one principality to another lost their force.

Remember what duties the peasants traditionally carried in Russia.

From the second half of the 15th century, arable farming with a three-field crop rotation was finally established throughout the territory of the Moscow State. With this order of farming, the peasant divided the field into three plots. He sowed the first plot with spring crops, the second with winter crops, and the third plot rested under fallow, that is, he remained unsown. Three-fields did not bring fast and rich harvests, but it provided stable yields for a long time. In addition, such a system did not require collective labor and made it possible to take care of the land.

With the spread of three fields, the set of grown grain has changed. The most common winter crop was rye, and spring fields were sown mainly with oats. The crops of wheat, barley, and millet have been noticeably reduced. Buckwheat, which has the most valuable nutritional properties, has spread quite widely. Improved agricultural tools. The plow was replaced in some places by a plow.
At first, many peasants did not realize that the land on which they ran their farms had passed into the category of estates. After all, the state represented by the Grand Duke still remained the owner of the land.

However, the attack on the rights of the peasants soon began. The landlords were interested in forcing the peasants to work on their land with the help of the law. After all, earlier the peasants were free to leave from one owner of the land to another, when they please. In large boyar and monastic estates, the peasants lived more freely than in small estates, the owners of which constantly needed money for life and for military needs. Going to meet the wishes of the landowners, Ivan III established in the Sudebnik of 1497 a single period for the whole country for the transition of peasants: a week before St. George's autumn day (November 26) and a week after. At the same time, leaving the landowner, the peasant had to pay him the old - a fee for living on the land. The amount of the elderly in the late XV - early XVI century was about 1 ruble per person. With this money at that time it was possible to buy a good horse, 100 pounds of rye or 7 pounds of honey.

Find out what 1 pood is in kilograms.

St. George's Day Introduction was the first legislatively fixed restriction of peasant freedom. The peasants who lived on the lands of the landowners and votchinniki began to be called possessory.

In the first half of the 16th century, the local system covered almost all counties of the country. Only in Russian Pomorye (lands along the shores of the White Sea, Lake Onega, along the Northern Dvina, Pechora, Kama and Vyatka), on the vast state (black) lands, mainly black-sown, i.e. personally free, peasants lived. The peasants who lived on the lands that belonged to the Grand Duke himself were called palace. According to their position, they were close to the black-haired.

From the second half of the 15th century, fugitive peasants and former residents of the settlements began to accumulate behind the line of guard fortifications on the southern and southeastern outskirts of the Russian state, who called themselves "free people" - Cossacks. The Cossacks settled mainly along the banks of large rivers - the Don, Dnieper, Volga, Yaik (now the Ural River), Terek - and their tributaries. The most important matters were discussed at a general gathering (meeting) of the Cossacks. At the head of the community were elected atamans and foremen.

Thus, in the course of the formation of the Russian unified state, the power of the Grand Duke of Moscow began to increase significantly. The Grand Duke relied on service people, giving them land grants as payment for their service. As the number of estates grows, peasant freedom is limited, peasants are attached to the land.

Checking our knowledge

1. How and why did the nature of princely power change in the first half of the 16th century?
2. Tell us about the political structure of the Russian state in the first half of the 16th century. Based on the materials of the paragraph, compile a comparative table of the changes that have taken place in the management system by this time.
3. What changes have occurred in the land tenure system? Establish a connection between the political processes that took place in Russia and changes in the land tenure system.
4. What do you see as the reasons for limiting peasant freedom? Based on the painting by S. V. Ivanov "Yuryev's Day" make up an oral story about the restriction of the freedom of the peasants.
5. What categories of the Russian peasantry appeared at this time?

Exercise 1. Among the inventions made by mankind listed below, mark (underline) those thanks to which in the XV-XVI centuries. great geographical discoveries were made. Specify their role.

Powder; silk; caravel; porcelain; screw; new sources of energy - windmills, coal; compass; firearms; paper; typography; gate.

The caravel had high maneuverability, shallow draft, excellent seaworthiness and at the same time was a capacious vessel.
The compass was essential for positioning and plotting a course.
Firearms gave the Europeans a huge advantage over the natives.
Typography contributed to the spread of books and maps in Europe.

Task 2. Contemporaries of the Great Geographical Discoveries pointed out that every navigator who went on an expedition had to have a set of necessary things with him. These items are shown below. Sign them and indicate what they served.

1. Chronometer (clock) for determining the time;2. Crossbow - melee ranged weapon;3. Sword - cold melee weapon;4. Astrolabe and compass - astronomical instruments for orientation and determination of the exact time;5. Geographic map - an image of the earth's surface.

Click to enlarge

Task 3. Choose the correct answer.

For the first time the musket was used: a) in the XV century. the English; b) in the 16th century. the Spaniards; c) in the 17th century the French; d) in the 18th century the Swiss.

Task 4. Fill the gaps. Which of the great navigators is this story about?

Life Christopher Columbus full of legends and mysteries. It is known that he was born in 1451 in an Italian city Genoa in the family of a poor weaver. The question of his education remained unclear. Some researchers believe that he studied in the city of Pavia, others that he was a self-taught genius. It is known that in the 70-80s. 15th century he was enthusiastically engaged in geography, studied navigational charts, worked on a project to open the shortest sea route from Europe to Asia, hoping to get there through Atlantic ocean.
Money was needed to carry out the plans, and Christopher Columbus in search of funds went to the European royal courts. In Portugal, the "Council of Mathematicians" rejected his project as fantastic, and the English king found it unrealizable. The Spanish king also refused money, as his advisers stated that "the spherical shape of the Earth would form a mountain in front of the ship, through which he could not swim even with the most fair wind." As time went. Finally in 1492 Spanish kings Ferdinand and Isabel signed with Columbus contract and provided with money to organize the expedition.
The hard sailing began. AT 1492 the navigator set foot on the land of the island, which they called San Salvador, and then two more islands were discovered, which bear the names Cuba and Haiti .
As a result of the subsequent three expeditions, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, coast of South America and Central America . Until the end of his days, the navigator believed that he had discovered a new route to India. The mainland he discovered bears the name of another explorer and is called America . In the 19th century, the French writer Victor Hugo wrote: “There are unfortunate people: Christopher Columbus cannot write his name on his opening...”

This story is about the great navigator Christopher Columbus.

Task 5. Explain expressions. In what cases were they used?

This is a country where "every peasant was a fisherman, and every nobleman was a captain." So they spoke of Portugal and its inhabitants, the occupations of most of which were closely connected with the sea.
"This man is a bag of pepper." That was the name of a very rich man. At that time, a bag of pepper was valued more than gold and was a measure of wealth.
“Tired of wearing caftans with holes ... they sailed to conquer that fabulous metal.” The bulk of the conquerors of the New World were soldiers left out of work after the reconquista, ruined hidalgos, the poor. All of them aspired to new lands for gold.
The ship sailed on the "Sea of ​​Darkness". " The Europeans called the Atlantic Ocean the Sea of ​​Darkness.

Task 6. Choose the correct answer.

The price revolution is:
a) a sharp rise in the price of gold and a fall in the prices of all other commodities; b) fall in the price of gold and rise in priceallother goods; c) replacement of gold and silver coins with paper money.

Task 7. Fill in the table "Great geographical discoveries."

Causes of the Great Geographical Discoveries	* depletion of precious metals resources in Europe * overpopulation of Mediterranean areas * with the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman Turks blocked the former trade routes of Europeans with the East * scientific and technological progress in Europe (navigation, weapons, astronomy, printing, cartography, etc.) * desire for wealth and fame
Representatives of which segments of the European population were interested in discovering new lands	* monarchs * clergy * nobility * merchants * military nobility (left out of work and without money after the completion of the reconquista).
The goals they pursued	* conquer new lands and expand territories * opening new trade routes * personal enrichment and fame * conversion to Christianity of new peoples
Consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries	* changing ideas about the world and people * impetus to the development of sciences * expansion of trade and the formation of a single world market * the beginning of the creation of colonial empires * the emergence of new plant species, including food * development of the slave trade * destruction by Europeans of ancient civilizations and peoples, their culture and knowledge.

Task 8. On the contour map, draw the routes of the most important expeditions of the 15th - mid-17th centuries in different colors, indicate their years.

Click to enlarge

Task 9. If you replace the numbers with letters according to their place in the Russian alphabet, then you will read the statement. Explain its meaning.

GOD, GLORY AND GOLD! - The motto of the discoverers and conquerors of new lands (conquistadors). "God" - the conversion of the natives to Christianity, "Glory" - for their discoveries the conquistadors received titles and fame, "Gold" - greed.

Task 10. Write an essay in which express your opinion on how the principle of "one monarch, one law, one religion" influenced the position of the individual in an absolutist state. Justify your point of view. To answer, use the text of the textbook, works of fiction, videos and films.

A very interesting example is the youth of the English Queen ElizabethI.Born from Henry's second marriageVIIIand Anne Boleyn, she survived from infancy the death of her mother, who was executed at the whim of HenryVIII.Despite the fact that she was an English princess, she was removed from the court to the province, where she grew up and was brought up. Since she was not the only pretender to the English throne, throughout all these years her life was threatened. Elizabeth, like her predecessors, HenryVIIIand EdwardVI(her half-brother), was a Protestant, but after the death of Edward, her older sister Mary comes to power in England (from Henry's first marriageVIII), who was a fierce Catholic. Maria severely persecuted the Protestants, for which she received the nickname Bloody Mary. During her reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned in the Tower and miraculously escaped execution. She was required to renounce Protestantism and accept Catholicism. After the death of her sister, with the help of members of the Privy Council close to her, she became Queen of England. In Europe, she was the first to pursue a policy of religious tolerance in her state, despite the fact that she was a Protestant and the state religion was Protestantism.

Task 11. What were the political and economic consequences of the establishment of absolutism in European states?

1. Formation of nations and nation-states;
2. Creation of a state church or submission to an existing one;
3. Creation of permanent professional armies;
4. Creation of a single economy (politics, taxes, systems of measures, customs regulations, etc.).

Task 12. Express your opinion whether absolutism differed from despotic power, if different, then in what way.

Under despotism, the monarch is not only the ruler of his state, but also the master of his subjects. Absolutism contributed to the unity of the state, the formation of a single nation, despotism did not (Persia, the Ottoman Empire). Under absolutism, representative institutions and certain civil rights were preserved, which was not the case under despotism. At the same time, the main similarity, the unlimited power of the monarch, took on different forms even in Europe, from classical in France and “soft” in England to despotism in Spain.

Task 13. Analyze the document below and complete the table.

From the charter of the workshop of Parisian weavers.
Every Parisian wool weaver can have two wide looms and one narrow loom in his house. Each weaver in his house can have no more than one apprentice, but not less than 4 years of service.
All cloths must be of wool, and are as good in the beginning as they are in the middle.
No one from the workshop should start work before sunrise under the threat of a fine.
The apprentice weavers must leave work as soon as the first chime of the evening prayer bell rings, but they must fold the work after the bell has rung.

Consider whether there is a connection between shop rules and the form of development of manufacturing production. Write down the answer.

The greatest connection exists with the mixed form of the development of manufactory, when individual elements of the final product were made by small artisans with a narrow specialization, and the assembly was already carried out in the entrepreneur's workshop.

Task 14. The rise of trade is connected with the development of stock exchanges. Think about the connection between these processes. Why does the development of stock exchanges date back to the 16th century?

In the 16th century, there was a significant increase in the volume of commodity mass and capital associated with the discovery of new lands. All this required an organization where large transactions could take place, which gave impetus to the formation of exchanges where merchants, bankers, suppliers and customers met. Exchanges, in turn, contributed to the further growth of international and wholesale trade.

Task 15. Fill in the table "Differences between a manufactory and a craft workshop."

Questions for comparison	craft workshop	Manufactory
What are the sizes of enterprises?	Small enterprise size	Large enterprise size
Who worked at the enterprise?	Master (workshop owner) and apprentices	Salaried workers
What tools were used?	Old manual looms	Widespread use of new energy sources, improved machine tools.
Who owned the tools and manufactured products?	Master	To the owner of the manufactory
Was there a division of labor?	Not	Yes

Task 16. Write an essay on the topic "Buyers and sellers in the market." Your work should end with the phrase: "It is better to have friends in the market than coins in a chest." When preparing, use the text and illustrations of the textbook (p. 37, etc.).

Early in the morning our merchant opened his shop in the city market. He traded in fabrics. The shop occupied the entire first floor of the house. He himself did not stand behind the counter, but only looked after his salesmen, messengers and day laborers, who were full of the market in the morning and who were just looking for an opportunity to earn an extra penny and took on any job. The flow of people noisily filled the city square. The merchant spotted his familiar nobleman, who tried to breed sheep on his lands. After greeting each other, the acquaintances got down to business. It turned out that the nobleman needed a lot of fabric for the holiday he was throwing. But, unfortunately, at the moment he was experiencing difficulties with money and could not pay for the fabric immediately. After listening to the nobleman, our merchant said: “All right, I will let you have the fabric on credit.” The pleased nobleman said: “It is indeed said that it is better to have friends in the market than to have gold in a chest!”

Task 17. At the beginning of the XVI century. in European countries there already existed printing houses that had expensive equipment - machines, fonts, etc. Usually, even in a small printing house, about 30 people worked, and each had his own specialty - typesetter, printer, proofreader, etc. What type of production does the printing house belong to? Explain why. Use the picture to answer.

The printing house is a centralized manufactory according to the following features: the entire production process takes place in one room, a narrow specialization of labor is used, hired labor is widely used, a large number of workers, the use of expensive equipment.

Task 18. How do you understand the expression “On the stock exchange you can sell and buy wind”? Record the dialogue between the seller and the buyer.

Exchanges often traded contracts for the supply of goods in the future, when the goods themselves were not available. Moreover, payment was made not only in “live” money, but also in receipts (bill of exchange).
Seller: "I'm selling a batch of peppers!"
Customer: "When will the product be available?"
Seller: "In six months, five hundred pounds of selected peppers."
Buyer: "I agree to buy the whole batch."
Seller: "How will you pay?"
Buyer: "Promissory note."

Task 19. Which of the following are signs of the birth of capitalism:

a) the development of manufactories; b) crusades; c) an increase in the number of employees; d) natural economy; e) growth in the number of entrepreneurs?

Task 20. Indicate which of the following strata of the population belonged to the bourgeoisie:

a) merchants; b) bankers; c) hired workers in manufactories; d) factory owners.

Task 21. Choose from the following judgments those that will help you correctly answer the question about the reasons for the development of manufacturing production:

a) the presence of a free labor force in the person of peasants freed from serfdom and ruined small artisans;
b) the appearance of the first mechanical machines driven by the energy of water;
c) the development of maritime trade and the growth of cities increased the demand for handicrafts;
d) the influx of gold and silver from the New World provided merchant entrepreneurs with the necessary funds to organize manufactories;
e) shop rules interfered with the application of technical inventions in craft workshops;
f) the governments of European countries forcibly sent beggars and vagabonds to work in factories.

Task 22. Why do you think the authors of the textbook called the story about the Fugger merchants the "Age of the Fuggers"? Suggest your name.

In the 16th century, the Habsburg Empire played a leading role in Europe, uniting half the continent under its rule and enjoying the unlimited support of the pope. The Fuggers were creditors to the Habsburgs and popes. "The Gray Cardinals of the 16th Century".

Carefully consider the drawing (p. 46 of the textbook). What conclusions can you draw about the occupations of Fugger the merchant and the banker?

Taking advantage of the location of the Habsburgs and the popes, the Fuggers had the opportunity to freely expand the network of branches of their trading house in the largest shopping centers in Europe. No wonder the collapse of the Fuggers coincides with the collapse of the Habsburgs, when in the 17th century the primacy in trade passes to the British and Dutch.

Task 23. What city was said in the 16th century that it "absorbed the trade of other cities" and became the "gates of Europe":

a) Paris b) Cologne; c) Antwerp; d) London?

Task 24. Match the term with its meaning. Enter the letters of your answers in the table.

1	2	3	4
AT	G	B	BUT

Task 25. Renaissance fashion was replaced by Spanish fashion, then France became the trendsetter in Europe. Examine the drawings and sign to which direction of European fashion each of them belongs. Explain what are the features of the presented fashion trends.

a) Renaissance fashion was characterized by loose outfits, richly decorated with embroidery and jewelry, the appearance of a beret (Figures 5, 7);
b) Spanish fashion is a tribute to stiffness and severity, the rejection of the neckline, open sleeves (Figures 6, 9);
c) Venetian fashion - an outlet and rebellion against Spanish austerity, a harbinger of the Baroque (Figure 3);
d) French fashion (rococo) - pomp, camisoles, vests, wigs, fantastic hairstyles for ladies, crinolines, open necklines, an abundance of lace, flounces and patterns (Figures 1, 2, 4).

Click to enlarge

Task 26. As you know, in the XVI-XVII centuries. cookbooks existed in European countries. If you were asked to write such a book, what menu would you make for one day for a peasant family, a poor city dweller's family, a bourgeois family, or a rich aristocratic family?

XVI-XVII centuries.
a) a peasant's menu: bread made from rye or oats, lentil soup or porridge, onions, water;
b) the menu of a poor city dweller: lentil soup or porridge (or oatmeal), rye or oatmeal bread, fish, onions, water;
c) the menu of a bourgeois or an aristocrat: vegetables, meat, fruits, fish, wine, spices.
XVIII century.
a) and b) did not change significantly, maybe only potatoes came into use;
c) the menu of the wealthy segments of the population was replenished with tea, coffee, chocolate, white bread, sugar.

Task 27. Read an excerpt from the book of the historian N. M. Karamzin (1766-1826) “Letters of a Russian Traveler” and underline the features of a medieval city (highlighted in red in the text) and the features inherent in the cities of the New Age (highlighted in green in the text) with different colors. Make up a story about the daily life of the townspeople in the XVII-XVIII centuries. To answer, use the text of the textbook (§ 4-6) and illustrations.

Paris will seem to you the most magnificent city when you enter it along the Versailles road. Masses of buildings in front with high spitz and domes; on the right side of the river Seine picture houses and gardens; on the left, behind a vast green plain, Mount Martre, covered with countless windmills... The road is wide, level, smooth as a table, and at night it is lit by lanterns.. Zastava has a small house that captivates you with the beauty of its architecture.. Through a vast velvet meadow you enter the fields of the Champs Elysees, not without reason called by this attractive name: a forest ... with small flowering meadows, with huts, scattered in different places, from which in one you will find a coffee house, in the other - a shop. Here on Sundays people walk, music plays, cheerful bourgeois women dance. Poor people, exhausted from six days of work, rest on the fresh grass, drink wine and sing vaudeville... ... Your gaze strives forward, to where on a large, octagonal square is dominated by a statue of Louis XV, surrounded by a white marble balustrade. Walk up to her and you will see dense avenues of the glorious Tuileries garden, adjacent to the magnificent palace: beautiful view... It is no longer people walking here, as in the fields of the Champs Elysees, but the so-called best people, gentlemen and ladies, from whom powder and rouge are poured onto the ground. Climb to the large terrace, look to the right, to the left, all around: everywhere huge buildings, castles, temples - beautiful banks of the Seine, granite bridges, on which thousands of people crowd, many carriages knock- look at everything and tell me what Paris is like. It is not enough if you call it the first city in the world, the capital of splendor and magic. Stay here if you don't want to change your mind; go further and see... narrow streets, an insulting mixture of wealth and poverty; near a brilliant jeweler's shop - a bunch of rotten apples and herring; dirt everywhere and even blood flowing in streams from the meat rows- Pinch your nose and close your eyes.
...The streets are all narrow and dark without exception. from huge houses ... Woe to poor pedestrians, and especially when it rains! Do you need or knead dirt in the middle of the street, or water pouring from roofs...will not leave a dry thread on you. A carriage is necessary here, at least for us foreigners, and the French are miraculously able to walk through the mud without getting dirty, masterfully jumping from stone to stone and hiding in benches from galloping carriages.

Task 28. How do you understand the expression "Tell me what you eat and I'll tell you who you are"? Look carefully at the drawings and insert in each caption the missing keyword that helps determine the social status of this family.
The nutrition of Europeans depended on their property status.

a) dinner in a bourgeois family

b) dinner in a poor family

c) dinner in a noble aristocratic family