For the normal existence of a person on earth, he needs to satisfy his needs. All living beings on the planet have needs, but most of all they have a reasonable individual.

Types of human needs

organic. These needs are connected with the development of man, with his self-preservation. Organic needs include many needs: food, water, oxygen, optimal ambient temperature, procreation, sexual desires, existence security. These needs are also present in animals. Unlike our smaller brothers, a person needs, for example, hygiene, culinary processing of food and other specific conditions;

material Needs are based on their satisfaction with the help of products created by people. These include: clothing, housing, transport, household appliances, tools, as well as everything that is necessary for work, recreation, everyday life, knowledge of culture. In other words, a person needs the goods of life;

social. This type is associated with the need for communication, position in society, a certain position in life, gaining respect, authority. A person cannot exist on his own, so he needs to communicate with other people. emerged from the development of human society. Thanks to such needs, life becomes the most secure;

creative types of needs represent satisfaction in different artistic, scientific, technical. People are very different. There are those who cannot live without creativity. They even agree to give up something else, but they cannot exist without it. Such a person is a high personality. Freedom to engage in creativity for them is above all;

moral self-improvement and psychological development - these are the types in which he ensures his growth in the cultural and psychological direction. In this case, a person strives to become deeply moral and morally responsible. Such needs contribute to the introduction of people to religion. Moral self-improvement and psychological development become the dominant needs for people who have reached a high level of personality development.

In the modern world, it is very popular among psychologists. Its presence speaks of the highest level of human psychological development. Human needs and their types can change over time. There are desires that need to be suppressed in oneself. We are talking about the pathology of psychological development, when a person has needs of a negative nature. These include painful conditions in which a person has a desire to inflict pain on another, both physical and moral.

Considering the types of needs, we can say that there are those without which a person cannot live on earth. But there are some that you can do without. Psychology is a subtle science. Each individual needs a special approach. The question is, why do some people have particularly pronounced needs, while others have others? Some like to work, others don't, why? The answer must be sought in generic genetics or in lifestyle.

Species can also be divided into biological, social, ideal. The classification of needs has a wide variety. The need for prestige and recognition in society appeared. In conclusion, it can be said that it is impossible to establish a complete list of human needs. The hierarchy of needs is different. Satisfying the needs of the basic level implies the formation of the rest.

Man is a socio-biological being, and accordingly, the needs have a different character, or rather levels. Needs determine motives and personalities. This is the fundamental principle of human life as an individual, personality and individuality. From the article you will learn what are the needs and what is their difference, how they develop, what they depend on and what depends on them.

Needs - a mental state, expressed in discomfort, tension, dissatisfaction with some desire.

Needs can be both conscious and unconscious.

• The perceived needs of a person or group become interests.
• Unconscious - make themselves felt in the form of emotions.

The situation of discomfort is solved by satisfying the desire or if it is impossible to satisfy by suppressing or replacing a similar but accessible need. It encourages activity, search activity, the purpose of which is to eliminate discomfort and tension.

Needs are characterized by several features:

• dynamism;
• variability;
• development of new needs as early ones are satisfied;
• the dependence of the development of needs on the involvement of the individual in various spheres and activities;
• the return of a person to the previous stages of development, if lower needs again become unsatisfied.

Needs represent the structure of the personality, they can be characterized as “a source of activity of living beings, indicating the lack of resources (both biological and sociocultural) necessary for the existence and development of the personality” (A. N. Leontiev).

Need development

Any need develops in two stages:

1. Arises as an internal, hidden condition for activity, acts as an ideal. A person compares knowledge about the ideal and the real world, that is, he is looking for ways to achieve it.
2. The need is concretized and objectified, is the driving force of activity. For example, first a person may realize the need for love, and then look for the object of love.

Needs give rise to motives against which the goal emerges. The choice of means to achieve the goal (need) depends on the value orientations of a person. Needs and motives form the direction of the personality.

Basic needs are formed by the age of 18-20 and do not undergo significant changes in the future. The exception is crisis situations.

Sometimes the system of needs and motives develops disharmoniously, which leads to mental disorders and personality dysfunction.

Types of needs

In general, we can distinguish bodily (biological), personal (social) and spiritual (existential) needs:

• The bodily include instincts, reflexes, that is, everything physiological. The maintenance of human life as a species depends on their satisfaction.
• Everything spiritual and social belongs to the personal. That which allows a person to be a person, an individual and a subject of society.
• Existential refers to everything that is connected with the maintenance of the life of all mankind and with the cosmos. This includes the need for self-improvement, development, creation of a new, knowledge, creativity.

Thus, part of the needs is innate and they are identical in people of all nations and races. The other part is acquired needs, which depend on the culture and history of a particular society, group of people. Even the age of a person contributes.

A. Maslow's theory

The most popular classification of needs (aka hierarchy) is Maslow's pyramid. The American psychologist ranked needs from lowest to highest, or from biological to spiritual.

1. Physiological needs (food, water, sleep, that is, everything related to the body and the body).
2. The need for emotional and physical security (stability, order).
3. The need for love and belonging (family, friendship), or social needs.
4. The need for self-esteem (respect, recognition), or the need for evaluation.
5. The need for self-actualization (self-development, self-education, others "self").

The first two needs are the lowest, the rest are the highest. The lower needs are characteristic of a person as an individual (biological being), the higher ones are characteristic of a person and individuality (a social being). The development of higher needs is impossible without the satisfaction of primary ones. However, after their satisfaction, spiritual needs do not always develop.

Higher needs and the desire for their realization determine the freedom of a person's individuality. The formation of spiritual needs is closely connected with the culture and value orientations of society, historical experience, which gradually becomes the experience of the individual. In this regard, we can distinguish between material and cultural needs.

There are several differences between lower and higher needs:

• Higher needs are genetically developed later (the first echoes occur in late adolescence).
• The higher the need, the easier it is to move it away for a while.
• Living at a high level of needs means good sleep and appetite, the absence of disease, that is, a good quality of biological life.
• Higher needs are perceived by a person as less urgent.
• Satisfaction of higher needs brings great joy and happiness, ensures the development of the individual, enriches the inner world, fulfills desires.

According to Maslow, the higher a person climbs this pyramid, the healthier he is mentally and more developed as a personality and individuality. The higher the need, the more the person is ready for action.

Theory of K. Alderfer

• existence (physiological and the need for security according to Maslow);
• connectedness (social needs and external assessment according to Maslow);
• development (internal assessment and self-actualization according to Maslow).

The theory is distinguished by two more provisions:

• several needs can be involved at the same time;
• the lower the satisfaction of the higher need, the stronger the desire to satisfy the lower (we are talking about replacing the inaccessible with the available, for example, love with sweet).

Theory of E. Fromm

In Fromm's concept, needs are classified on the basis of the unity of man and nature. The author identifies the following needs:

1. The need for communication and interindividual bonds (love, friendship).
2. The need for creativity. Regardless of the type of specific activity, a person creates the world around him and society itself.
3. The need for a sense of deep roots that guarantee the strength and security of being, that is, an appeal to the history of society, the family.
4. The need to strive for assimilation, the search for an ideal, that is, the identification of a person with someone or something.
5. The need for knowledge and development of the world.

It is worth noting that Fromm adhered to the concept of the influence of the unconscious on a person and attributed needs just to this. But in Fromm's concept, the unconscious is the hidden potential of the individual, the spiritual forces assigned to each person from the very beginning. And also an element of commonality, unity of all people is brought into the subconscious. But the subconscious, as well as the described needs, breaks down on the logic and rationality of the world, clichés and taboos, stereotypes. And most of the needs remain unfulfilled.

The theory of acquired needs D. McClelland

• the need to achieve or accomplish;
• the need for human connection or affiliation;
• the need for power.

• if children are encouraged to control others, then a need for power is formed;
• with independence - the need for achievement;
• when establishing friendship, the need for attachment.

The need to achieve

A person strives to excel other people, to stand out, to achieve established standards, to be successful, to solve complex problems. Such people themselves choose situations where they will be responsible for everyone, but at the same time they avoid too simple or too complex.

The need to join

A person strives to have friendly, close interpersonal relationships based on a close psychological connection, avoids conflicts. Such people are focused on situations of cooperation.

Need for power

A person seeks to create conditions and requirements for the activities of other people, manage them, control them, enjoy authority, decide for other people. A person receives satisfaction, being in a position of influence and control. Such people choose situations of competition, competition. They care about status, not performance.

Afterword

Satisfaction of needs is important for the adequate development of the individual. If biological needs are ignored, a person can get sick and die, and if higher needs are not satisfied, neuroses develop, and other psychological problems arise.

It is worth noting that there are exceptions to the rule “first meet some needs - then develop others”. We are talking about creators and warriors who can set themselves higher goals, despite unmet physical needs, such as hunger and lack of sleep. But for the average person, the following data is characteristic:

• physiological needs are satisfied by 85%;
• in safety and protection - by 70%;
• in love and belonging - by 50%;
• in self-esteem - by 40%;
• in self-actualization - by 10%.

Needs are closely related to the social situation of human development and the level of socialization. Interestingly, this relationship is interdependent.

abstract

HUMAN NEEDS, THEIR TYPES

AND MEANS OF SATISFACTION.

D e c o n t i o n s :

1. Introduction. one

2. Types of human needs. 1-4

3. Fundamentals of economic activity of mankind.

Specialization and trade. 4-8

4. Limited economic resources and related

problems with her. 8-10

5. Conclusion. Principles of distribution of benefits. eleven

1. Introduction.

The great scientist of ancient Greece, Aristotle, gave the name to science - economics. He combined two words: "eykos" - economy and "nomos" - for-

con, so that "economy" in literal translation from the ancient Greek means

em "laws of economy".

Economics means the science that:

1) studies ways of organizing people's activities aimed at creating

Denmark blessings they need for consumption;

2) explores how people use the limited resources available to

satisfaction of their unlimited needs in life's goods.

There are three main participants in economic life: the family, firms and the state. They interact with each other, coordinating their activities.

ness both directly with each other and through markets factors about

production (that is, resources with which you can organize production

management of goods) and consumer goods (goods that are directly

are being played by people).

Firms and the state play a large role in the economy, but the individual

The family is the main actors in the economy. business executive -

ness of any country should be carried out for the sake of meeting the needs of any -

dey in specific benefits.

Behavior of people, their decisions in specific economic situations

determine the activities of firms, government organizations, markets.

By examining human behavior, economics helps people, firms

mothers and the state to foresee the consequences of their decisions in the economic sphere

2. Types of human needs.

The basic human needs are biological needs.

These needs are the basis for the formation of specific needs

people (the need to satisfy hunger gives rise to the need for certain

types of food). The first task of economic activity (economy) was

satisfaction of these needs.

The main human needs are:

In clothes;

in housing;

In safety;

In the treatment of diseases.

These needs are necessary for the simple survival of people, but they

are a very difficult task. Until now, people cannot completely re-

sew these problems; millions of people on Earth are still starving, many do not have a roof over their heads and basic medical care.

In addition, human needs are much more than just a set of

skill for survival. He wants to travel, have fun, a comfortable life, a favorite pastime, etc.

3. Fundamentals of the economic life of mankind. Specialization and

trade.

To meet their needs, people used at first only what the wild nature could give them. But with the growth of needs,

the need to learn how to get things. Therefore, the benefits are divided into

two groups:

1) free goods;

2) economic benefits.

Gift Goods - these are the benefits of life (mainly natural) that are available to people in an amount greater than the need for them. They do not need to be produced, they can be consumed for free. Such benefits include-

Xia: air, water, sunlight, rains, oceans.

But basically, human needs are satisfied not at the expense of gratuitous,

a economic benefits , that is, goods and services, the volume of which is insufficient

to meet the needs of people in full and it can be increased

personal only as a result of the production process. Sometimes you have to

redistribute wealth in one way or another.

Now people live better than in ancient times. This is achieved due to the increase in the volume and improvement of the properties of these goods (food,

clothing, housing, etc.).

The source of prosperity and power of the peoples of the Earth today is

an extremely developed mechanism for combining efforts for the sake of solving common problems, including the most important task - the production of an increasing volume

life benefits, that is, the creation of better living conditions for people.

People use natural resources to produce the goods of life.

their labor and special devices (tools, equipment,

manufacturing facilities, etc.). All these are called "factors of production".

There are three main factors of production:

3) capital.

Work as a factor of production is the activity of people in the production

goods and services through the use of their physical and mental

opportunities As well as skills acquired as a result of training and experience

work. To organize production activities, the right is bought

to use the abilities of people for some time to create

giving a certain kind of benefit.

This means that the volume of labor resources of society depends on the number -

of the working-age population of the country and the amount of time that this

population can work for a year.

Earth as a factor of production - these are all types of natural resources that have

on the planet and suitable for the production of economic goods.

The dimensions of individual elements of natural resources are usually expressed as flat

sparing of land for a particular purpose, volumes of water resources or

minerals in the subsoil.

Capital as a factor of production is the entire production and technical

apparatus that people have created to increase their strength and expand their

the ability to produce the necessary goods. It consists of buildings and soru -

industrial applications, machine tools and equipment, iron

roads and ports, warehouses, pipelines, that is, from what is necessary for

implementation of modern technologies for the production of goods and services. The volume of capital is usually measured by the total monetary value.

For the analysis of economic processes, another kind of fact is distinguished.

production ditch - entrepreneurship. These are the services that

society, people endowed with the ability to correctly assess what new

goods can be successfully offered to buyers, what technologies are

management of existing products should be implemented in order to achieve greater benefits.

These people are willing to risk their savings for new business ventures.

projects. They have the ability to coordinate the use of other factors

tors of production to create the necessary benefits for society.

The volume of the society's entrepreneurial resource cannot be measured.

a clear idea of ​​​​it can be formed on the basis of data on the number

the owners of the firms who created and run them.

In the 20th century, another type of factors of production gained great importance.

properties: information , that is, all the knowledge and information that is necessary

people for conscious activity in the economic world.

Constantly improving the ways of using economic resources

owls, people based their economic activity on two important

Shih element: specialization and trade.

The specialization has three levels:

1) specialization of individuals;

2) specialization of the activities of economic organizations;

3) specialization of the country's economy as a whole.

The basis of all specialization is the specialization of human labor, which

defined:

a) Conscious division of labor between people.

b) Teaching people new professions and skills.

c) The possibility of cooperation, that is, cooperation for the sake of achieving a common

cabbage soup goals.

For the first time, the division (specialization) of labor arose about 12 thousand years ago.

ago: some people specialized only in hunting, others were

breeders or farmers.

There are now thousands of professions, many of which require training in specific skills and techniques.

Why is specialization the most important tool in the economic life of mankind?

First, people are endowed with different abilities; they are different

perform certain types of work. Specialization allows everyone

a person to find that job, that profession, where he can prove himself with the most

the best side.

Secondly, specialization allows people to achieve ever greater skill.

loss in their chosen activity. And this leads to the production of goods

or providing higher quality services.

Thirdly, the growth of skill allows people to spend on the production of goods

less time and not have its losses when moving from one

type of work to another.

Thus, specialization is the main way to increase

performance all resources (factors of production) that people use to produce the economic goods they need, and before

the entire labor resource.

Performance is the amount of benefits that can be obtained from the use of

of a unit of a certain type of resources for a fixed period

period of time.

Thus, labor productivity is determined by the number of products that

a swarm was made by a worker per unit of time: per hour, per day, per month, per year.

One of the most significant inventions of mankind in the field of special

socialization and division of labor was the conveyor. This is the most powerful tool

increase in labor productivity.

The creator of the assembly line was Henry Ford (1863-1947), the father of the mass auto-

mobile industry, a talented person. The idea of ​​​​the conveyor was born to him after

how the car company he created stopped

handle orders that have doubled in one year.

Then (in the spring of 1913) in the magneto assembly shop, Ford launched the first

conveyor world. Until that time, the assembler worked at the table, where he had

complete set of parts. A skilled assembler collected about 40 magnetos per shift.

Now each collector had to perform one or two operations on

assembly (that is, he specialized even more than when he knew how to perform

all assembly operations). This reduced the assembly time for one

magneto from 20 min to 13 min.10 sec. And after Ford replaced the old

a low table on a moving belt raised above, which set the pace

work, the assembly time was reduced to 5 minutes. Labor productivity

grew 4 times! After the introduction of the conveyor assembly principle in all workshops

labor productivity increased by 8.1 times, which made it possible in 1914 to increase

chit production of cars in 2 times. Ford got the opportunity to produce its ma-

tires at a lower cost than competitors, sell them cheaper and

capture the market. This led to the fact that competitors had to

implement a conveyor in their enterprises.

Thanks to the specialization of labor and the growth of labor productivity, people

came to the transition from a random and irregular exchange of available bla -

Gami to constant trade in them. There was a transition from self-sufficiency, then

eat from subsistence farming, to receiving goods produced by others

people. People gradually became convinced that thanks to the exchange of goods it is possible to

get more benefits at your disposal and make them more diverse -

mi compared to their independent production. Realizing this, people began

engage in exchange not from case to case, but made it the basis of their lives. So there were products and services used by them for regular

The ability to exchange goods is a unique ability of people, distinguished by

separating them from other inhabitants of the Earth. As the great shot-

Landish economist Adam Smith (1723-1790):

“No one has ever seen a dog deliberately swap a bone with another dog…”

The regular exchange of goods and services was the basis for the most important

areas of human activity trade , that is, the exchange of goods in the form of

whether the sale of goods and services for money.

Trade was born in ancient times, it is even older than agriculture.

It existed during the Paleolithic - at the dawn of the Stone Age, around

30,000 years ago. In the beginning, tribes that lived far away traded among themselves.

to from each other. They traded in luxury goods (precious and finishing

stones, spices, silks, rare woods, etc.). were engaged

these itinerant merchants - Arabs, Frisians, Jews, Saxons, and then Italians.

Over time, trading cities appeared in Europe: Venice, Genoa and

river cities of Germany - Hamburg, Stettin, Danzig and others.

Trade has played a big role in human history. Thanks to her

merchants set sail in search of new lands where they could get

expensive goods. The main goal of Columbus was also trading inte -

res. He wanted to find a shorter route to the shores of India, so that it would be easier and

cheaper to ship goods to Europe. Thanks to trade, many

other geographical discoveries, as well as the birth of modern industrial

ness. From merchant money, large-scale handicraft production began to appear.

stvo, and then manufactories - the forerunners of plants and factories.

It was trade that united people into firms specializing in

production of certain goods.

No one person is capable of mastering all the many professions necessary

go to create the whole variety of goods that are used today

The combination of trade and specialization makes it possible for people to obtain

goods in a larger volume, in a larger assortment and faster.

If a country skillfully uses a combination of specialization and trade, then this will lead to:

Growth in labor productivity;

Growth in the volume of available goods;

An increase in the growth of consumption of goods by people, corresponding to an increase in income

sellers;

Increasing trade revenues that can be used for development and

improvement of production and specialization of labor.

This applies to all countries, even to those that have great natural wealth, since in themselves the wealth of subsoil, arable land and forests

prosperity is not guaranteed.

So, in Russia, natural resources are enormous, their rational use

nie could make the people of Russia one of the wealthiest in the world. But Russia, not

despite the fact that it was under the control of the planning-command system,

spent its natural wealth on a huge scale, did not provide

high level of well-being for its citizens.

According to UN experts, in terms of wealth, Russia is only at

53rd place. It will be able to rise higher only by increasing the scale of production -

production of economic benefits useful to people. This problem can be solved only

having mastered the art of rational organization of economic activity.

4. Limited economic resources and emerging in this

communication problems.

To satisfy their needs for goods, people need much more resources than have always been available to mankind.

Humans have faced limited resources since ancient times, when

land was the only available source of wealth production.

The graph shows the emergence of a gap between the material

people's desires and opportunities for their satisfaction.

The increase in natural resources occurs due to the development of deposits

mining, construction of hydroelectric power plants, development

virgin lands, etc. On the graph, the line of the volume of resources is a gently rising

toiling. A line that rises steeply - human sweats -

ty. In the first period of human development, the potentialities of nature to feed people, who were few, exceeded their sweat.

children. Due to population growth and increasing needs of people

Humanity is faced with a new situation - scarcity.

Humanity 11-16 thousand years ago could have died out due to a lack of

food and he managed to escape only due to the emergence of agriculture.

The needs of people, the population of the Earth continue to

but increase. The increase in the volume of life's goods lags behind the growth in people's needs, despite the fact that they have learned to use the resources of nature and other factors of production.

With the exception of a small number of goods - air, rain, solar heat - all other means of meeting the needs of mankind

are available in limited quantities. So, oil reserves in the bowels of the Earth are

128.6 billion tons. This is her physical limitation. People actively use

they call her, but now she is available only to those who can pay the costs of

its extraction and transportation. The economic problem is not created by the physical

What is the limitation of the resource, and the ability to get it only by spending other

resources. So, in order to extract an additional amount of oil, you need to spend

other limited resources: electricity, labor of oil workers, metal for

manufacture of oil equipment and oil pipeline pipes), etc.

Consequently, the economic activity of people is always directed

on the withdrawal of resources from the sphere of satisfaction of some, in order to satisfy

the needs of other people.

Economic resources are always limited.

Limitation labor due to the fact that the number of able-bodied people of any country is strictly fixed at any given time.

In terms of physical and mental abilities, not all people are suitable for performing specific jobs. This problem can be partially solved by

attracting workers from other countries, retraining and retraining

botniks to more effective specialties, but this does not give an instant

result, as it requires a certain time for their implementation.

Limitation land(natural resources) is determined by the geography of the country and the presence of mineral deposits in its bowels. This limitation can be reduced by converting previously barren soils into

farmland.

Limitation capital determined by the previous development of the country,

what she has accumulated. This limitation can be reduced by

construction of new factories, highways, gas pipelines and additional

equipment manufacturing. But this takes time and cost.

Limitation entrepreneurship due to the fact that nature

all endowed with this talent.

Limitation resources forced people to take appropriate

measures. People have long begun to secure economic resources in their own -

ness. An individual or group of people can:

- own resources, that is, actually possess them;

- enjoy resources, that is, use them at your discretion

to receive current income;

- dispose, that is, to have the right to transfer them to other persons, for example

Other people must respect these rights. Consolidation of resources in so-

The property of citizens allows them to provide these resources for a fee to those who need them. Forms of income from this can be very different and depend on the type of resources provided.

Most of the large fortunes of Russia (goods) are associated with the shadow property

venity (criminal access to resources, etc.) and post-state

property (privatization, land, budget funds).

As a result of "privatization" under the guise of the slogan of the voucher people-

privatization, property turned out to be dispersed, torn between

separate links of inseparable by nature technological chains.

This has led to the inefficiency of the Russian economy today.

5. Conclusion. Principles of distribution of benefits.

To satisfy their ever-increasing needs, humanity

forced to constantly look for answers to the main questions of the foundations of economic

noah life, that is, the main issues of the economy:

1. What and how much to produce?

2. How to produce?

3. How to distribute the manufactured goods?

Solving the question "What and in what quantity to produce?", people in the end

account distribute limited resources between producers of various

good things.

When deciding the question “How to produce?”, people choose the preferred

they are methods (technologies) for producing the goods they need.

Each of the possible options for technological solutions involves

its combination and the extent to which limited resources are used. And on-

Therefore, the choice of the best option is not an easy task, which requires a comparison -

leniya, weighing the value of various resources.

Answering the question "How to distribute the manufactured goods?"

people decide who and how much goods should get in the end. How

to carry out the distribution of goods so that it does not cause in people feelings of

justice due to differences in the comfort of life?

People solved this problem in the following way:

- "right of the strong"- the best and in full gets the one who can

to take blessings from the weaker by force of the fist and arms;

- "principle of balance"- everyone receives approximately equally, so that

“nobody was offended”;

- "queue principle"- the benefit goes to the one who first took a place in the queue

wishing to receive this benefit.

Life has proven the perniciousness of the use of these principles, since they do not

interest people in more productive work. With such a distribution

sharing benefits, even if you work better than others and get more for it,

the acquisition of the desired good is not guaranteed. Therefore, in the vast majority of countries in the world (and in all the richest countries) at present

dominated by a complex mechanism of market distribution.

Bibliography:

1.I.V. Lipsits "Economics", Moscow, 1998

2. G. Yavlinsky "Russian Economy: Legacy and Opportunities", EPIcenter,

Earlier we said that the subject of needs can be the physical (object-oriented needs), social (subject-oriented needs) and cultural (person-oriented needs) aspects of the world. Accordingly, as a result of satisfaction of needs, certain bodily (physiological), social and personal changes occur. These changes can be reflected in consciousness (for example, a change in the state of consciousness when taking psychoactive substances or the joy of achieving a high social status) or proceed without the participation of consciousness (keeping the sclera of the eye moist). Needs can be met both passively (for example, when the temperature drops, the blood capillaries in the skin narrow) and actively (moving to a warmer place). Moreover, the active form of satisfaction can be instinctive or active form.

It should be noted that a person's way of actively implementing any need is of a sociocultural nature. For example, a person does not tear a raw piece of meat with his hands, but prepares a steak from it, which he eats with a knife and fork. The basic specificity of human needs (compared to representatives of the animal world) is as follows:

• 1) a person is able to produce new items to meet his needs (for example, to invent synthetic fibers);
• 2) at a certain stage of his development, he acquires the possibility of arbitrary regulation of needs (for example, he can go on a hunger strike in protest);
• 3) new needs are constantly formed in its activities;
• 4) a person is included in the dynamics of objectification and deobjectification of his existing needs, i.e. can change (including consciously choose) the objects of needs.

From the point of view of adequate satisfaction of the need, the processes of their objectification and deobjectification. In the act of objectifying a need, a motive is born. The essence of the process of objectification of needs is the meeting of a living being with the world, when the internal readiness for action acquires a specific direction - it becomes an activity. Activity is always motivated, i.e. determined by the motive - the subject to which it is directed. The possibility of the opposite process - disobjectification of needs - provides flexibility and variability of behavior both with changes in the external world (environment of animals or human life conditions), and in connection with changes in the subject himself, which is especially important for the life of the individual.

Instinctive satisfaction of needs

From the point of view of evolution, the most significant needs have acquired fixed ways of satisfaction in phylogenesis. Need-satisfying behavior that is carried out on the basis of innate programs is called instinctive behaviour. Instinctive satisfaction of needs is homeostatic in nature. The principle of homeostasis is chronologically the first explanatory principle of the mechanism of action of need. It consists in affirming the body's tendency to maintain a constant optimal for a representative of this type of internal state of the body. In homeostatic concepts, the need is thought of as a stress that the body seeks to minimize.

The realization of an instinct is a chain of fixed actions that is initiated by innate and specific to a given animal species. signal stimulus, those. some aspect of the environment (color, size, smell, etc.), and not a holistic object. For example, in the male of a small fish - three-spined smelt - during the mating season, the abdomen becomes bright red. The red spot on the abdomen of the fish acts as a signal stimulus that triggers instinctive territorial defense behavior in other males. During the breeding season, male smelt will make formidable attacks even on a rough model with a red spot, while maintaining complete indifference towards the male of his species, in which the redness will be masked.

The classical concept of instinctive behavior was formulated by K. Lorentz and N. Tinbergen, who were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1973. Scientists argued that both internal and environmental factors are important for the realization of instinct. The model proposed by Lorentz and Tinbergen is called hydromechanical model of motivation (Fig. 4.2).

Instinctive behavior of a certain type may be initiated under various conditions. Firstly, such a large amount of "energy" of instinct can accumulate in the "reservoir" that behavior begins to unfold without the influence of external stimuli. Thus, hunger forces the animal to seek food, even when nothing in the external environment reminds of it; and some birds perform highly elaborate mating dances in the absence of a potential mate, simply because "the time has come."

Rice. 4.2.

1 - a reservoir in which the "energy" of activation is accumulated, which is different for each need. The accumulation of energy is associated with the physiological state of the organism; 2 - external signal stimuli ("weights"); 3, 3", 3" - options for the intensity of the implementation of instinctive behavior; 4 - threshold for triggering instinctive behavior

Secondly, a sufficiently high degree of activation lowers the threshold for triggering instinctive behavior, and a signal stimulus of low intensity is triggered. A striking example of such a mechanism is salmon migration (A. Hasler, 1960). Pacific salmon are born in the streams of the western United States and Canada. Then the fry, along with the current, go to the Pacific Ocean. Two years later, when the required level of sex hormones accumulates in their bodies, salmon rush back to their birthplace. The implementation of the sexual instinct of salmon includes an orientation to the minimum concentration of chemicals in the native stream, which gives them the opportunity to accurately choose the direction and go to spawn where they need to. Prepubescent fish remain indifferent to this kind of signaling stimuli, while mature fish show fantastic sensitivity: literally a drop of native water is enough to trigger instinctive behavior.

Rice. 4.3.

With instinctive motivation, the process of objectifying a need often has the character imprinting, those. instantaneous and irreversible finding by the need of its object. The discovery of the phenomenon of imprinting belongs to Douglas Spolding (D. Spolding, 1875), who, observing the development of chickens hatched from eggs, found that in the first days after birth, chickens follow any moving object. They seem to "consider" him their mother and subsequently demonstrate affection for him. However, Spaulding's observations were not appreciated during his lifetime and became widely known only in the 1950s.

K. Lorentz repeated and significantly expanded Spaulding's data. He believed that the phenomenon of imprinting is possible only at a strictly defined stage of development of the organism ( sensitive periods ). The chick shows a pronounced following reaction (mother imprinting) only in the period of 5–25 hours after hatching from the egg. After the end of this period, when a similar object approaches, he is more likely to show a reaction of fear. The presence of sensitive periods for the instinctive objectification of needs is biologically expedient. Indeed, the creature that the cub sees immediately after birth is most likely to be its mother, and the one who comes later can be a dangerous predator. In turn, the mother also observes the imprinting of her cub. So, goats have a special sensitivity to the smell of a cub, which quickly disappears. If a goat is replaced during this sensitive period, then, according to the data of P. Klopfer and J. Gamble, the goat will perceive him as his own, and turn away his own cub (P. Klopfer, J. Gamble, 1966).

The question of the presence of instinctive behavior in humans is still debatable. There is evidence that phenomena similar to imprinting in animals are also observed in humans. The term " bonding " is used to refer to the process of the emergence of emotional attachment between parents and a newborn, which is formed in the first hours and days after birth. For example, fathers who were present at the birth of their children and had the opportunity to communicate with them in the first hours of life subsequently showed much more love and participation An alternative interpretation of these results is that such men were generally more interested in fatherhood and that this influenced their attitude towards children.

Another study showed that mothers who were in the same room with an infant for three days after giving birth, even after several years, showed significantly higher attachment to their children than those to whom infants were brought only for feeding. There is also evidence that people who have spent childhood together have no sexual attraction to each other. This fact is associated with the operation of a mechanism similar to inbreeding imprinting in animals: since inbreeding is evolutionarily dangerous, animals avoid their family counterparts when pairing, imprinting them in the early period of life.

Despite the important role of instinctive behavior for biological evolution, it is obvious that at the human level, acquired forms of satisfaction of needs during their lifetime play an incomparably greater role than innate ones. This is especially significant in the process of deobjectification of needs, i.e. when a need changes its object. As already mentioned above, the classical idea of ​​instinct includes the idea of irreversible nature imprinting - the formation of a rigid motivational connection with the object. Although outwardly similar phenomena can be observed in human behavior (some men, for example, fall in love only with blondes), in fact, one can speak of “instincts” in a person only in a metaphorical sense: human activity is motivated not by isolated characteristics of the environment, but by a holistic picture of the world , which has semantic and value dimensions.

Activity satisfaction of needs

In human life, the instinctive way of satisfying needs (if it exists at all) is a vestige rather than a predominant form. A person is included in a constant chain of activity in which he not only satisfies his needs, but also creates new ones. We can say that a person acts as a "producer" of his motives. A person sets goals (conscious ideas about the required future) and is guided by them no less than by the current situation.

One of the ways to generate new motives in activity is the mechanism shifting the motive to the goal, described by A. N. Leontiev. In this case, a new motive arises from the goal of an action that was previously a component of another activity. Let us explain the operation of this mechanism with an example. A student goes to a lecture by a new teacher, attracted by the intriguing title of his course. She is driven by cognitive motivation, as well as the achievement motive, as she wants to master everything necessary for her future profession in the best possible way. These two motives inherent in our heroine were embodied in action - going to a lecture. But when she enters the classroom, she discovers that the new teacher is a very attractive young man. From that day on, she does not miss a single one of his lectures, and even those that are read at other faculties and are not included in her curriculum; the teacher acquires a motivating force for her in itself, as a person of interest to her. There was a shift of the motive to the goal, i.e. what at first was for the student the goal of a specific action (listening to a course) within the framework of a higher-level activity (learning and mastering a profession), has now turned into an independent motive (to see this person). Using this example, it is convenient to explain another important division in the activity approach into external and domestic activity motives: internal motives are those that coincide in content with the activity being performed, and external motives are those that go beyond its scope. In our case, the internal motives of the student remain the motives of learning and achievement (after all, the girl has not ceased to be interested in her profession and has not become less inquisitive), coinciding with what she actually does (goes to college and attends lectures). The external motive for her was the attractiveness of the teacher. At first glance, this motive has nothing to do with learning activity, but in fact it additionally encourages and supports it.

§ 2 The needs of society and ways to meet them

What is a need

A powerful engine of the economy are the needs of society.

Needs- a lack or need for something necessary for the life of people.

Human needs are important distinctive features, which distinguish it from the rest of the animal world. What are they?

First feature. People's Needs change historically quantitatively and qualitatively. These changes are noticeable during the transition from one era of development of the economy and culture of society to another. Take, for example, people who lived at the beginning of the last century.

They did not even imagine in their fantasies that there could be such extraordinary things that have become familiar to our contemporaries - televisions, computers, space stations and much more.

The second feature. Human requests are very change throughout his life. It is one thing for an infant who experiences predominantly physiological needs, and it is completely another for an adult who has mastered a certain specialty.

Third feature. People even of the same age very often have needs, requests, preferences do not match. It is no coincidence that in Russia there are popular sayings and expressions: “There are no comrades for taste and color”, “Tastes do not argue”.

Fourth feature. Modern civilization (the level of material and spiritual culture) knows multiple levels of needs person:

Physiological needs (food, water, shelter, etc.);

The need for security (protection from external enemies and criminals, help in case of illness, protection from poverty);

The need for social contacts (communication with people who have the same interests; in friendship and love);

The need for respect (respect from other people, self-respect, in the acquisition of a certain social position);

The need for self-development (to improve all the capabilities and abilities of a person).

The listed forms of human needs can be visually depicted in the form of a pyramid (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1. Pyramid of needs of modern man

It is especially important to say about image (external and internal appearance) of the future specialist. As for the appearance of a graduate of a technical school, college, he is usually influenced by the generally accepted norms of culture, fashion and other circumstances. The development of high qualities of his internal image, in which developed needs are manifested, largely depends on the student himself:

Erudition (reading, deep knowledge in various fields of human activity);

Developed intellect (creative thinking);

High culture of human communication;

Fluency in one or two foreign languages;

Ability to use a computer;

High moral behavior.

The 21st century is characterized by a comprehensive development of needs and a high image of specialists.

How does the level of needs of the members of society rise in the course of history? This largely depends on the interaction of social production and the urgent needs of people.

How are demand and production related?

The connection between production and needs is two-way: direct and reverse. Let's consider this connection in more detail.

Production directly and directly affects needs in several ways.

1. The level of production activity determines, in to what extent can it satisfy the demands of people. If, suppose, the country does not produce the required amount of goods (be it bread or cars), then the needs of the people will not be adequately satisfied. In this case, the growth of needs will become impossible.

2. The transition of production to a new level of scientific and technological progress radically renews the objective world and the way of life of people, gives rise to qualitatively different needs. For example, the release and sale of VCRs and personal computers causes a desire to purchase them.

3. production in many ways affects the way people consume useful things and thereby determines a certain household

culture. For example, primitive man was quite content with a piece of meat fried on a fire, which he tore into pieces with his hands. Our contemporary for cooking from the same piece of roast meat requires a gas, electric stove or grill, as well as cutlery.

In turn, needs reverse action for production activities.

1. Needs are a prerequisite and determine the direction of human creative activity. Each farm plans in advance its production of useful products, taking into account the identified needs.

2. Rising needs often overtakes production. It is noteworthy that garment factory workers are eager to find out in advance what new clothes are developed in fashion houses, taking into account the new level of needs.

3. The rise of needs gives them lead role in the progressive development of production - from its lowest level to ever higher ones.

The development of needs directly depends in several directions on the level of production. The latter experiences manifold reverse action from the needs of society.

The study of the interaction between production and needs makes it possible to understand the place and role of new needs of people in the circulation of economic goods.

What is the role of needs in the circulation of goods

First of all, it is important to pay attention to the special nature of the development of the economy - its circular traffic.

Just as the cycle of substances is constantly taking place on Earth, in economic activity circulation of economic benefits. Manufactured useful things disappear in the process of their consumption and are re-created in the same or modified form. Such a cycle is a prerequisite for the continuous maintenance and renewal of human life.

The circuit under consideration consists of five main links that are inextricably linked:

Rice. 1.2. Circulation of economic goods

Production;

Distribution;

consumption of goods;

K needs updating.

Now let's look at how the economic cycle works. The chain of inextricable dependencies between its individual links is clearly shown in Fig. 1.2.

Let us consider the cycle of created goods on a concrete example of a peasant economy. The producer first grows, for example, vegetables. Then he distributes them: he keeps some for himself and his family, and the rest goes for sale. In the market, vegetables that are superfluous for the family are exchanged for products that are needed in the household (for example, meat, shoes). Finally, material goods reach the final point - personal consumption. If the needs of a peasant family increase (in connection, say, with the increase in the family), then the production of vegetables will probably expand.

Now we can imagine the circulation of products in the most general form.

The beginning of the cycle is production - the process of creating useful goods. At this time, workers adapt the substance and energy of nature to meet human needs.

Distribution subject to income from industrial activities. The distribution process determines the share of all participants in such activities in the wealth created.

The benefits received from the distribution are often not needed for personal consumption in the amount received. Since people need completely different things, it happens exchange, during which the benefits received are exchanged for other things necessary for a person.

Consumption - the final stage of the movement of the product, which goes to meet the needs of people. As existing needs are met, new ones arise.

Needs are interconnected with all links circulation of blessings. In the process of consumption, there are new requests, which cause a renewal of production.

It may seem that the cycle of goods described here theoretically unambiguously characterizes the relationship between production and needs. However, in practice in many countries there are different options for the ratio of production and needs. What are these options?

What are the modern options for changing production and the needs of society

In the entire world economy at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st century, there are three main types of relationships between production, on the one hand, and the needs and consumption of the population, on the other.

First option. In some countries, the long decline of the economy leads to a decrease in both consumption and needs. This process can be likened to a spiraling movement with decreasing circles, such as we observe, say, in the funnel of a whirlpool. Such a plight can be seen, in particular, in certain African countries (for example, in the Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia), where at the end of the 20th century. per capita income declined.

Second option. In some African and Asian countries, the output of a relatively limited range of diverse products is growing very slowly. In this case, the needs are traditional and only gradually expand.

The first and second options characterize a clearly abnormal correlation between changes in production and needs.

Third option. It is possible to recognize the simultaneous growth of the production of the national product and the increase in the level of needs and consumption as normal. The natural rise in needs in this case goes in two directions: vertically and horizontally.

The improvement of people's lives is manifested in the growth of needs vertically.

Prolonged economic disruption in a number of countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States in the 1990s. had a negative impact on the value of the national product (domestic production) per 1 inhabitant and on household consumption expenditures. For example, in 2002 (as a percentage of 1990) such expenses amounted to: in Belarus - 131%, in Kazakhstan - 60%, in Ukraine - 59%.

Rice. 1. . Elevation of the needs associated with the car

Such a change can be traced in the example of people's attitudes towards buying a car (Fig. 1.3).

Rise of Needs horizontally associated with the expansion of consumption by ever wider segments of the population of products of higher quality. This change becomes more noticeable the longer the period of time under study is. We find confirmation of this in Table. 1.4.

Table 1.4

Provision of the population of Russia with durable goods (per 100 families, pieces)

As the German statistician E. Engel established, if the income of the population grows, then it spends relatively less money on food products, buys more industrial consumer goods (shoes, clothing, etc.), and with a further increase in income, it acquires high-quality items and durable goods.

The most rapid rise in needs vertically and horizontally in the 20th century. characteristic of Western - economically the most developed countries. Here, the growth of production and consumption can be likened to an upward spiral with expanding turnovers.

All the considered options for changing production and needs have a common feature. They express in one form or another contradiction between what people would like to have and what the real economy gives them.

Contradiction between needs and production - main contradiction economic activity in any society.

In the next section, we will find out in what ways and means the main contradiction of the economy is resolved.

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