Russian diplomats. Russian diplomats celebrate their professional holiday

Exactly 210 years ago, on March 13, 1807, Nikolai Petrovich Rezanov, a Russian diplomat, traveler and entrepreneur, passed away. Along with Kruzenshtern and Lisyansky, he was the leader and participant in the first domestic round-the-world voyage. Rezanov was also the first official Russian ambassador to Japan and was the compiler of one of the first Russian-Japanese dictionaries. Nikolai Rezanov gained immense fame thanks to the musical "Juno and Avos", the first performer of the role of Rezanov in it was the famous Soviet actor Nikolai Karachentsov.

The future Russian diplomat was born in St. Petersburg on March 28, 1764 in a poor noble family. His father, Pyotr Gavrilovich Rezanov, was a collegiate adviser, and his mother, Alexandra Rezanov, was the daughter of Major General G. A. Okunev. His father was unable to gain a foothold in the capital, but was assigned to Irkutsk, the then capital of Eastern Siberia, vast territories stretching from the Yenisei to the Pacific Ocean. Here he was offered the post of chairman of the civil chamber of the provincial court.

Not much is known about Nikolai Rezanov's childhood. It is noted that he received a very good education at home. At the same time, Nikolai from childhood was distinguished by excellent linguistic abilities. By the age of 14, he already knew five European languages, which largely determined his future life. Then, at the age of 14, in 1778, he entered the military service, first in the artillery. But quickly enough for dexterity, stateliness and good natural data, he was transferred to the Izmailovsky Life Guards Regiment. There are versions that Empress Catherine II herself could contribute to this. In 1780, during her trip to the Crimea, Nikolai Rezanov was personally responsible for her safety, at that time he was only 16 years old.

For unknown reasons, Rezanov soon left the service. Perhaps the reason was court intrigues and the Empress's disappointment in him, one way or another he left the military service and the court. He changes all this for a rather boring, but calm service, having entered the Pskov Chamber of the Civil Court as an assessor. Here he served for about 5 years, receiving a salary of 300 rubles a year, after which he was transferred to the capital to the Treasury Chamber.

After that, a sharp jump in his career followed again. Nikolai Rezanov becomes head of the office of Count N. G. Chernyshov. Such career growth testifies not only to his business qualities, but also to someone's rather powerful support and patronage. For an ordinary official not from the nobility or from the provincial nobles, such "jumps" through the ranks through several steps were unlikely, many of them, starting service from the lowest 14th grade in the "Table of Ranks", could rise to the rank of collegiate assessor, who gave the right to hereditary nobility, only towards old age.

After the appointment in 1791 of Gavriil Romanovich Derzhavin as secretary for a report on "senate memorials" (documents submitted by the senate for approval) under Catherine II, Rezanov is transferred to his service immediately as the ruler of the chancellery, this appointment opens the doors of many houses and offices of St. Petersburg to him, including the most senior nobles. Occasionally, even he has to carry out personal assignments for the Empress, and this further accelerates his career. After some time, he enters the staff of the new favorite of the Empress P. A. Zubov, who, seeing him as a competitor, under a plausible pretext sends Rezanov from St. America.

This trip for Rezanov is fateful. On January 24, 1795, he marries Shelikhov's 15-year-old daughter, Anna. The girl receives a title of nobility, and the groom - a very good dowry. Six months later, Grigory Shelikhov dies, and Nikolai Rezanov becomes a co-owner of part of his capital. At the same time, the formation and development of the Russian-American company fell into the sphere of his interests.

After the death of Catherine II, Rezanov returned to St. Petersburg, who replaced the Empress Paul I, who received him very well. In 1797, Rezanov became first secretary, and then chief secretary of the Senate. She is working on the drafting of the "Charter on Prices", and also establishes the layout of the land tax in Moscow and St. Petersburg. For this work, he is awarded the Order of St. Anne II degree and a pension of 2,000 rubles a year. Also, Emperor Paul I managed to sign a decree on the creation on the basis of the company of the merchant Shelikhov and a number of other Siberian merchants of a single Russian-American company (RAC). The head office of the trading semi-state company was transferred from Irkutsk to St. Petersburg, and Nikolai Rezanov was appointed as the authorized correspondent (representative) of the RAC. Since then, he has been both a high-ranking civil servant and an entrepreneur at the same time. Nikolai held the post of chief secretary of the ruling Senate until 1799.

Monument to Rezanov in Krasnoyarsk, erected in 2007

On July 18, 1801, Rezanov's son Peter was born, and on October 6, 1802, daughter Olga. 12 days after the birth of her daughter, Anna Reazanova dies of childbed fever, Nikolai Rezanov becomes a widower. Not wanting to let him retire, Emperor Alexander I sends Rezanov as the first Russian envoy to Japan. The embassy is expected to establish trade relations between states. At the same time, this assignment was initially very difficult to fulfill, since Japan has been pursuing a policy of strict isolationism over the past 150 years. Rezanov should go to Japan together with the first Russian round-the-world sea expedition. A month before setting off on a campaign, on July 10, 1803, Rezanov was awarded the title of chamberlain of His Majesty's court, and he was also awarded the Order of St. Anna, I degree. Along with Kruzenshtern, Rezanov was appointed head of the forthcoming expedition.

On August 7, 1803, the expedition, which consisted of two ships: "Nadezhda" under the command of Krusenstern (it had a general naval leadership of the expedition) and "Neva" under the command of Lisyansky, set sail. In November, the expedition crossed the equator, and celebrated Christmas off the coast of Brazil. During the expedition, Rezanov seriously quarreled with Krusenstern. Most of the way they communicated only with the help of notes, while after one of the scandals, Rezanov closed himself in a cabin, which he did not leave until the ship arrived in Petropavlovsk. The reason for the quarrels was Rezanov's desire to carry out the general leadership of the expedition. The official, who had never been at sea before, tried to direct the actions of naval officers and sailors, which did not find support from them.

In Petropavlovsk, the Governor-General of Kamchatka barely managed to reconcile Rezanov with Kruzenshtern. As a result, having taken a guard of honor for the ambassador here (2 officers, 5 soldiers and a drummer), the Nadezhda sailed to Japan, and the Neva to Alaska. On September 26, 1804, Rezanov's mission reached the city of Nagasaki. At the same time, the Japanese did not let the Russian ship into the harbor, so Kruzenshtern anchored in the bay. The ambassador was allowed to go to the Japanese coast, providing a luxurious house for living. True, the ambassador was forbidden to leave the house, he was ordered to wait for an answer from the emperor on the spot. Any food was delivered to him on demand, money was not taken from him and they were treated with emphatic politeness. This went on for half a year, until a dignitary arrived in March, who brought back a reply from the Emperor of Japan. The answer said that he would not accept Rezanov's embassy and did not want to trade with Russia, while the emperor returned all the gifts brought back, demanding that Rezanov and Krusenstern's ship leave Japan. Rezanov's embassy mission failed.

Upon returning to Petropavlovsk, Rezanov learns that Kruzenshtern was awarded the Order of St. Anna of the II degree, and he was granted only a snuffbox, albeit studded with diamonds. He was also released from further participation in the circumnavigation, Emperor Alexander I ordered him to inspect Russian settlements in Alaska. The chamberlain wanted to be rehabilitated in the eyes of the emperor, so he approached the new task with great zeal. On the trading brig "Maria" on August 26, 1805, he arrived in the bay of Novo-Arkhangelsk. Here on the island of Sitka, he met the merchant A. A. Baranov, the ruler of "Russian America".

Novo-Arkhangelsk. Artist S. V. Penn. Central Naval Museum, St. Petersburg

In Novo-Arkhangelsk, Rezanov was struck by the lack of the most necessary, including food products, which negatively affected the Russian colony. Seeing that Baranov could not solve this problem, Rezanov purchased the ship "Juno" from the visiting American businessman John Wolfe. The ship was bought along with the transported cargo of food, which was enough for the initial support of compatriots in Novo-Arkhangelsk. At the same time, food was scarce until spring. Therefore, Nikolai Rezanov ordered the construction of another ship, which was called Avos. On February 26, 1806, together with this ship, he departed for the port of San Francisco, which belonged to the Spaniards. His plans were to establish trade relations with the Spaniards in order to further extend the influence of the Russian colonists to the lands of California.

A month later, "Juno" and "Avos" reached the San Francisco Bay. Spain, which in those years was part of an alliance with Napoleonic France, was Russia's opponent in the war. However, Rezanov needed to succeed in the negotiations at any cost. During the six weeks of his stay in San Francisco, he managed to completely subdue the local governor of Upper California, José Arillaga, and also became close friends with the family of the commandant of the fortress, José Dario Argüello. A well-educated Russian nobleman, civil servant, who knows many foreign languages and is a Knight of the Maltese Grand Cross of St. John of Jerusalem, Rezanov managed to win the heart of the daughter of the commandant of the fortress, Concepsia de Argüello (Conchita). He made a marriage proposal to a 15-year-old girl, Nikolai Rezanov himself at that time was 42 years old.

Based on Rezanov's reports, he did not look like a man who lost his head with love. The ship's doctor also thought the same, who assumed diplomatic views and benefits in such behavior of Rezanov. At the same time, witnesses noted that on the part of Conchita there could be more calculation than real passion. Rezanov could inspire her with the idea of a luxurious life in Russia at the imperial court. In any case, the girl dreamed of becoming the wife of a Russian chamberlain, her parents could not dissuade her, in the end, her determination reassured them. The Spaniards decided to leave the question of marriage behind the Roman throne, while agreeing to betroth Rezanov to his daughter. June 11, 1806 "Juno" and "Avos" loaded to the top with food sailed from the hospitable San Francisco. They took to Alaska 2156 pounds of wheat, 560 pounds of legumes and 351 pounds of barley. At the same time, Nikolai Petrovich promised Conchita and her parents that he would return back in two years with a marriage license, and Conchita vowed to wait for her betrothed fiancé.

What specific goals were pursued by Rezanov and Conchita today is almost impossible to determine. Perhaps Rezanov saw great prospects in this marriage for RAC, the development of Alaska, as well as Spanish California by Russian colonists, or maybe it really was the most ordinary love story. But the ending of this story, regardless of the desires and thoughts of its main characters, as we all know, was tragic.

The cenotaph, erected in August 2007 in Krasnoyarsk, repeats the original monument over the grave of Rezanov

In September 1806, Nikolai Petrovich left Russian America and reached Okhotsk. The autumn thaw was already beginning, it was impossible to move on. However, Rezanov wanted to return to St. Petersburg as soon as possible, setting out on horseback. Moving through numerous rivers, he fell into the water several times, spent the night in the snow, and caught a terrible cold. In Yakutsk, he lay unconscious and in a fever for 12 days. But as soon as he woke up, he set off again. As a result, everything ended with the fact that he lost consciousness and fell off the horse, hitting his head hard. He was barely able to be taken to Krasnoyarsk, where on March 1 (March 13 according to the new style), 1807, he died and was buried in the cemetery of the Resurrection Cathedral.

It is worth noting that Conchita remained faithful to Rezanov. In 1808, having learned about Rezanov's death from his relative, she never married anyone. For twenty years she lived with her parents, did charity work, taught Indian children to read and write, and then went to a monastery. She died in 1857, without violating the oath given to Rezanov. She was buried near San Francisco in the cemetery of the Dominican order.

The name of Rezanov came to us precisely thanks to this love story. The touching story of a Spanish girl and a Russian traveler-missionary formed the basis of the poem "Perhaps" by A. A. Voznesensky. Later, it became the literary basis for the famous Soviet rock opera "Juno and Avos" by composer A. L. Rybnikov, as well as the performance of the Lenkom Theater (the main roles were played by N. Karachentsov, E. Shanina). In these works, the image of Rezanov was significantly romanticized. And the performance of his role by Karachentsov only added to the popularity of the character.

Based on materials from open sources

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The origins of the formation of the Russian diplomatic service date back to the period of Ancient Russia and the subsequent period, when the Russian statehood was created and strengthened. Even in the IX-XIII centuries. Ancient Russia at the stage of creating its statehood was an active subject of international relations. It had a noticeable impact on the formation of the political map of Eastern Europe in those years from the Carpathians to the Urals, from the Black Sea to Lake Ladoga and the Baltic Sea.

One of the first milestones in the creation of ancient Russian diplomacy known to us was the sending of the Russian embassy to Constantinople in 838. His goal was to establish direct contacts with Byzantium. Already in the following year, 839, a joint embassy of the Byzantine Empire and Ancient Russia visited the court of the French king Louis the Pious. The first treaty in the history of our country "On Peace and Love" was concluded between Russia and the Byzantine Empire in 860, and, in essence, its signing can be considered as a documented act of international legal recognition of Russia as a subject of international relations. By the IX-X centuries. the origin of the ancient Russian embassy service, as well as the beginning of the formation of a hierarchy of diplomats, also applies.

The attention that was paid in Russia to contacts with foreign countries already in ancient times can be judged by the parting words that Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh gave to his children. He, in particular, told them: “Especially respect foreigners, no matter what rank, no matter what rank they may be. If you are not in a position to shower them with gifts, then at least lavish signs of your favor on them, because the good or bad that they say when they return to their own depends on how they are treated in the country.

From the second half of the XI century. and right up to the Mongol-Tatar invasion, Russia was immersed in a painful process of internecine wars that drained its resources. The once united state turned out to be fragmented into princely destinies, which were, in fact, only half independent. The political split of the country could not but destroy its unified foreign policy, it also eliminated everything that had been laid down in the previous period in the field of the formation of the Russian diplomatic service. However, even in that most difficult period for Russia in its history, one can find vivid examples of diplomatic art. So, Prince Alexander Nevsky, who became famous for his victories on the Neva over the army of the Swedes in 1240 and in the Battle of the Ice over the German crusader knights in 1242, proved himself not only a commander, but also a wise diplomat. At that time, Russia held the defense both in the East and in the West. The Mongols, led by Batu Khan, ravaged the country. Invaders from the West tried to subjugate what had survived the invasion of the Horde. Alexander Nevsky played the most difficult diplomatic game, skillfully maneuvering, seeking the forgiveness of the rebellious princes, the release of prisoners, and getting rid of the obligation to send Russian troops to support the Horde during their campaigns. He himself repeatedly traveled to the Golden Horde in order to prevent a repetition of the devastating invasion of Batu Khan. Not without reason in pre-revolutionary Russia, Saint Alexander Nevsky was considered the heavenly patron of the Russian diplomatic service, and at the beginning of 2009, by a popular vote, it was he who was named by the Russians the most outstanding historical figure in Russia.

It is known from historical sources that Alexander Nevsky built his activities on three principles that surprisingly coincide with the principles of modern international law. Three of his phrases have come down to us: “God is not in power, but in truth”, “To live without stepping into other people's parts” and “Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword”. They easily guess the key principles of modern international law: non-use of force or threat of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of other states, inviolability of the territorial integrity of states and inviolability of borders, the right of states to individual and collective self-defense in case of aggression.

Alexander Nevsky always considered the provision of peace for Russia to be his most important task. Therefore, he attached great importance to the development of mutually beneficial trade and spiritual and cultural ties with all the countries of Europe and Asia. He concluded the first special agreement in Russian history with representatives of the Hanseatic League (a medieval prototype of the European Economic Community). Under him, in fact, the beginning of diplomatic contacts between Russia and China was laid. During the time of Alexander Nevsky, Russia began to take advantage of its geographical position, a kind of link between Europe and Asia, for which the prince is often called "the first Eurasian." Thanks to the support of Alexander Nevsky, in 1261 the first diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church outside Russia was created in the Golden Horde.

In the XV century. as a result of the weakening and then the final overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke and the creation of a centralized Russian state with its capital in Moscow, monocratic Russian diplomacy began to gradually take shape. By the end of the 15th century, already under Ivan III, Russian diplomacy faced such important tasks that it was necessary to pay special attention to them in order to solve them. Having ascended the princely throne, Ivan III in 1470 made a choice in favor of "correcting life" (the word "reform" appeared in Russia much later). Starting step by step to collapse the princely federation and liquidate the Novgorod veche republic, he took the path of forming a system of power, which later received the name "state service". Concerned about the international status of the strong unified state he was creating, Ivan III departed from the tradition of communication mainly with neighboring Lithuania and, in fact, was the first to "cut a window to Europe." He married the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Zoya Paleolog (in Russia, after the adoption of Orthodoxy, she received the name Sophia), who was a pupil of the Pope. This marriage was preceded by intensive diplomatic communication with Catholic Rome, which allowed Ivan III to bring Russia out of political and cultural isolation and begin to communicate with the West, where Rome was the most influential political force. In the retinue of Sophia Paleolog, and then on their own, many Italians came to Moscow, including architects and gunsmiths, who left a noticeable mark on the culture of Russia.

Ivan III was a good diplomat. He turned out to be quite perspicacious and, having unraveled the plan of Rome, did not succumb to the attempts of the papal throne to pit Russia against the Ottoman Empire. Ivan III also rejected the cunning approaches of the German Emperor Frederick III, who offered the Russian Grand Duke the title of king. Realizing that the consent to accept this title from the emperor would put him in a subordinate position, Ivan III firmly declared that he was ready to speak with the rest of the states only in

equal. For the first time in Russia, a double-headed eagle appeared on the state seal of Ivan III - a symbol of royal power, which emphasized the successive connection between Russia and Byzantium. Ivan III also introduced significant changes in the procedure for receiving foreign ambassadors, becoming the first of the Russian monarchs to communicate with them personally, and not through the Boyar Duma, which was entrusted with the functions of receiving foreign diplomats, negotiating, drafting documents on embassy affairs.

In the second half of the XV - beginning of the XVI century. as the Russian lands were united into a centralized Russian state, its international authority steadily increased, and international contacts expanded. At first, Russia used mainly foreigners who were in the service of Moscow as ambassadors, but under Grand Duke Vasily III, foreigners were replaced by Russians. There was a need to create a special department that would purposefully deal with the foreign affairs of the state. In 1549, Tsar Ivan the Terrible created the Posolsky Prikaz, the first central government agency in Russia in charge of foreign affairs. Moreover, since the first mention of the Ambassadorial Order dates back to February 10, then this very day, but already in 2002, was chosen as the date of the professional holiday of Russian diplomacy - the Day of the diplomatic worker. The Ambassadorial order was headed by one of the most educated people of that time, clerk Ivan Mikhailovich Viskovaty, who became a duma clerk and took the embassy business into his own hands. After in 1570, due to internal strife, I. M. Viskovaty was accused of being a "Turkish, Polish and Crimean spy", and then publicly executed by decree of Ivan the Terrible, the Ambassadorial order was headed by the Shchelkalov brothers, first Andrei and then Vasily.

At the head of the Ambassadorial order were the ambassadorial or Duma clerks and boyars, and from the second half of the 17th century. they became known as chiefs. One of the most famous heads of the Ambassadorial Prikaz was the outstanding Russian diplomat of that time, Afanasy Lavrentievich Ordin-Nashchokin, who achieved a noticeable intensification of Russia's foreign policy. The service in the Posolsky Prikaz was carried out by clerks and their assistants - clerks, located on the career ladder from "young", then "middle" and, finally, "old". The "old" clerks, as a rule, headed the territorial departments that appeared in the Order, called povyts. Three povyts dealt with relations with the countries of Europe and two - with the states of Asia. The clerks accepted letters brought by foreign ambassadors, conducted preliminary negotiations, attended receptions with foreign diplomats, checked draft letters of return, and issued orders to ambassadors and bailiffs who were sent to meet foreign ambassadors. They also headed the Russian embassies that traveled abroad.

Official diplomatic representations of foreign states appeared in Russia earlier than Russians abroad. From the end of the XV century. and especially in the XVI-XVII centuries. many foreign diplomats came to Moscow, which led to the development by the Ambassadorial Order of a special ceremonial of communication with foreign ambassadors, which was called the "ambassadorial rite".

Until the last third of the XVII century. Russia did not have permanent diplomatic missions in other states. Relations with them were maintained through persons specially appointed for each case. The first Russian permanent diplomatic missions abroad were established in 1643 in Sweden and in 1673 in the Commonwealth (Poland). In 1699 Russia opened a permanent diplomatic mission in The Hague. As Russia's interest in contacts with the Western powers grew and the latter's desire to develop relations with Russia, their mutual ties expanded, which led to the gradual replacement of temporary Russian representations abroad with permanent ones.

In parallel, at that time, a system of ranking diplomats began to take shape in the Ambassadorial Order, that is, assigning them a certain diplomatic rank. In particular, Russian diplomatic representatives in those years were divided into three categories: great ambassadors - an analogue of an extraordinary and plenipotentiary ambassador; light ambassadors - an analogue of the extraordinary and plenipotentiary envoy; envoys - analogue of the plenipotentiary envoy. Moreover, the category of a diplomatic representative was determined by the importance of the state to which the Russian embassy was sent, as well as the importance of the mission entrusted to him. Grand ambassadors were sent, as a rule, only to Poland and Sweden. It was customary to appoint envoys to distant countries. In addition, there were persons in the diplomatic service who had the ranks of sent (envoy with a one-time assignment), as well as envoy (fast courier) and messenger (courier with an emergency assignment). The functions of the latter included only the delivery of letters, they were not allowed to enter into any diplomatic negotiations.

A high place in the Ambassadorial Prikaz was occupied by the translation department. The translators who worked in it carried out oral translations, and translators performed written translations. Employees of the translation department were most often recruited from among foreigners who entered the Russian service, or from Russians who had been in foreign captivity. Information has been preserved that at the end of the 17th century. 15 translators and 50 interpreters working in the translation department translated from such languages as Latin, Italian, Polish, Volosh, English, German, Swedish, Dutch, Greek, Tatar, Persian, Arabic, Turkish and Georgian.

In order to study foreign languages and acquire the skills of diplomatic etiquette, as well as to communicate with foreigners, the Russian state in those years practiced sending people from boyar families abroad to study. Upon returning to Moscow, they, as a rule, came to work in the Posolsky Prikaz. It is noteworthy that the uniform and style of clothing of Russian diplomats and diplomatic employees of that time corresponded to the standards then accepted in Europe.

In the practical work of the Ambassadorial Order, a wide range of diplomatic documents was used, many of which are being prepared by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation to this day. In particular, the Ambassadorial Order issued "believers" (credentials) - documents certifying the representative character of diplomats and accrediting them in this capacity in a foreign state. Dangerous letters were prepared, the purpose of which was to ensure free entry and exit from the country of the embassy going abroad. Letters of return were used - documents handed over to foreign ambassadors upon their departure from the host country. As a tool for managing the activities of embassies, the Posolsky Prikaz used such a document as a mandate. It explained article by article the status, goals and objectives of the embassy, determined the nature of the information that should be collected, gave possible answers to questions that might arise, and also contained draft speeches that the head of the embassy should have delivered. The results of the work of the embassy were summed up by writing an embassy report containing the so-called article lists, in which the situation was comprehensively analyzed and the results of the work done by the embassy on each of the articles of the mandate were reported.

A special place in Russian diplomacy has always belonged to archives. From the beginning of the XVI century. The Ambassadorial Order established the practice of regular systematization of all diplomatic documents. The most common form of recording and storing diplomatic information for a long time was the maintenance of columns and the compilation of embassy books. Columns are strips of paper sealed with the signature of an official and glued one to the other vertically, containing diplomatic documents. Embassy books are embassy documents rewritten by hand in special notebooks. In fact, they were dossiers on specific issues. At the same time, all documents were strictly systematized by years, countries and regions. They were stored in special velvet-lined, metal-wrapped oak boxes, aspen boxes or canvas bags. Thus, the Posolsky Prikaz had a well-thought-out, well-established and quite effective system for storing, recording and classifying all diplomatic information, which made it possible not only to save, but also to use the available documents as needed.

A qualitatively new stage in the development of the Russian diplomatic service is associated with the era of Emperor Peter I. Only with his coming to power and carrying out fundamental changes in the entire system of public administration in Russia is an understanding of diplomacy as a system of relations between sovereign states based on the mutual exchange of permanent diplomatic representatives embodying the sovereignty of their ruler. Peter I radically reformed all state power in the country, subordinated the Church to the state Synod, and transformed the state service. Naturally, he also subjected the Russian Diplomatic Service to a thorough restructuring, transferring it to the principles of the concept of the diplomatic system that prevailed in Europe at that time. All this allowed Peter I to include Russia in the pan-European system of diplomatic relations, to turn our state into an active and very important factor in European balance.

The radical reforms implemented by Peter I were based on the following innovations:

1) the cumbersome administrative-state apparatus was replaced by a more compact and efficient administration;

2) The Boyar Duma was replaced by the administrative Senate;

3) the estate principle of forming the central government was abolished, the principle of professional suitability began to operate. The "Table of Ranks" was introduced into practice, which determined the status and career advancement of government officials;

4) the transition to the European system of ranking diplomatic employees was carried out, there were plenipotentiary and extraordinary ambassadors, envoys extraordinary, ministers, residents, agents;

5) the practice of mandatory mutual informing by Russian missions abroad of the most important military and political events, negotiations and agreements has been introduced.

Under Peter I, other important transformations were carried out. In particular, shortly after Russia's entry into the Northern War, the Posolsky Prikaz was transformed into a special diplomatic office - the Posolskaya field office. The main innovation was that in the conditions of a military campaign the emperor took upon himself the conduct of all foreign policy affairs of the state.

In 1717, the Ambassadorial field office was transformed into the Collegium of Foreign Affairs. However, the process of reorganization itself took several years, and therefore the final organizational design of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs of Russia took place only in February 1720. This design was based on the document - “Definition of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs”, and in April of the same year a special "Instruction". The signing of these two documents completed the process of organizing the Collegium of Foreign Affairs.

The “Definition of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs” (i.e., regulation) was the fundamental document on the basis of which all the work of the Collegium was based. It regulated issues related to the selection of personnel for the diplomatic service, determined the structure of the foreign ministry, clarified the functions and competence of officials working in the Collegium.

The members of the Board were appointed by the Senate. In addition to the attendants, 142 people worked in the central office of the Collegium. At the same time, 78 people worked abroad, who held the positions of ambassadors, ministers, agents, consuls, secretaries, copyists, translators, and students. There were also priests among them. The ranks of the servants of the College were assigned by the Senate. All officials took an oath of allegiance to the Tsar and the Fatherland.

The Collegium of Foreign Affairs of Russia consisted of two main divisions: the Presence and the Chancellery. The Presence was the supreme body, it was they who made the final decisions on all the most important issues. It consisted of eight members of the Board, headed by the president and his deputy, and gathered for its meetings at least four times a week. As for the Chancellery, it was an executive body and consisted of two departments, called expeditions: a secret expedition, which directly dealt with foreign policy issues, and a public expedition, which was in charge of administrative, financial, economic and postal affairs. At the same time, the secret expedition, in turn, was divided into four smaller expeditions. The first of them was in charge of receiving and recalling foreign diplomats who came to Russia, sending Russian diplomats abroad, maintaining diplomatic correspondence, office work, and drafting protocols. The second expedition was in charge of all the cases and materials in Western languages, the third - in Polish, and the fourth (or "Oriental") - in Eastern languages. At the head of each expedition was a secretary.

Outstanding Russian diplomats have been presidents of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs in different years. Count Gavriil Ivanovich Golovkin became the first president of the College, later he was replaced in this post by Prince Alexei Mikhailovich Cherkassky, Count Alexei Petrovich Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Count Mikhail Illarionovich Vorontsov, Prince Alexander Andreevich Bezborodko and a whole galaxy of other outstanding diplomats of Russia.

With the expansion of Russia's international relations, there was a further improvement in the activities of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, its central office, and new permanent Russian diplomatic and consular missions abroad were established. Thus, during the reign of Emperor Peter I, Russia opened its diplomatic missions in Austria, England, Holland, Spain, Denmark, Hamburg, Turkey, France and Sweden. Then Russian consulates were established in Bordeaux (France), Cadiz (Spain), Venice (Italy), Wroclaw (Poland). Diplomatic agents and auditors were sent to Amsterdam (Holland), Danzig (now Gdansk, Poland), Braunschweig (Germany). A special representative was appointed to the Kalmyk khans. Temporary missions were sent to Bukhara and China, and a special Russian spiritual mission was established in China, the history of which is as follows. Having learned about the existence of an Orthodox community in Beijing, which was founded by Russian Cossacks from the Albazinsky prison in Siberia captured back in 1685 in Chinese captivity, Peter I considered it necessary to have a Russian representation in Beijing in order to strengthen Russia's influence and develop ties with China. After long negotiations, the emperor of the Qin dynasty, despite his isolationist policy of "closed doors", nevertheless agreed, and in 1715 the first Russian spiritual mission arrived in Beijing. It became the earliest of all foreign missions of the Russian Orthodox Church and until 1864 actually served as an unofficial diplomatic representation of Russia in China. At the same time, this mission had a double subordination - to the Holy Synod and the Collegium of Foreign Affairs.

Under Peter I, the requirements for persons entering the Russian diplomatic service were significantly increased. In particular, when applying for service in the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, applicants had to pass, as they say now, a special qualification exam. This rule was observed quite strictly, in connection with which it can be confidently asserted that under Peter I, diplomacy began to be regarded not only as an art, but also as a science that required special knowledge, professional skills, and abilities. As before, the selection of diplomatic personnel was carried out at the expense of people from noble families, however, under Peter I, much more attention began to be paid to finding the most capable and talented young people, who were often sent abroad in order to acquire the skills necessary for subsequent enrollment in the diplomatic service. . The diplomatic service for the first time acquired a professional character, the officials of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs devoted all their time to the service and received a salary for this. At the same time, there were many foreigners among the diplomats of those years, since the Russian diplomatic service needed professional personnel, in particular, people who were fluent in foreign languages.

In 1726, Empress Catherine I, having come to power, established the Privy Council, which consisted of people devoted to her. The heads of the foreign and military collegiums were included in its composition. The Privy Council began to play a decisive role in the development and implementation of Russia's foreign policy. At the same time, the sphere of activity of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs was narrowed, and, in fact, it turned into an executive office under the Privy Council. This process was a reflection of the desire, inherent in that time, not only of the Russian Empress, but also of many monarchs, including European ones, to strengthen their personal power.

Some transformations in the diplomatic department were carried out during the reign of Empress Catherine II. In an effort to strengthen her absolutism, she liquidated a number of colleges. Nevertheless, showing a particularly zealous attitude towards the sphere of international politics, Catherine II tried in every possible way to raise the authority of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs of Russia to the European level. In 1779, the Empress issued a decree determining the staff of the College. Simultaneously with the staff of the central apparatus, the staff of Russian diplomatic missions abroad was approved. As a rule, it was small and consisted of two or three people: the head of the mission and his secretaries. The amount of funds allocated for the maintenance of the Collegium was increased, the salaries of its President and Vice President were raised.

By decree of Catherine II, a gradation of Russian diplomatic missions was introduced. In particular, the title of ambassador was awarded only to the Russian diplomatic representative in Warsaw. Most of the heads of other Russian diplomatic missions abroad were then called ministers of the second rank. Some representatives were called Resident Ministers. Second-rank ministers and resident ministers performed representative and political functions. The consuls general were also equated with ministers, who monitored the observance of the interests of Russian merchants and the development of trade relations. Ambassadors, ministers and consuls general were appointed specially trained people - representatives of the ruling class, who received the necessary knowledge in the field of foreign relations and had the proper professional skills.

Late 18th - early 19th century characterized by the spread in Europe of a new, so-called Napoleonic, model of public administration. It was characterized by the features of a military organization that assumed a high degree of centralization, unity of command, strict discipline, and a high degree of personal responsibility. Napoleonic reforms also had an impact on Russia. The principle of unity of command has become the leading principle of service relations. The administrative reform was expressed in the transition from the system of colleges to the system of ministries. On September 8, 1802, Emperor Alexander I issued a Manifesto on the establishment of ministerial positions. All collegiums, including the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, were assigned to individual ministers, and corresponding offices were established under them, which were essentially ministerial offices. Thus, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia as such was formed in 1802. Count Alexander Romanovich Vorontsov (1741-1805) became the first Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Empire.

Under Alexander I, the staff of the Russian diplomatic service was strengthened; Russian ambassadors were sent to Vienna and Stockholm, envoys were appointed to Berlin, London, Copenhagen, Munich, Lisbon, Naples, Turin and Constantinople; the level of diplomatic representatives was raised to chargé d'affaires in Dresden and Hamburg, to consuls general in Danzig and Venice.

The administrative reform of that time was completed by the document “The General Establishment of Ministries” developed in 1811. In accordance with it, unity of command was finally fixed as the main organizational principle of the ministry's activities. In addition, the uniformity of the organizational structure, office work and reporting of the ministry was established; strict subordination of all departments of the ministry along the vertical was established; the appointment of the minister and his deputy was made by the monarch himself. The Minister of Foreign Affairs at that time (1808-1814) was Count Nikolai Petrovich Rumyantsev (1754-1826).

It is clear that with such a system of administration, the role of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs objectively began to decline. In 1832, by personal decree of Emperor Nicholas I "On the formation of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs", the Collegium was officially abolished and turned into a structural unit of the foreign policy department of the Russian Empire. According to this decree, all employees entering the service in the system of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs were enrolled only by the highest decree of the emperor. They obligatorily signed a non-disclosure of secrets of foreign affairs and observance of the requirement "not to go to the courtyards of foreign ministers and have no treatment or company with them." A diplomat who violated the established order was threatened not only with dismissal, but also with "recovery to the fullest extent of the law."

In the second half of the XIX century. transformations in the system of higher and central authorities in Russia were continued. Naturally, innovations could not bypass the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which from 1856 to 1882 was headed by one of the most prominent Russian diplomats and statesmen of that time, His Serene Highness Prince Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov (1798-1883). In the process of reform, he achieved the release of the Ministry from a number of functions unusual for it, including censorship of political publications, management of the outskirts of the Russian Empire, and conduct of ceremonial affairs. Under the leadership of A. M. Gorchakov, who soon also became chancellor and at the same time headed the government of the country at the same time as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Russia's role in international affairs increased, it sought to develop broad international ties in the political and economic spheres, and gained more and more international political weight.

The solution of foreign policy tasks set by Chancellor A. M. Gorchakov required a significant expansion of the network of Russian diplomatic missions abroad. By the beginning of the 90s. 19th century 6 embassies, 26 missions, 25 general consulates, 86 consulates and vice-consulates of the Russian Empire functioned abroad. Under A. M. Gorchakov, the main tasks facing the Russian Foreign Ministry and its structures were defined as follows:

Maintaining political relations with foreign states;

Patronage in foreign lands of Russian trade and Russian interests in general;

Petition for the legal protection of Russian citizens in their cases abroad;

Assistance in meeting the legal requirements of foreigners in their cases in Russia;

Publication of the "Yearbook of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs", which published the most important documents of current policy, such as conventions, notes, protocols, etc.

Under A. M. Gorchakov, other important transformations were made in the Russian diplomatic service. In particular, Russia finally refused to appoint foreigners to posts in its diplomatic missions abroad. All diplomatic correspondence was translated exclusively into Russian. The criteria for selecting persons entering the diplomatic service have been significantly increased. Thus, since 1859, Russia has introduced a requirement that all those hired by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs have a diploma of higher education in the humanities, as well as knowledge of two foreign languages. In addition, the applicant for the diplomatic service had to demonstrate broad knowledge in the field of history, geography, political economy, and international law. Under the Ministry, a special Oriental School was formed, which trained specialists in Oriental languages, as well as in rare European languages.

The next reform of the system of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was prepared in 1910 by the then Minister of Foreign Affairs Alexander Petrovich Izvolsky (1856-1919). According to it, a comprehensive modernization of the entire apparatus of the Ministry and the creation of a single political department, a press bureau, a legal department and an information service were envisaged. A system of mandatory rotation of officials of the central apparatus, foreign diplomatic and consular institutions was introduced; it was planned to equalize the conditions of service and pay for diplomats who served in the central office of the Ministry and in its representative offices abroad. The practice included the systematic distribution of copies of the most important diplomatic documents to all Russian missions abroad, which allowed their leaders to keep abreast of ongoing foreign policy events and the efforts made by the Russian diplomatic service. The Ministry began to actively work with the press, using it to create a favorable public opinion about Russia and the activities of its diplomatic service. The Ministry became the main source of foreign policy information for most Russian newspapers: I The Press Bureau of the Ministry held regular meetings with representatives of the largest newspapers in the empire.

A serious innovation of A.P. Izvolsky was a special complicated competitive exam for those wishing to apply for the diplomatic service. The qualification examination was conducted by a special "meeting", which included all directors of departments and heads of departments of the Ministry; the issue of accepting a candidate for the diplomatic service was decided collectively.

The First World War, which began in 1914, radically changed the nature of the activities of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In the conditions of Russia's entry into the war, the main task of the Ministry was to ensure a foreign policy environment favorable for the successful conduct of hostilities by Russian troops, as well as work on the preparation of the terms of a future peace treaty. Under the Headquarters of the Supreme Commander, the Diplomatic Office was created, the functions of which included regularly informing Emperor Nicholas II on all the most important issues of foreign policy and maintaining constant communication between the monarch and the Minister of Foreign Affairs. During the war, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which in those years was headed by Sergei Dmitrievich Sazonov (1860-1927), found itself in a situation where he had to directly participate in making not only foreign policy, but also domestic policy decisions.

The beginning of the war coincided with the implementation of another reform of the central apparatus in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which was based on the law “On the Establishment of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs” issued in June 1914 by Emperor Nicholas II. According to this law, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the new conditions was to pay special attention in its activities to the solution of the following tasks:

1) protection of Russian economic interests abroad;

2) the development of commercial and industrial relations in Russia;

3) strengthening Russian influence on the basis of church interests;

4) comprehensive observation of the phenomena of political and public life in foreign states.

The structure of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was also changed in accordance with the tasks defined by the Law. In particular, the central apparatus of the Ministry was divided into two independent units, each of which was headed by a comrade (deputy) minister. The first division was the Political Department, whose functions included coordinating actions in the development, adoption and implementation of foreign policy decisions. In 1915, a second subdivision was also created - the Informative (Information) Department, which a year later was transformed into the Press and Information Department. Under the conditions of the war, there was also a need to create several additional departments of the Ministry that would deal with the problems of prisoners of war, making inquiries about Russian citizens who were abroad, including in enemy countries, and making money transfers to those who ended up in a foreign land.

These and other innovations in the Russian diplomatic service were aimed at reorganizing the central apparatus of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, better adapting it to the requirements of the times. It should be recognized that as a result of the reforms carried out, it was possible to increase the flexibility and efficiency of the work of the Russian Foreign Ministry, consolidate the priority of political departments, clearly delineate the powers of individual units, minimize overlap in their work, and increase the efficiency of the diplomatic service and Russian diplomacy as a whole.

Russian diplomats-writers

Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin (1744-1792)

D. I. Fonvizin

A. S. Griboyedov

K. N. Batyushkov

F. I. Tyutchev

D. V. Venevitinov

A. K. Tolstoy

In 1762 he decided to be a translator for the Collegium of Foreign Affairs. In 1763-1769 he served as secretary of the Cabinet Minister I. P. Elagin. In 1769 he became the secretary of the head of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs N. I. Panin, with whom he was brought together by hatred of favoritism, the conviction that Russia needed "fundamental laws."
D. I. Fonvizin advocated universal education, for the gradual - in the process of "enlightenment" - the liberation of the peasants. His ideal political system was an enlightened monarchy. He was known for his translations from French (of the tragedies of Voltaire, philosophical treatises) and the essay book Notes of the First Journey, which gives a vivid picture of pre-revolutionary France. The most significant work of D. I. Fonvizin - the comedy "Undergrowth" - had a significant impact on the development of the Russian theater, on the work of Krylov, Griboyedov, Gogol, Ostrovsky.

Konstantin Nikolayevich Batyushkov (1787-1855)

His poems are characterized by the glorification of the joys of earthly life, the assertion of the poet's inner freedom, his independence from state tyranny.
In 1818-1820, K. N. Batyushkov was the secretary of the Russian diplomatic mission in Naples.
In 1822, Batyushkov fell ill with a hereditary mental illness, which made it impossible for him to continue his literary and diplomatic activities.

Alexander Sergeevich Griboyedov (1795-1829)

The comedy "Woe from Wit" is one of the peaks of Russian poetry and dramaturgy, the greatest work of Russian and world classics.
In 1817, A. S. Griboedov entered the diplomatic service as an interpreter of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs. In 1818-1820 he was secretary to the chargé d'affaires in Tehran. In 1826 he participated in the preparation of the Turkmanchay treatise. In 1828 he was appointed Minister Plenipotentiary to Persia.
On January 30, 1829, A. S. Griboedov died tragically during the defeat of the Russian diplomatic mission in Tehran. His widow ordered an inscription on the grave monument of the writer and diplomat: “Your mind and deeds are immortal in Russian memory, but why did my love survive you?”

Dmitry Ivanovich Dolgorukov (1797-1867)

Diplomat, poet and publicist.
He served as a secretary in diplomatic missions in Rome (1822-1826), Madrid (1826-1830), London (1830-1831), The Hague (1831-1838), Naples (1838-1842). In 1843 he was appointed counselor of the mission in Constantinople. From 1845 he was minister plenipotentiary at the Tehran court. From 1854 he was a senator.
In 1819 he was a member of the Green Lamp Literary Society. The literary heritage of D. I. Dolgorukov includes travel essays, diaries, travel notes, and poems.

Fyodor Ivanovich Tyutchev (1803-1873)

Contemporaries noted his brilliant mind, humor, talent as an interlocutor. His epigrams, witticisms and aphorisms were on everyone's lips. In 1859, the Sovremennik magazine reproduced a selection of Tyutchev's poems and published an article by N. A. Nekrasov, in which he ranked these poems among the brilliant phenomena of Russian poetry, putting Tyutchev on a par with Pushkin and Lermontov. In 1854, 92 Tyutchev's poems were published in the Sovremennik appendix, and then, on the initiative of I. A. Turgenev, his first poetry collection was published. Leo Tolstoy called Tyutchev "one of those unfortunate people who are immeasurably higher than the crowd among which they live, and therefore are always alone."
F. I. Tyutchev has been in the diplomatic service since 1821. In 1822-1837 he was secretary of the diplomatic mission in Munich. In 1837-1839 he was Chargé d'Affaires under the Kingdom of Sardinia (diplomatic mission in Turin).

Dmitry Vladimirovich Venevitinov (1805-1827)

A brilliant poet, literary critic, philosopher, he was one of the organizers of the Moscow Society of Philosophy, which aimed to study idealistic philosophy and romantic aesthetics. He considered self-knowledge as the path to the harmony of the world and personality as the highest goal of man and mankind. The best works of D. V. Venevitinov: "Poet", "Sacrifice", "Last Poems", "To My Goddess", "Elegy", "Testament", translations from Goethe.
In 1825-1827 he was in the diplomatic service (in the Archives of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs and in the Asian Department of the Russian Foreign Ministry).

Alexei Konstantinovich Tolstoy (1817-1875)

The novel Prince Silver (1862) brought him wide fame. Although contemporary criticism of the author did not accept this work, it soon became one of the classic books for children's and youthful reading. The lyrical poems of A. K. Tolstoy were popular. Many of them (of the romance type) have been set to music.
His ballads, epics and satirical poems enjoyed great success. Together with the brothers A. M. and V. M. Zhemchuzhnikov, A. K. Tolstoy created the beloved literary mask of Kozma Prutkov.
He created a dramatic trilogy - "The Death of Ivan the Terrible", "Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich" and "Tsar Boris", which made its author famous not only in Russia, but also in Europe.
A.K. Tolstoy was connected with the diplomatic service by his work in the Archives of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs (1834-1837) and in the Russian mission in Frankfurt am Main under the German Sejm.

Nikolai Platonovich Ogaryov (1813-1877)

Russian poet and publicist, known for his participation in revolutionary activities. In the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (in the Archives) he worked in 1832-1834 - before his arrest and exile.

Konstantin Nikolaevich Leontiev (1831-1891)

Philosopher, writer and publicist, author of novels, literary essays, and many articles. K. N. Leontiev had a significant impact on the spiritual development of Russian society.
K. N. Leontiev was in the diplomatic service in 1863-1871. He began his work at the Russian Foreign Ministry as a dragoman (translator) at the consulate in Crete. In 1864-1867 - and. about. consul at Adrianople. In 1867 he became vice-consul in Tulcea, and in 1869 - consul in Ioannina, from April 1871 - in Thessaloniki.
After a serious illness, K. N. Leontiev leaves diplomacy and devotes himself entirely to scientific and literary creativity.

Alexander Semyonovich Ionin (1837-1900)

A well-known Russian diplomat and writer, who began serving in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as a dragoman of the Russian consulate in Sarajevo in 1857.
In 1860-1864. - Consul in Ioannina, 1869-1875 - Consul in Ragusa (Dubrovnik) and Consul General there until 1878, in 1878-1883. - Resident Minister in Montenegro, 1883-1892. - Ambassador to Brazil In 1883-1884. temporarily sent to Sofia to manage the Russian Consulate General. Participated in the establishment of diplomatic relations between Russia and Argentina (1885), Uruguay (1887), Mexico (1890). In 1897-1900 he was envoy to Switzerland.
The literary activity of A. S. Ionin was very diverse. He wrote articles on literary and poetic topics, which were published, in particular, in I. S. Aksakov's newspaper The Day. He wrote ethnographic essays and travel notes about the Balkans, as well as two comedies. The literary talent of A. S. Ionin also manifested itself in his main work “Across South America” (vols. 1-4, St. Petersburg, 1892-1902), which was popular in Russia and abroad.

Diplomacy is the activity of the heads of state and special bodies for the implementation of external interactions of states. Special people protect the interests of their country. However, for this you need to know the international situation and the state of affairs in different countries. It happens that it is diplomats who decide the fate of countries in negotiations, and not on the battlefield.

There are many examples in history that politicians demonstrate more talent than professional diplomats. In any case, the greatest figures were able to seize on fleeting signs, luck and direct the fate of their country in a good direction. Here are the names of those who can be considered a truly great diplomat.

Pericles (490-492 BC). In those days, all the major statesmen of Greece had to conduct diplomatic activities. One of the most famous diplomats of the ancient world was Pericles, the leader of Athens, under whom democracy flourished in this city. The Greek was born into a wealthy family, where he studied with his father, the leader. He invited the growing son to feasts. There, Pericles got acquainted with the art of politics, realizing that you can win not only on the battlefield, but with the help of diplomacy you can sometimes achieve no less. Pericles expanded his traditional education by interacting with prominent philosophers and artists. Over time, he set himself the goal of ruling the Athenian state. Pericles began to conduct social activities. He himself was a very reserved man, whose way of life was considered impeccable. And the Athenian scientists always visited the politician's house, with whom the owner talked about science, politics, art. In public affairs, Pericles showed disinterestedness and modesty, he even allowed other speakers to express their thoughts and advice. The politician began to advocate for the preservation of the unity of the Delian Union, calling for the expulsion of the Persians from the Greek sea. But the defeat in the fight against the Persians forced Pericles to change his views. He realized that salvation is possible only in the complete submission of all allies to Athens. A new power could appear that would own the forces and resources of 200 states! First, the allied treasury was transferred to Athens, the city actually became the capital of a strong maritime power, managing its finances. All that remained was to unite the Greek world. Pericles himself led the fleet and defeated those who did not want to join the alliance. And although they saw him more as a commander, he himself considered himself a politician. Thus, a long-awaited truce was concluded with Sparta. Pericles made Athens the most beautiful city in Greece, ruling it like a monarch. Pericles treated his allies with respect, the tax was reasonable, and attempts to leave the union were suppressed by military force. At the head of the expedition, the ruler and diplomat established ties with the states of the Black Sea, finding new friends. Even with the cities of Sicily and southern Italy, alliances were made. But over time, Sparta could not withstand such growth of Athens - the war began. Pericles was given complete freedom. But the war dragged on, and besides, a plague broke out in Athens. The politician and diplomat himself was dismissed. But it turned out that there were no worthy people in the city to replace the famous Pericles, and he was again called to power. But he himself did not reign for long, having died from the plague. Athens quickly realized who they had lost - a great politician, ruler and diplomat, modest, kind and worthy.

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527). Niccolo Machiavelli was born into the family of a lawyer. The young man graduated from a city school, but could not enter the university because of the family's financial problems. Then Niccolo began to study himself, reading the works of Cicero, Caesar, Virgil, Ovid and other philosophers of antiquity. And his father introduced him to the founding of jurisprudence. At the age of 29, Machiavelli was able to be elected to the office of the republic. He headed it, taking over the work with foreign and military affairs. For 14 years of work, the diligent Florentine compiled several thousand diplomatic letters, he wrote military and government laws, made diplomatic trips to Italy, to the Pope and even to the French king. The situation over Italy thickened. Machiavelli traveled a lot, persuading the neighbors to remain faithful to the agreements. The mission to France was also important. There, the diplomat also assessed the situation in the country, and his messages home were no less important than the negotiations themselves. Machiavelli showed himself as a subtle psychologist. At the beginning of the 19th century, it was Machiavelli who was sent to the hottest spots, where conflicts only flared up. It must be said that in fulfilling the numerous instructions of the Republic, Machiavelli turned into a self-aware official. He began to dress well and never spared money for this. The death of the Florentine Republic in 1512 interrupted the political career of the famous diplomat. Once in exile, Machiavelli set to work. In 1513-1520, his most famous works appeared, including The Sovereign quoted by many politicians. The diplomat carried out small assignments, but could not return to big politics.

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790). This great statesman and politician managed to prove himself in many areas. The highest stages of his diplomatic activity was the representation of the North American colonies in 1757-1762 and 1765-1775. Franklin represented the United States in France from 1776-1785. Thanks to the diplomat, America concluded peace treaties with France in 1778 and England in 1783. Franklin, in addition to political activity, was directly related to science - it was he who invented the lightning rod. He is considered the first American journalist, the best writer of the 18th century, a real encyclopedist. In Paris, Franklin was generally considered a personality comparable in scale to Voltaire and Rousseau. And Benjamin was born in Boston, in the family of a soap maker, becoming the fifteenth child in the family. It was at his father's enterprise that he got his first experience, then moving to a printing house. But poverty did not allow a systematic education - Franklin had to comprehend everything with his own mind. The desire for knowledge remained with him throughout his life. At the age of 17, without money, Benjamin came to Philadelphia, eventually getting rich in the publishing business and acquiring his own printing house. At the age of 30, Franklin's political activity began when he was elected secretary of the Legislative Assembly of Pennsylvania. In 1757, the first diplomatic experience took place - they had to defend the rights of their native lands in a dispute with the owners of the colony. The successful handling of disputes brought Franklin prestige in his homeland. Gradually, the diplomat realized that the colonies were rapidly moving towards independence, and petitions to London were not successful. Then in 1775 he returned to Philadelphia, where he was immediately elected a member of Congress. This body began to probe the ground regarding the mood in Europe on the issue of relations between England and the American colonies. A secret committee of correspondence was created, essentially the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. This body was headed by Franklin. He took an active part in the drafting of the Declaration of Independence, adopted in 1776. England sent troops to America to pacify the rebels. The young country needed a strong ally, and Franklin left for Paris for negotiations. This choice of the envoy was not accidental - he was the only American famous in Europe. The diplomat quickly befriended the French government and used a long-standing feud with England to draw Louis XVI into the fighting. Thanks to the vigorous activity of Franklin, America managed to conclude peace on favorable terms for itself, and to keep France as an ally. Historians note that successful negotiations became possible only thanks to the eloquence of Benjamin Franklin. In 1785 he returned home to a warm welcome. And Franklin devoted his last years to the fight against slavery. After the death of the famous diplomat, Congress declared a month of mourning for such an honorable citizen. Today, Franklin's Porter is featured on the $100 bill as the diplomat continues his journey around the world.

Talleyrand (1754-1838). The name of this diplomat has become synonymous with cunning, dexterity and freedom from political principles. Talleyrand was born in Paris, in a poor but noble family. A physical injury prevented the boy from starting military service, which is why he became a clergyman. During the French Revolution, the young bishop was elected to the Estates General and then to the National Assembly. In 1797, a politician who had experience in international negotiations became Minister of Foreign Affairs. Talleyrand quickly saw the potential in Bonaparte, becoming his ally and helping to seize power. In 1799-1807, the diplomat was the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Emperor Napoleon. He is actively involved in the establishment of a young state in Europe. But at the same time, Talleyrand began to actively take bribes from states hostile to France. In 1809, he himself offered his paid services to Metternich. An important day for the diplomat was March 31, 1814. The allies decided who would rule France in the future. Talleyrand actively advocated the legitimacy of a legitimate hereditary monarchy, which could not but please the winners. After the restoration of the Bourbons, the diplomat regained the post of head of the foreign affairs department and even managed to become the first prime minister in the history of France. The cunning diplomat managed to bargain for the most lenient conditions for the losing country. The finest hour for Talleyrand was the Congress of Vienna. First, he managed to enlist the support of offended small countries, and then actually dissolve the coalition and bring France out of international isolation. After the revolution of 1830, Talleyrand visited the government, and then became ambassador to England. There, he helped bring the two great neighbors together, but was forced to resign due to a bribery scandal.

Clemens Metternich (1773-1859). This Austrian diplomat went down in history as one of the main organizers of the reorganization of Europe after the end of the Napoleonic Wars. Metternich was Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Austrian Empire from 1809 to 1848. An aristocrat by birth greeted the French Revolution with hostility. In 1798 Metternich began his diplomatic career. In 1801 he became the imperial envoy in Dresden, and from 1803 in Berlin. Here he began to prepare a coalition against France, trying to persuade Prussia to join the alliance of Russia, England and Austria. Along with this, the diplomat became friends with the French, which was the reason to send him to the court of Napoleon. There Metternich defended the interests of his country, warning her of the impending attack by the French. Having taken the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs, the diplomat immediately changed the vector of European politics - the daughter of Emperor Franz, Marie-Louise, became the wife of Napoleon. Thus ended the friendship between Russia and France. In the Russian company of Napoleon, Austria, which was experiencing financial problems, was able to remain neutral. In 1813, Metternich realized that peace with France would be impossible. Immediately, Austria entered the war on the side of the Allies. After the fall of Napoleon, Metternich opened the Congress of Vienna, which redrawn the map of Europe. Austria itself received the lion's share of the booty. The ideas of the diplomat triumphed - Italy and Germany remained fragmented. Metternich generally became famous for his conservatism and unwillingness to change anything in the established state of affairs. The national movements of 1820-1840 seemed superfluous to the diplomat. As a result, in Austria itself, popular unrest against harsh politics and censorship forced Metternich to resign.

Alexander Gorchakov (1798-1883). The diplomat was born into a princely family. His high origin helped him get into the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, where he became a friend of Pushkin. Even then, the poet noted the qualities of his friend: observation, passion for light and fashion, which was so important for diplomacy. Wit and literary talents would then show up in Gorchakov's international notes. Already at the age of 22-24, the young diplomat accompanies Count Nesselrode to congresses. In 1822-1833, Gorchakov worked in the embassies of various European countries, gaining experience. In the 1840s, Gorchakov served in Germany, where the prince met Bismarck. In 1854, already being ambassador in Vienna, the diplomat managed to convince the Austrians to remain neutral and not support France and England in their treaty against Russia. The defeat in the Crimean campaign and the Treaty of Paris actually moved Russia away from making decisions in the political issues of Europe. In 1956, Gorchakov was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs, realizing that it was necessary to restore Russia's former influence. The Polish question consolidated Russia's friendship with Prussia and made it possible to evade the persistent attempts of France, England and Austria to protect the national rights of the Poles. Correspondence on this issue brought Gorchakov the fame of a prominent diplomat. The strengthening of Germany with the full support of Gorchakov helped him in 1870 to announce the revision of the terms of the Paris Treaty. Russia's decision displeased the great powers, but it was impossible not to agree with such an influential rival. Thus, only through diplomacy, Gorchakov managed to return to Russia the fleet on the Black Sea and its former influence in the region, without entering into wars. The last bright event in the career of a diplomat was the Berlin Congress, at which Gorchakov spoke little and rarely sat. The fate of the Balkan states was being decided, Russia received back Bessarabia, taken away by the Treaty of Paris. The great politician gradually retired, retaining the honorary title of State Chancellor.

Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881). The great diplomat was born into a wealthy Jewish family. Benjamin was engaged in his education himself, paying special attention to history. At a young age, Disraeli managed to play on the stock exchange, where he lost all his capital. The attempt to publish a newspaper also ended in failure. But the book "Vivian Gray" written by him in 20 books brought fame to the author. But Disraeli did not dream of becoming a writer, like his father. He had a more ambitious goal - to be prime minister by the age of 30. But only on the fifth attempt did Disraeli get into parliament. He was already 33 years old, and the finances of the novice politician were in a deplorable state. In 1852, Disraeli took the post of Minister of Finance and became leader of the House of Commons. In 1868, he briefly became prime minister, but after losing the election, he was retired and in opposition. Disraeli set about reforming his conservative party. He developed a program of firm foreign policy that was to make England great. In 1874, the politician again takes the post of prime minister. His primary attention was riveted to the issues of the colonies and the foreign policy of the state. He emphasized that there is a dilemma - to live in cozy England, like continental countries and wait for your fate, or become a great empire. The secret of the success of a politician and a diplomat was that no one else could define his goals so clearly, let alone achieve them. In 1875, Europe learned that England secretly bought up 40% of the shares of the Suez Canal. Disraeli proved to be a master of secret diplomacy, intrigue and intricacies. Through his actions, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India in 1876. In 1878, the Congress was held, which was supposed to decide the fate of the Balkans after the Russian-Turkish war. The cunning Disraeli is said to have become the central figure in the negotiations. He was able to defend his point of view before Bismarck, and showed the Russian diplomat the train on which he was preparing to depart due to problems in the negotiations. The Russians had to make concessions. In parallel with this, Disraeli agreed with the Sultan on the cession of Cyprus to the British, which was to become a stronghold on the way to seizing territories in Asia. The diplomat returned home as a hero, having earned the Order of the Garter from the Queen. Disraeli continued to lead the country, continuing the colonial policy. The diplomat is considered the most prominent political figure in England in the 19th century.

Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898). For centuries, Germany was fragmented. This great politician and diplomat managed to unite it. Parents gave Otto to study law, dreaming of seeing him as a diplomat. But the young Bismarck was a typical representative of the golden youth - he had fun with friends, fought duels and reveled with might and main. Such a past, even after defending his dissertation, prevented Bismarck from immediately entering the diplomatic field. The political career did not work out, as did the military one. At one time, Bismarck showed himself to be a practical landowner. But he got another chance to return to politics and in 1847 Bismarck became a deputy of the United Landtag of Prussia. There he showed himself with might and main thanks to energetic conservative attacks. After working as a deputy, Bismarck was sent as an ambassador to Russia. It is believed that communication with Vice-Chancellor Gorchakov had a great influence on him, as a diplomat. However, the German himself already showed the gift of political foresight, possessing a lively mind. Gorchakov singled out the ambassador, predicting a great future for him. In Russia, Bismarck learned the language and understood our way of thinking, which helped a lot in his future in politics. After being ambassador in Paris, Bismarck took over as Prime Minister of Prussia. Here he began to pursue a tough policy of unification of Germany, with iron and blood. I had to make war with Denmark and Austria, and in 1870-1871 France was crushingly defeated. From all the defeated states, the Germans took their historical lands. In 1871 the Empire was proclaimed. Bismarck soon realized that Germany could not dominate Europe as long as part of the Germans remained under the heel of the Habsburgs and Austria. Fearing revenge from France, the diplomat begins rapprochement with Russia. The diplomat did everything possible to prevent a coalition against his country from forming. He understood that even with a strong army, Germany could not withstand a war on two fronts. As the practice of two world wars showed, the great German diplomat was right.

Andrei Gromyko (1909-1989). We can say that this particular Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR was the main acting figure of the Cold War. But thanks to his efforts, it did not develop into the Third World War. Gromyko held the highest diplomatic post in the Soviet Union from 1957 to 1985, shaping the state's foreign policy both during the thaw and during the period of stagnation. It is believed that the entire modern Russian diplomatic school grew out of his experiences and lessons. Gromyko was an economist by education. But in 1939, after the extermination, during the purges, of most of the diplomatic corps, a young specialist was called there. Molotov personally recommended Andrei Gromyko for the post of ambassador to the United States, where he stayed from 1943 to 1946. It is Molotov that the young diplomat considers his teacher in foreign policy. Gromyko preferred to act with the utmost caution. He understood that internal orders would necessarily influence external affairs. Therefore, the diplomat obediently listened to the leadership of the CPSU, without entering into open disagreements with the leaders. Gromyko was remembered for his sober judgments and clear views. This diplomat read a lot, was fond of philosophy. At the negotiations he had no equal, which is why his style is still imitated today. The diplomat understood that the Third World War would destroy all life, so he avoided a military confrontation with the United States in every possible way. Gromyko was constantly negotiating with America, thus reducing the degree and not allowing relations to escalate. But the diplomat was not particularly interested in the East. On the other hand, Gromyko's activities formed the basis of the first steps of the UN, he always supported the formation of a new international body. Since 1961, the diplomat became a member of the Central Committee of the CPSU, and from 1973 to 1988 he was a member of the Politburo. He signed treaties on the limitation of nuclear weapons and missile defense. It was thanks to the diplomat that Soviet diplomacy achieved its highest success - the Final Act of the CSCE was signed in Helsinki on August 1, 1975. The existing borders of countries, including the GDR, were recognized, as well as the limited sovereignty of the allies of the USSR under the Warsaw Pact. Thanks to Gromyko, the weight of Soviet diplomacy increased significantly. Personally, he managed to prevent the military actions of the USSR against Israel in 1983, but he failed to resist the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan. Although the diplomat helped Gorbachev take the post of General Secretary, he did not share his ideas about disarmament and perestroika.

Henry Kissinger (born 1923). The famous American statesman was the National Security Adviser to the President of the United States and was Secretary of State from 1973-1977. As a diplomat, Kissinger showed himself most clearly in the course of the Soviet-American negotiations on the limitation of strategic arms, in the Paris talks on solving problems in Vietnam. For his work, the diplomat even received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1973. And he was born not at all in America, but in Germany, in a poor Jewish family. However, at the age of 15, the family emigrated to escape the Nazis. Henry even managed to fight at the very end of World War II. And in 1947, Kissinger entered Harvard, where he immediately stood out for his intelligence, success in history and philosophy. Then he continued his scientific activity, becoming a teacher of the history of diplomacy. In 1955, Kissinger joined a research group dealing with relations with the USSR. The monograph Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy received the Woodrow Wilson Prize and greatly influenced the country's politics. At 39, Kissinger became a professor at Harvard, then he began to gradually connect to government research and work on national security commissions. Kissinger's articles give advice on foreign policy and are also published in Europe. In 1968, the scientist received an invitation from newly elected President Nixon to become his assistant. So Kissinger became an important figure in the administration, preparing options for final decisions in foreign policy. The diplomat led the negotiations in a number of areas - problems with Vietnam, negotiations with the USSR and China. He was talked about as a clear and businesslike politician who did not shy away from specific problems. Although Kissinger was not comfortable for everyone as a diplomat, he was never boring. In 1969-1972, the diplomat visited 26 countries, he accompanied the president in his 140 meetings with leaders of other countries. And Kissinger's signing of the peace agreement in Vietnam brought him the Nobel Prize. The diplomat paid special attention to relations with the USSR. Under him, the administration tried to pursue the most rigid course, seeking to acquire allies in Europe. Thanks to Kissinger, negotiations were held on the limitation of strategic arms, and relative parity was established between the parties. And in 1973, Kissinger's negotiations turned hostile relations with China into allies. The diplomat stressed that one should not directly interfere in the internal affairs of other countries, this would directly harm American interests. In the Arab-Israeli positions, Kissinger insisted on maintaining the uncertain situation, which brought the US and Israel closer. After leaving the post of President D. Ford, Kissinger also left his post, acting since then as a private consultant.

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