As a result of the Northern War, Russia took a strong position as a great European power. Now, in the words of the French envoy Camperdon, "at the slightest demonstration of his (Peter - L.K.) fleet, at the first movement of his troops, neither the Swedish, nor the Danish, nor the Prussian, nor the Polish crown will dare to make a movement hostile to him, nor move with places his troops ... He is one of the northern sovereigns in a position to force respect for his flag.

However, the transformation of Russia into a great power caused the hostile attitude of most European states, which was not long in manifesting itself under the immediate successors of Peter I. openly hostile position occupied England: she was an ardent opponent of the political and naval power of Russia, fearing to lose her intermediary role in Russian foreign trade and become economically dependent on Russian shipbuilding materials.

The increased international importance of Russia caused alarm and France, which, in order to counter Russia, provided all kinds of support to Sweden, up to financing actions hostile to Russia in the Baltic. France and England spread rumors about Russia's aggressive intentions towards the German states, hoping to restore the Western and Northern powers against Russia.

The hostility of European governments was also manifested in every kind of delay in recognizing the imperial title for Russian sovereigns (England, Austria, France, Spain recognized it only in the 40s, and the Commonwealth in 1764).

At the same time, European diplomacy had to reckon with the increased role of Russia as an indisputable fact and in accordance with changes in the balance of power on the European continent. involve her in certain political combinations. So, after a long period of confrontation in the 30s, there was some improvement in Russian-English relations, expressed in the signing in 1734 of the Treaty "On Friendship, Mutual Commerce and Navigation" for a period of 15 years.

The Russian-English rapprochement caused a negative reaction from the French government, which in response switched to the policy of the "Eastern barrier". To carry out its plans, France began to organize an alliance of Sweden, Poland and Turkey directed against Russia.

Under these conditions, Russia's foreign policy of the "era of palace coups" was formed, which on the whole retained its main task - to preserve and consolidate the position of a great power - and its former direction.

The continued weakening of the Ottoman Empire contributed to the intensification of Russia's struggle for access to the Black Sea.

The political struggle that engulfed Poland pushed Russia to actively interfere in its internal affairs in order to ensure the reunification of the Ukrainian Belarusian lands with Russia.

Sweden's unwillingness to put up with the results of the Northern War made one of the important tasks of the foreign policy of the Russian Empire the preservation of Peter's conquests in the Baltic states.

They demanded their solution to the problem of securing Russia in the Caucasus, strengthening the security of the country's southeastern borders in the Caspian Sea, which were inherited after the Persian campaign of Peter I (1722-1723).

Main enemy Russia during this period France although in the late 1950s 18th century (Seven Years' War) Russia and France will be on the same side of the front.

The first major clash of the second quarter of the 18th century, in which Russia was drawn into, was the so-called warper "Polishinheritance" 1733-1735 Ultimately, it was Russian military and diplomatic support that ensured the rise to power of the son of Augustus II, the Saxon Elector Friedrich-August (who became Augustus III). Russian influence in Poland became dominant. However, Russia's victory further aggravated Russian-French relations. France tried to take revenge, pushing the Ottoman Empire and Sweden to act against Russia.

Russian diplomacy, knowing about the aggressive intentions of Turkey, incited by France, tried to enlist the friendly support of Persia (Iran), which had just expelled the Ottoman invaders from its territory. To this end, in 1735, Anna Ioannovna returned to her the Caspian coast, occupied even under Peter I. Having learned about this, the Crimean Khanate sent a 40,000-strong army through the southern territories of Russia to capture these territories. In 1735 began Russian-Turkish war.

In this war Russia

sought to secure its southern borders, constantly subjected to aggression from Turkey and its vassal of the Crimean Khanate,

secure convenient trade routes to Asia along the main Russian rivers flowing into the Black and Caspian Seas,

return the lands lost under the Prut Treaty of 1711

With heavy losses, the Russian army in 1736 occupied Azov, Bakhchisaray, in 1737 - the fortress of Ochakov. In 1739, a major battle took place near Stavuchany (modern Moldova), as a result of which the defeated Turkish troops retreated and opened the way for the Russians to the Khotyn fortress and the city of Iasi.

But in general, the results of the war, which cost the lives of 100 thousand Russian soldiers, were insignificant. By Treaty of Belgrade 1739 Russia kept Azov behind, but undertook to tear down all the fortifications in it. In addition, she was forbidden to have a fleet on the Black Sea, and Turkish ships were to be used for trade on it. Thus, the problem of access to the Black Sea was practically not solved. Also, under the agreement, Russia received small towns on the Right-Bank Ukraine, along the middle reaches of the Dnieper, as well as the right to build a fortress on Cherkas Island (Don River). Small and Big Kabarda in the North Caucasus, from the 16th century. were subject to Russia, were declared independent and were supposed to serve as a neutral barrier between Russia and Turkey. Ultimately, the main strategic goals were not achieved, Russia was only able to partially revise the terms of the Prut Treaty.

An unfavorable background for the subsequent foreign policy of Russia was created by the anti-Russian military alliance of Turkey and Sweden concluded in the same 1739 with the help of French diplomacy.

In 1741, Sweden opened military operations against Russia. Prompted by France and Prussia, the Swedish government sought the abolition of the conditions of the Peace of Nystadt in 1721 and the return of the Baltic lands. However, the attacking side clearly overestimated its strength: the military operations that took place on the coastal territory of Finland showed the absolute superiority of the Russian army. In 1743, a peace treaty was signed in Abo, which confirmed the territorial acquisitions of Russia in the Northern War and advanced its borders in Finland beyond Vyborg by 60 versts (the southeastern corner of Finland).

In the second quarter of the XVIII century. Russia's influence on Kazakhstan increased. By this time, the Kazakhs were divided into three zhuzs (hordes): Junior, Middle and Senior. The younger zhuz occupied the territory of modern Western Kazakhstan, therefore, it bordered on Russia. The main occupation of the Kazakhs was nomadic and semi-nomadic extensive cattle breeding.

Kazakh lands were the scene of bloody internecine wars. The nomad camps of the Kazakhs, in addition, were subjected to raids by their neighbors, among which the raids of the Dzungars were especially devastating. The disunity of the Kazakhs allowed the Dzungars to rob them with impunity.

In search of protection from raids, the eyes of the Kazakhs turned to Russia, capable of ensuring the security of their land. But Russia also had its own motives for rapprochement with Kazakhstan - trade routes to Central Asia and India passed through its territory. In 1731, Anna Ioannovna signed a letter of acceptance of a part of Kazakhstan into Russian citizenship. Khan of the Younger Zhuz Abulkhair and the foremen swore allegiance to Russia. During the years 1740-1743. Kazakhs of the Middle Zhuz voluntarily joined Russia.

In the mid-1950s, the balance of power in Europe changed. The strengthening of Prussia caused concern to the monarchs of Europe. The army of Frederick II was considered invincible and posed a serious threat to the neighbors.

This forced Russia to join the coalition of Austria and France, and then to enter into an armed struggle with Prussia in the years Seven Years' War(1756-1763), which was pan-European. England and France fought for colonies in America and Asia and for dominance at sea. England dealt crushing blows to the colonial possessions and sea lanes of absolutist France, and the Russian army became the main striking force in the European theater of operations.

In 1757, the Russian army entered East Prussia and soon inflicted a serious defeat on the Prussian troops near the village of Gross-Egersdorf. In 1758, a bloody battle took place at Zorndorf, which ended in a shameful flight of the Prussians. In 1759, a battle followed on the right bank of the Oder, near Kunersdorf, as a result of which the entire color of the Prussian army was defeated, and Frederick II was on the verge of suicide.

As a result of the 1759 campaign, the Prussian front no longer existed. The way to Berlin was free. Panic reigned in the capital of Prussia. However, due to inconsistency among the allies, the campaign against Berlin was postponed until 1760. On September 28, 1760, Russian troops finally entered Berlin. Berlin was forced to pay a large contribution, and the keys to it were sent to Elizaveta Petrovna. The capture of Berlin, according to the plan of the Russian command, was an operation aimed at disorganizing the economic and political center of Prussia. After this goal was achieved, the withdrawal of Russian troops began.

But the Seven Years' War was not over yet: in 1761, the Prussian fortress of Kolberg on the Baltic Sea capitulated. After that, the forces of Prussia were finally broken and the last reserves were exhausted. Prussia was saved by chance.

Peter III, who ascended the Russian throne on December 25, 1761, dramatically changed the course of foreign policy. On the very first day of his reign, he sent a message to Frederick II, in which he announced his intention to establish "eternal friendship" with him. In April 1762 a peace treaty was signed with Berlin. Russia withdrew from the Seven Years' War. Catherine II, who came to power in June 1762, although she verbally condemned the foreign policy of her predecessor, nevertheless did not resume the war with Prussia and confirmed the peace. Thus, the Seven Years' War did not give Russia any acquisitions. Its results were different - in confirming the strength of the conquered by Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century. positions in the Baltic, in strengthening international prestige and in the accumulation of valuable military experience.

2. Foreign policy of Catherine II

(1762-1796)

The international position of Russia at the beginning of Catherine's reign. As a legacy from her predecessors, Catherine received three main directions in foreign policy. The first of them - northern. The Swedes constantly sought to return the lands lost in the times of Peter the Great, although the zenith of Sweden's greatness, achieved under Charles XII, had already been irretrievably lost. This, however, did not exclude the presence in Stockholm of forces ready to take advantage of any opportunity to try their luck. Petersburg had to be ready to fight back.

On the southern Since ancient times, the dream of the rulers of Russia was access to the shores of the warm Black Sea, which was dictated by the needs of the country's economy and defense. The balance of power here has changed: the Ottoman Empire was on the decline, many European powers looked at its possessions with greed. In Russia, shyness in the face of the Turks has passed, and cautious defensive tactics have been replaced by broad offensive plans and confidence in an early victory over the once formidable enemy.

It was also traditional third - Polish direction, reflecting the desire of Russia to unite as part of the empire all the lands inhabited by closely related Russian peoples - Ukrainians and Belarusians. In the XVIII century. The Commonwealth experienced about the same difficult times as the Ottoman Empire. While the neighbors developed industry and trade, created powerful armed forces and strong absolutist regimes, the Commonwealth could not overcome the separatism of the magnates and overcome political chaos. The Russian Empire used the weakness of the Polish state to constantly interfere in its internal affairs and counteract the strengthening of this country. Poland became, in fact, a toy in the hands of Russia, which Catherine II was well aware of.

The international position of the Russian Empire at the time of accession to the throne of Catherine II was far from easy. The diplomatic successes of the reign of Elizabeth, reinforced by the courage of Russian soldiers on the battlefields of the Seven Years' War, were actually nullified by the impulsive policy of Peter III. The old foreign policy doctrine was destroyed, and the new one was no good. The financial situation was also difficult; the tired army did not receive a salary for eight months. However, other countries were no less weakened as a result of the war, and they also had to redefine the direction of their foreign policy. In other words, Catherine II had a rare opportunity, almost without regard to the past redefine its own foreign policy.

The first period of Catherine's foreign policy (1762 - 1774). Catherine II began her foreign policy activities by returning home Russian troops who were abroad, confirmed peace with Prussia, but rejected the military alliance concluded with her by Peter III.

In the same 1762, Catherine decided to put her protege on the Polish throne. I had to wait until October 1763, when King August III died (also a Russian protege) and Russia immediately began decisive action. The task, however, was difficult, for its solution it was necessary to enlist the non-interference of other European powers. In March 1764, a new alliance treaty was signed with Prussia, according to which the parties agreed on joint actions in order to preserve the existing political system in Poland, which made it possible to influence Polish politics.

The alliance with Prussia ensured the non-intervention of Austria and France, which had their own candidates for the Polish throne. Russia's intentions were reinforced by the introduction of Russian troops, as a result of which, in August 1764, the former favorite of Catherine, Stanislav Poniatowski, was elected king of Poland. it was a great victory, but only at first glance, since it was after these events that Russia became bogged down in Polish problems for a long time.

Meanwhile, Russia's active actions in Poland began to worry Austria and France more and more. It was necessary to divert Russia's attention from European problems, and this was achieved as a result of a complex intrigue, when France and Austria managed to induce Turkey to declare war on Russia (autumn 1768). By this time, Catherine II had reigned for more than five years, but Russia was not yet sufficiently prepared for the war and entered it without much enthusiasm, especially since the military conflict with Turkey evoked unpleasant memories.

Entering in the war with Turkey (1768 - 1774), the Russian government determined main goal obtaining the right to freedom of navigation on the Black Sea, the acquisition of a convenient port on the Black Sea coast, as well as the establishment of safe borders with Poland.

The beginning of the war turned out quite well for Russia. Already in the spring of 1769, Russian troops occupied Azov and Taganrog, and at the end of April they defeated two large formations of Turkish troops near Khotyn, although the fortress itself was captured only in September. Then, in September-October 1769, Moldavia was liberated from the Turks, and Catherine began to call herself the Moldavian princess. In November, Russian troops took Bucharest. The Russian corps sent to Georgia also fought successfully. Finally, on June 24 - 26, 1770, the Russian fleet under the command of A.G. Orlov and Admiral G.A. Spiridonov won a complete victory over the Turkish fleet, which was almost twice superior to it in the Chesme Bay. The Turks lost 15 battleships, 6 frigates and up to 50 small ships - almost their entire fleet. The Chesme victory made a great impression on Europe and served to strengthen the glory of Russian weapons.

After a short time, equally brilliant victories were won by the ground forces. In early July, the Russian army under the command of P. A. Rumyantsev defeated the combined forces of the Turks and Crimean Tatars at the confluence of the Larga River with the Prut. The Turks left more than 1000 people on the battlefield, the Russians lost only 29 people killed. On July 21, the famous battle on the Kagul River began, where the 17,000-strong detachment of Rumyantsev managed to defeat almost 80,000 enemy forces.

In July - October 1770, the fortresses of Izmail, Kiliya, Akkerman surrendered to the Russian troops. In September, General P.I. Panin took Bender. In 1771, Russian troops under the command of Prince V. M. Dolgoruky entered the Crimea and captured its main points within a few months.

It seemed that everything was going well, but the real state of affairs was not easy. Firstly, the war simultaneously in Poland (with the Confederation of Bars), in Moldavia, in the Crimea and in the Caucasus demanded an enormous strain of forces and laid an almost unbearable burden on Russia. Secondly, it became clear that European powers will not allow a significant strengthening of Russia at the expense of Turkey, and therefore it was not necessary to count on the retention and annexation of all the lands seized during the war. Since 1770, Russia had been groping for the grounds for concluding peace, but Turkey, actively supported by Austria, did not want to make any agreements. Only participation in the first partition of Poland in 1772 prompted Austria to withdraw its support from Turkey.

The idea to profit at the expense of Poland arose in the early years of the reign of Catherine II. Prussia repeatedly made similar proposals in the 1960s. However, for the time being, Russia hoped to get the territories of Lithuania and Belarus, which were considered primordially Russian, while maintaining a nominally independent Poland as a buffer between Russia and Prussia. But when the war with the Confederates, supported by the Austrian side, took on a protracted character, the need for an agreement with Austria became clear in order to immediately untie both the Polish and Turkish problems.

Born under these conditions treaty on partition of Poland, signed on July 25, 1772, according to which Russia received the Polish part of Livonia, as well as Polotsk, Vitebsk, Mstislav and part of the Minsk provinces; Galicia (now Western Ukraine) went to Austria, Pomeranian, Chelm and Malbork provinces, part of Greater Poland and Bazmia went to Prussia.

At first glance, Russia's share was the most significant: it acquired territories of 92 thousand square meters. km. with a population of 1 million 300 thousand people. But in reality, in strategic and economic terms, Russia's production was quite modest, because, for example, such an important economic and commercial center as Lvov turned out to be in the hands of Austria, and areas with the most developed agriculture were in the hands of Prussia.

In 1774, after long negotiations, Russia managed to make peace with Turkey. According to Kyuchuk-Kainarji Treaty(by the name of the village where peace was concluded) Russia finally received the right to free passage of its ships through the Bosporus and Dardanelles, the fortresses of Kerch and Yenikale and a significant contribution. Turkey undertook to restore the autonomy of Moldavia and Wallachia, not to oppress the Orthodox in Transcaucasia, and also recognized the independence of Crimea.

The second period of Catherine's foreign policy (1775 - 1796). The Kyuchuk-Kainarji peace ended the first period of Catherine II's foreign policy; the next (70-90s) was also marked by serious successes in the diplomatic and military spheres. The alignment of forces in the foreign policy arena changed somewhat at that time.

The lands acquired by Russia under an agreement with Turkey were wedged between the possessions of the Ottoman Empire, Poland and the Crimean Khanate, which in itself made new clashes inevitable. It was clear that Russia would continue to strive to gain a foothold in the Northern Black Sea region, and Turkey would oppose this in every possible way. Indeed, emboldened by internal troubles in Russia, the Turks significantly strengthened the garrisons of their fortresses on the northern coast of the Black Sea, flooded the Crimea and Kuban with agents, and the Turkish fleet demonstrated its power near the Crimean coast. At the same time, Turkey counted on the support of the European powers - the opponents of Russia, and primarily England. However, in 1775, England began a protracted war with the North American colonies and was even forced to turn to Russia with a request to provide her with 20,000 Russian soldiers to fight the rebels. Catherine, after hesitating, refused, but closely followed the development of the conflict, trying to use it to her advantage.

Meanwhile, in December 1774, a coup d'état took place in the Crimea, as a result of which Devlet-Giray ended up on the khan's throne, trying to establish contact with both Turkey and Russia at the same time. However, the Russian government needed an unequivocal supporter in Crimea, such as Shagin Giray. In order to erect him on the Khan's throne in the spring of 1776, Russian troops began to prepare for an invasion of the Crimea.

Support for Russia's actions in the Crimea was provided by the strengthening of the alliance with Prussia, a new agreement with which was signed in August 1776, and already in November the Russians entered the Crimea. In March of the following year, the treaty of friendship with Prussia was extended, and in April Shagin Giray was elevated to the khan's throne. When, less than a year later, a rebellion broke out against him, he was again suppressed with the help of Russian troops.

In 1780, Russia came up with an important international initiative: the famous Declaration of Armed Neutrality, according to which the ships of neutral countries not participating in military conflicts had the right to defend themselves in the event of an attack on them. The declaration was directed against England, which was trying to prevent the development of Russian maritime trade with its opponents. Soon Sweden, Denmark, Holland and Prussia joined the Declaration. A virtually anti-British coalition was created, which, without interfering in the war with the North American colonies, in essence, provided serious support to the United States.

Already in the early 1780s, the situation in the Crimea aggravated again, the throne of Shahin-Giray shook, and in the spring of 1782 the khan was forced to flee to Kerch under the protection of Russian troops. Turkey was already preparing to put its protege on the Khan's throne, when Catherine gave G. A. Potemkin the order to bring Russian troops into the Crimea. After the restoration of Shagin Giray on the throne, the troops did not leave this time. And a few months later, having received the full support of Austria and put an end to hesitation, On April 8, 1783, Catherine signed a manifesto on "accepting the Crimean Peninsula, the island of Taman and the entire Kuban side under the Russian state."

The annexation of Crimea became possible, of course, thanks to the political assistance of Austria and the non-interference of other European powers, which, not being interested at that time in the Russian-Turkish conflict, tried in every possible way to persuade Turkey to reconcile. Meanwhile, the annexation was not carried out without difficulties. In the summer of 1783, there was an uprising of the Nogais living in the Kuban region. But already in August, a Russian detachment of 1000 people under the command of A.V. Suvorov inflicted a heavy defeat on the numerically superior Nogais. The covert maneuver of the Russians took the enemy by surprise. In October 1783, at the mouth of the Laba River, the Nogais were completely defeated, which finally completed the annexation of the Kuban to Russia.

By this time, the borders of the Russian Empire came close to the Caucasus. The peoples living here were squeezed from three sides by Russia, Turkey and Iran, which made the existence of small independent kingdoms almost impossible. It was clear that in the upcoming military clash between Russia and Turkey, the Caucasus could be a theater of military operations, but before that, the highlanders had to choose one side or another. The events of recent years showed that it was more profitable to join Russia as a stronger power. It was also important that the peoples of Georgia and Armenia, who professed Orthodoxy (or Gregorianism close to it), received guaranteed protection from religious oppression if they joined Russia. As a result of negotiations between the Russian government and representatives of the Kartli-Kakhetian king Erekle II, on July 24, 1783, the Treaty of St. George was signed, according to which the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom came under the protectorate of Russia, which guaranteed its inviolability and territorial integrity. According to the secret articles of the treaty, two battalions of Russian troops were sent to Tbilisi (Tiflis).

The next few years in Russian diplomacy were marked by activities aimed at strengthening their position. At the same time, as a result of further rapprochement with Austria and partly with France, tension increased in relations with Prussia and England. In January 1787, Catherine II, accompanied by the court and foreign diplomats, set off on her famous journey to the Crimea. The trip, first of all, was of international importance: in the Crimea, the empress was supposed to meet with the Austrian emperor and the Polish king and demonstrate Russian military power to them, frightening Turkey with this demonstration. G. A. Potemkin was appointed the main organizer of the whole action. It is with Catherine's journey to the Crimea that the well-known expression "Potemkin villages" is associated. It is believed that Potemkin allegedly built grandiose decorations along the road, depicting non-existent villages. In fact, he only followed the custom of his time to decorate court festivities, but the real villages were decorated so magnificently that the audience began to doubt their authenticity. All this magnificent decoration, combined with a demonstration of the regiments of the Russian army, the Tatar and Kalmyk cavalry and the Black Sea fleet, made an indelible impression on foreigners. In Kherson, Catherine II, together with Emperor Joseph II, was present at the launching of three ships, furnished with all possible pomp.

Throughout the grandiose staging of Potemkin, the idea of ​​a great empire, the heir of Byzantium, was invariably present and even dominated. Thus, the gates installed at the entrance to Kherson were designed as a road to Byzantium, and the newly built cities in Novorossia were given Greek names (Sevastopol, Simferopol, etc.). The presence of Joseph II at the celebrations emphasized the unity of the plans of Vienna and St. Petersburg. However, it was necessary to start their implementation earlier than expected. Already in mid-July 1787, the Russian ambassador in Istanbul was presented with an ultimatum with obviously unrealistic demands, including the return of the Crimea, and then it was announced that all previously concluded agreements were broken. This was the start new Russian-Turkish war (1787 - 1791).

Russia entered the war without having had time to complete preparations for it: the army formations were not completed, the construction of the Black Sea Fleet was not completed, and food and equipment depots were almost empty. However, on September 7, 1787, Catherine signed a manifesto on the war; G.A. was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian army. Potemkin. He also exercised direct leadership of the main Yekaterinoslav army, numbering up to 82 thousand people. The second army, twice as small in number, was led by P. A. Rumyantsev. In addition, a 12,000-strong detachment was supposed to operate in the Caucasus, and the Don Cossacks covered the Kuban.

The Turks assumed already at the beginning of the war to land large landings in the Crimea and the mouth of the Dnieper, and to conduct the main offensive in Moldova. In October 1787, the Turkish fleet blocked the mouth of the Dnieper and landed a 6,000-strong detachment on the Kinburn Spit. Here a detachment of Russian troops under the command of A.V. was waiting for him. Suvorov. A battle took place (October 1) during which the landing force was destroyed. The victory on the Kinburn Spit at the very beginning of the war was extremely important for the Russian army, but not everything turned out so well. Back in September, the Russian Sevastopol fleet was defeated by a storm, as a result of which the siege of the Ochakov fortress by the Russian army dragged on for a long time, and it was taken only in December 1788. The actions of Austria, which entered the war, were ineffective, and it was not necessary to count on its special help.

Meanwhile, the slowness and indecision of the allies were taken for weakness, and in the summer of 1788, pushed by England and Prussia Sweden got involved in the war with Russia (1788 - 1790), dreaming of revenge since the time of the peace of Nystadt. The decisive naval battle near the island of Gogland took place on July 6th. Both fleets were pretty battered. Russian sailors under the command of Admiral S.K. Greig captured the Swedish 70-gun ship Prince Gustav, and the Swedes captured the same Russian ship Vladislav. However, since the Swedes retreated first, the victory remained with the Russians. Deprived of support from the sea, the Swedish land forces in 1789 acted unsuccessfully, and the next year Sweden was forced to make peace.

The year 1789 turned out to be decisive in the Russian-Turkish war as well, it was marked by new brilliant victories. On July 21, 1789, 5,000 Russians and 12,000 Austrians, united under the command of Suvorov, stormed the fortified camp of the Turks near Focsani, defeating the 30,000th Turkish corps of Mustafa Pasha. A month and a half later, having made a swift march of one hundred miles in two days, Suvorov on September 11 inflicted another crushing defeat on the Turks near the Rymnik River. For this battle, Suvorov was granted the title of count with the honorary title of Rymniksky. In the next few months of 1789, Russian troops took Akkerman and Bender, and Austrian troops took Belgrade and Bucharest.

However, the international situation as a whole was developing unsuccessfully for Austria and Russia. Russia in Europe was opposed by Sweden, and Austria by Prussia. It was not necessary to count on the support of France, where the revolution took place in July 1789. Prussia, meanwhile, stepped up its diplomatic activities and concluded treaties with Poland and Turkey. In March 1790, Emperor Joseph II died, his successor Leopold II, fearing a war with Prussia, was forced to conclude an agreement with Turkey on the cessation of hostilities. Russia was actually left with its opponents one on one.

In Russian court circles at that time there were different points of view about the prospects for the continuation of the war: however, Catherine II correctly calculated that Prussia would ultimately not decide on an open clash with Russia, and England's attention would be occupied by events in France. By the end of 1790, the Russian army won a series of new convincing victories over the Turks, the most brilliant of which was the capture of Ishmael on December 11, 1790, a fortress that the Turks considered impregnable.

Turkish troops were also defeated in the North Caucasus. Finally, on July 31, 1791, the Russian fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov defeated the Turks at Cape Kaliakria. On the same day, a truce was signed with Turkey, which had asked for mercy, and at the end of December 1791, the long-awaited Peace of Jassy, according to which Turkey finally recognized the annexation of Crimea, and the new border between the two countries was determined along the Dniester.

Meanwhile, throughout the entire Russian-Turkish war, the situation was constantly aggravated. Polish problem. Back in 1787, King Stanisław August made another attempt to strengthen Polish statehood through internal political reforms. In the meantime, the Sejm, called the Four Years, gathered, which, according to the plan of Stanislav Augustus, was supposed to approve the strengthening of royal power. Instead, on May 3, 1791, the Sejm adopted a constitution.

Catherine II was alarmed and annoyed by the news of the Polish constitution, since it violated the established world order, and the strengthening of Poland's independence did not suit Russia in any way. Having waited for the settlement of the Austro-Prussian and Russian-Turkish relations, Catherine again sent troops to Poland. The campaign was short-lived, and by the summer of 1792 the Russian army controlled the entire territory of the Commonwealth.

In December, St. Petersburg gave a positive response to Prussia's proposal for a new division of Poland, officially announced in April of the following 1793. The result of the division was the receipt by Prussia of a territory of 38 thousand square meters. km. with the cities of Gdansk, Torun, Poznan. The Russian Empire increased its possessions by 250 thousand square meters. km. at the expense of the territories of Eastern Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine.

The second partition of Poland gave rise to a large-scale patriotic movement led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko. At first, the rebels managed to achieve some success, but their cause was doomed when A.V. took command of the Russian troops. Suvorov. Having defeated the Kosciuszko uprising, the European powers in October 1795 carried out the third partition of Poland. Austria received another 47 thousand square meters. km of Polish lands with the city of Lublin, Prussia - 48 thousand square meters. km. with Warsaw, and Russia - 120 thousand square meters. km, including Western Volyn, Lithuania, Courland. The third partition of Poland put an end to Polish statehood, which was revived only in 1918.

The foreign policy activity of Catherine II in the last years of her reign was largely due to the revolutionary events in France. At first, these events aroused in the Empress a kind of gloating, since she had always been very critical of the political regime in France.

However, by 1792, the Empress increasingly began to perceive the French events as a rebellion against the very idea of ​​power and saw in them a danger to monarchical Europe. Catherine actively participated in the creation of an anti-French coalition, helped French emigrants, especially after receiving news of the execution of the king and queen in early 1793. However, until the death of Catherine, the Russian army did not take a direct part in military operations against France. The Empress hoped to draw Austria and Prussia into French affairs in order to free her hands to carry out her own plans.

Most European states, which did not take long to manifest itself under the immediate successors of Peter I.

England took a frankly hostile position: she was an ardent opponent of political and naval power Russia, fearing to lose his intermediary role in Russian foreign trade and end up in economic dependence on Russian shipbuilding materials. Increased international importance Russia caused alarm in France, which, in order to counteract Russia provided all kinds of support to Sweden, up to the financing of hostile Russia shares in the Baltic. France and England spread rumors of aggressive intentions Russia against the German states in the hope of restoring the Western and Northern powers against Russia.

The hostility of the European governments was also manifested in every kind of delay in recognizing Russian sovereigns of the imperial title (England, Austria, France, Spain recognized him only in the 40s, and the Commonwealth - in 1764).
At the same time, European diplomacy had to reckon with the increased role Russia how, with an indisputable fact and in accordance with changes in the alignment of forces on the European continent, to involve it in certain political combinations. So, after a long period of confrontation in the 30s, there was some improvement in Russian-English relations, expressed in the signing in 1734 of the treaty "On friendship, mutual commerce and navigation" for a period of 15 years.

The Russian-English rapprochement caused a negative reaction from the French government, which in response switched to the policy of the "Eastern barrier". In order to carry out her plans, France began to organize an anti- Russia Union of Sweden, Poland and Turkey. The first major clash of the second quarter of the 18th century, in which Russia , became the so-called war for the "Polish inheritance" of 1733-1735. Ultimately, it was Russian military and diplomatic support that ensured the rise to power of the son of Augustus II, the Saxon Elector Friedrich-August. However, victory Russia further aggravated Russian-French relations. France tried to take revenge by inciting to speak out against Russia Sweden and the Ottoman Empire.

In 1735 the Russian-Turkish war began. In this war Russia sought to secure its southern borders, constantly exposed to aggression from Turkey and its vassal of the Crimean Khanate, to secure convenient trade routes to Asia along the main Russian rivers flowing into the Black and Caspian Seas, and also to return the lands lost under the Prut Treaty of 1711. In 1736, the Russian army captured Azov with heavy losses, and in 1737 - Ochakov. In 1739, a major battle took place near Stavuchany, as a result of which the defeated Turkish troops retreated and opened the way for the Russians to the fortress of Khotyn and Yassy. But in general, the results of the war, which cost the lives of 100 thousand Russian soldiers, were insignificant. According to the Belgrade Treaty of 1739 Russia received Azov, but never won the right to have a fleet on the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov and fortifications in Azov. To Russia a small territory on the Right-Bank Ukraine departed. Ultimately, the main strategic goals were not achieved, Russia managed only partially to revise the terms of the Prut Treaty. Unfavorable background for subsequent foreign policy Russia created the anti-Russian military alliance of Turkey and Sweden concluded in the same 1739 with the help of French diplomacy.

In 1741 military actions against Russia Sweden opened. Prompted by France and Prussia, the Swedish government sought the abolition of the conditions of the Peace of Nystadt in 1721 and the return of the Baltic lands. However, the attacking side clearly overestimated its strength: the military operations that took place on the coastal territory of Finland showed the absolute superiority of the Russian army. In 1743, a peace treaty was signed in Abo, confirming the territorial acquisitions Russia in the Northern War and advanced its borders in Finland beyond Vyborg by 60 versts.

Foreign Policy Leadership Russia since 1744 it has been concentrated in the hands of Chancellor A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, a professional diplomat who began his service as early as 1712. Bestuzhev’s foreign policy program, which he called the “Peter I system”, took into account the community of stable interests Russia, firstly, with the maritime powers of England and Holland - in the absence of any mutual territorial claims, they had long-standing trade relations, and secondly, with the Austrian Empire - they were brought together by a mutual interest in maintaining balance in Central Europe and rebuffing the Ottoman Empire.

Russia had to enter into an armed struggle with Prussia during the years of the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), which was pan-European. England and France fought for colonies in America and Asia and for dominance at sea. Strengthened as a result of the revolution of the XVII century. England dealt crushing blows to the colonial possessions and maritime communications of absolutist France.

In 1757, the Russian army entered East Prussia and soon inflicted a serious defeat on the Prussian troops near the village of Gross-Egersdorf. In 1758, a bloody battle took place at Zorndorf, which ended in a shameful flight of the Prussians. In 1759, a battle followed on the right bank of the Oder, near Kunersdorf, as a result of which the entire color of the Prussian army was defeated, and Frederick II was on the verge of suicide. As a result of the 1759 campaign, the Prussian front no longer existed. The way to Berlin was free. Panic reigned in the capital of Prussia. However, due to inconsistency among the allies, the march on Berlin was postponed until 1760. On September 28, 1760, Russian troops finally entered Berlin. Berlin was forced to pay a large contribution, and the keys to it were sent to Elizaveta Petrovna. The capture of Berlin, according to the plan of the Russian command, was an operation aimed at disorganizing the economic and political center of Prussia. After this goal was achieved, the withdrawal of Russian troops began.

But the Seven Years' War was not over yet: in 1761, the Prussian fortress of Kolberg on the Baltic Sea capitulated. After that, the forces of Prussia were finally broken and the last reserves were exhausted. Prussia was saved by chance. Peter III, who entered Russian throne December 25, 1761, dramatically changed the course of foreign policy. On the very first day of his reign, he sent a message to Frederick II, in which he announced his intention to establish "eternal friendship" with him. In April 1762 A peace treaty was signed with Berlin. Russia withdrew from the Seven Years' War. Came to power in June 1762 Catherine II, although she verbally condemned the foreign policy of her predecessor, nevertheless did not renew the war with Prussia and confirmed the peace. Thus, the Seven Years' War did not give Russia no acquisitions. Its results were different - in confirming the strength of the conquered Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century. positions in the Baltic, in strengthening the international prestige and in the accumulation of valuable military experience.

In the 20s of the 18th century, the prolongation of the war was no longer beneficial for Sweden. The congress of Russian and Swedish diplomats that began in April 1721 in the city of Nystadt came to an agreement on peace at the end of August. The Treaty of Nystadt on August 30, 1721 secured the Baltic coast from Vyborg to Riga for Russia. Finland was returned to the Swedes, in the interests of the Baltic trade they were allowed to purchase and export duty-free from the Russian Baltic ports (Riga and Revel) goods worth 50 thousand rubles. annually. Russia paid Sweden 1.5 million rubles. for the territories transferred to her in Livonia and Estonia. These clauses of the peace treaty contributed to the transition to good neighborly and even allied relations between Russia and Sweden. In 1724, a Russian-Swedish defensive treaty (for 12 years) was signed in Stockholm. The victorious conclusion of the Northern War approved for Russia (proclaimed an empire in October 1721) the status of a great power.

Even during the Northern War, the government of Peter 1 activated the eastern direction of its foreign policy. Attempts were made to establish contacts with the states of Central Asia - Khiva and Bukhara. But the attempt to establish friendly relations was unsuccessful due to the treachery of the Khiva Khan Shirgazy, who killed the embassy detachment. F. Benevini's embassy to Bukhara was more successful.

In the summer of 1722, in order to counter Iran (Persia) in the North Caucasus, Russian troops, led by Tsar Peter himself, undertook the Persian campaign and occupied the Western and southern coasts of the Caspian. Dagestan recognized the Russian protectorate, the East Georgian kingdom of Vakhtang VI was freed from persecution by the Persians. The peace treaty concluded in September 1723 in St. Petersburg with Persia transferred Derbent, Rasht and Astrabad, the cities of the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea, to Russian possession. But the Russian government could not implement large-scale plans for the Transcaucasus, related to providing assistance to the Christian population of Georgia and Armenia, due to the opposition of Turkey, which then started a war in this region. At the same time, Russia actively sought to establish strong economic ties with China. The Russian-Chinese negotiations on this issue, which began in 1720 in Beijing, ended after Peter's death with the signing of the mutually beneficial Kyakhta trade agreement. But Russia, this time too, was unable to return the lands along the river, lost under the Nerchinsk Treaty of 1689. Amur. China was ceded territory along the middle reaches of the river. Selengi and Urakhai region (Tuva).

The foreign policy of Russia during this period pursued the goals of preserving the western borders unchanged, retaining influence in Poland and overcoming the “eastern barrier” created by France, which fenced off Russia from Europe with Sweden, Poland and Turkey, intensifying policy in the south and confronting anti-Russian alliances led by England and France. At the same time, the forces necessary for this were wasted in palace coups, the army and navy were not given due attention, discipline was implanted in them, almost no ships were built in the Baltic, and the remaining rot in the harbors, the combat effectiveness of the armed forces under the closest successors of Peter the Great - Peter II and Anna Ivanovna - turned out to be undermined. The lack of forces and means led to the return of the southern and western coasts of the Caspian Sea to Persia.

Events developed more successfully in the European direction. Russian diplomacy, headed by an experienced politician A.I. Osterman, could not stay away from the confrontation between the two blocs that unfolded in Europe - the Vienna (Austria, Spain) and Hanover (England, France, the Netherlands) leagues, which concluded an allied treaty with Austria in 1726 - the enemy of France and Turkey. The Allies agreed to act jointly in Poland in order to weaken French influence in it.

In 1736, the Russian-Turkish war broke out, caused by Turkish raids on the Russian borderlands and territories returned to Iran. Military operations unfolded in the Crimea and in the lower reaches of the river. Don. In the summer of 1936, the Russian army of General P.P. Lassi, during a successful siege, returned Azov to Russia. Attempts to seize the Crimea were unsuccessful due to the miscalculations of the army commander, Field Marshal B.Kh. Minikha. Austria did not comply with the terms of the union treaty, while Turkey received support from France and refused to peacefully resolve the conflict. In the autumn of 1738, due to the outbreak of the plague, the Russian garrisons were withdrawn from Ochakov and Kinburn, and, thus, access to the Black Sea was lost for Russia. According to the Belgrade Peace Treaty on December 18, 1739, Russia regained Azov (without fortifications), Kabarda was recognized as neutral between the parties. Russia did not achieve the right to keep a fleet on the Azov and Black Seas, it did not succeed in retaining the territories in Podolia and Moldavia occupied during the war. Turkey still refused to recognize the imperial title of Russian monarchs.

In the east in 1731-1740. the Kazakh Junior and Middle voluntarily joined Russia, and the economic ties of Russian merchants with Khiva, Bukhara and other regions of Central Asia, which suffered from internecine wars, raids by Persian shahs and Afghan emirs, significantly expanded.

In 1741-1743. Sweden tried to take revenge - for the defeat in the Northern War, but the Russian troops inflicted a number of defeats on the Swedes in Finland. As a result, in August 1743, the Abo peace treaty was signed, according to which Sweden again confirmed territorial acquisitions in the Baltic states for Russia, and part of southeastern Finland - the Kymengora and part of the Savalak provinces - also went to it.

By the middle of the XVIII century. Russia's foreign policy activity has increased dramatically. In the 20-year reign of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, her role in the international arena increased: having overcome the attempts of England and France to move her away from the key issues of politics, Russia declared itself as a great power in Europe. Participation as an ally in the seven-year war of 1756-1763. helped Russia to demonstrate its military power. The international prestige and foreign policy positions of the country have been strengthened.

Question. What determined the main directions of Russia's foreign policy in 1725-1762?

1) Relations with Sweden were determined by the desire to preserve the gains of the Northern War. In this case, it was about the security of St. Petersburg, the capital of the state, and the hard-won access to the Baltic Sea;

2) The nature of relations with the Commonwealth was determined by the constant weakening of this country. There were constant civil wars due to the fact that the power of the magnates was almost unlimited and the magnates competed with each other. Russia could not but take advantage of this opportunity. Moreover, the Courlanders played a significant role in the governance of Russia, and Courland was formally a vassal of the Commonwealth. The prospect was tempting for the Courlanders: to be the masters of their overlord. For these reasons, Russia sought to maintain and expand its influence on the domestic and foreign policy of the Commonwealth.

3) The raids of the Crimean Tatars continued, it was required to defend against them and deliver preemptive strikes;

4) Turkey, on the one hand, continued to be a threat, on the other hand, it gradually weakened, it would be foolish not to take advantage of this opportunity in order to eliminate the threat. Moreover, the Crimean Khanate, which constantly disturbed Russia with raids, was a vassal of Turkey.

5) From time to time there were opportunities to expand the territory of the country. Russia's Eastern policy was determined precisely by these opportunities, because it was precisely the Eastern peoples that provided such opportunities.

Question. Why did Russian-Turkish relations become the main direction of foreign policy?

Answer. Crimean Tatars continued to raid Russia. Something had to be done about this constant threat. But the Crimean Khanate was a vassal of Turkey and the wars with the Crimea also meant wars with Istanbul. And also Turkey had already begun to weaken (although it still remained quite strong) - this chance had to be used, for which it was not a pity and very significant forces.

Question. What caused the Kazakh khans to accept Russian citizenship?

Answer. Ruinous internecine wars were going on in the Kazakh zhups, which could only be stopped by an external force like Russia. Also, because of these civil strife, the Kazakhs were weakened and could not defend themselves from the raids of the Dzungars and Bashkirs. The Kazakhs decided to submit to Russia, because they believed: Russian farmers would not claim what Kazakh nomads considered the most valuable; while the Dzungars and Bashkirs were also nomads, appreciating and capturing the same as the Kazakhs.

Question. Give a general assessment of Russia's participation in the seven-year war.

Answer. The participation was very successful. Russia played a key role in the defeat of Prussia. At that time, Prussia was one of the strongest powers in Europe (and hence the world), and its king Frederick II the Great was considered one of the best commanders of his time. It was the Seven Years' War that showed that Russia had become one of the leading powers in Europe. It was after this war that she began to participate on an equal footing in coalitions with other European countries.

Question. Give a general assessment of Russia's foreign policy in 1725-1762.

Answer. In general, before 1756, Russian foreign policy did not achieve significant victories, especially in comparison with the reign of Peter I before that and the Seven Years' War and the era of Catherine II after that. But the important thing is that no fatal mistakes were made, there were no significant catastrophes. The Russian army did not lose. She even won several major battles. It's just that her victories did not give such significant results as before and after this period. The situation changed dramatically during the Seven Years' War. For the first time in its history, for the first time since Moscow began to collect neighboring principalities under its rule, Russia participated in a pan-European conflict. And participation was successful. Russia has achieved everything it needed. She crushed Frederick II the Great, who wanted to become the hegemon of Europe, forced European countries to respect themselves, and became their equal partner. The annexation of the Prussian territories with Berlin to Russia was still not possible (the annexation of such vast lands did not end the pan-European conflicts, neither the Thirty Years' War, nor the Napoleonic Wars), therefore the abdication of Frederick II would only lead to the strengthening of France and was not beneficial for Russia. So the decision of Peter III, perhaps, was not so wrong, it just needed to be shown as such in order to justify the overthrow of this emperor.

As a result of the Northern War, Russia took a strong position as a great European power. Now, in the words of the French envoy Camperdon, "at the slightest demonstration of his (Peter - D.A.) fleet, at the first movement of his troops, neither the Swedish, nor the Danish, nor the Prussian, nor the Polish crown will dare to make a movement hostile to him, nor move with places his troops ... He is one of the northern sovereigns in a position to force respect for his flag. After the death of Peter, his successors faced the most difficult task - to preserve and consolidate the position of a great power. This task consisted of two components:

1. maintaining access to the Baltic Sea;

2. strengthening its influence in Poland;

3. solutions to the Black Sea problem, i.e. control of the shores of the Black Sea.

The main enemy in this period is France.

1734 - 1735 - the war for the "Polish inheritance". (After the death of August II the Strong, his son Augustus claimed the Polish throne (in whose favor Russia and Austria spoke out, interested in maintaining a weak Poland torn apart by gentry contradictions)) and Stanislav Leshchinsky, a former ally of Charles XII, now supported by France. As a result of Russian military intervention, Augustus (who became King Augustus III) took the throne and Russian influence in Poland became predominant.

1735 - 1739 Russian-Turkish war. Russia and Austria opposed Turkey, which had sharply strengthened with the support of France. Russian troops under the command of Munnich and Lassi broke through into the Crimea three times, but each time they were forced to retreat, fearing encirclement. Under the conditions of the likely performance of Sweden, incited by France, and the weakening of Austria, Russia was forced in 1739 to conclude the Belgrade peace, according to which Russia returned Azov, but disrupted its fortifications. Almost all the gains of this war had to be given away.

1741 - 1743 Russian-Swedish war. France and Prussia pushed Sweden to war and, at the same time, tried to persuade Elizabeth to give up her father's conquests in the Baltic. The Swedish troops started the war under the pretext of protecting the rights of Elizabeth, but the war continued after the coup in her favor. Russian troops under the command of Lassi won victory after victory in Finland, and in 1742 the Swedish army capitulated near Helsingfors. Peace was concluded in 1743 in Abo. Russia received a number of Swedish fortresses in Finland.

1757 - 1763 Seven Years' War. Reasons: sharp Austro-Prussian and Anglo-French contradictions. Two opposing alliances are formed - Austria and Prussia - on the one hand, and Austria, Russia, France and Saxony - on the other.

1725, January. The problem of a successor after the death of Peter the Great. His grandson Peter, the son of Tsarevich Alexei and the only possible male heir, was only nine years old. Supporters of the reforms call Catherine the successor, their opponents - the former queen Evdokia. Finally, under pressure from the guards, the old nobility compromises with the "thin" nobles from the late emperor's entourage and proclaims Catherine the Empress.

June. Marriage between the eldest daughter of the Empress Anna Petrovna and Karl Friedrich, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp.

1726, February. Establishment of the Supreme Privy Council, which takes away a number of powers from the Senate. The Empress herself is considered the chairman of the Council, and among its seven members there are two favorites: Alexander Menshikov and Pyotr Tolstoy.

1727, May. The death of Catherine I. The throne was left to the twelve-year-old Peter II Alekseevich. Through the efforts of the almighty Alexander Menshikov, Pyotr Tolstoy was exiled. The right to appoint to the highest military positions passes to the Supreme Privy Council.

September. The fall of Menshikov, who. in turn, exiled to Siberia. The Dolgorukys, who have regained power, are striving to regain the former rights of the old nobility. The yard moves to Moscow.

1728 Supreme Privy Council continues to expand its power; collegiums are subordinated to him. The abolition of the Little Russian Collegium and the restoration of the hetmanship. The Council decides to convene deputies to Moscow to complete work on legislation.

1730 Repeal of the law on primacy in the inheritance of estates.

January. Death of Peter II. Disregarding the will of Catherine I, who indicated Anna and Elizabeth, daughters of Peter the Great, as possible successors to Peter II, the Council gives the throne to Anna Ioannovna, the widow of the Duke of Courland, who accepts the conditions drawn up by Prince Dmitry Golitsyn, limiting her and leaving all control in the hands of the Supreme Secret council ("Mitavian conditions"). The dissatisfaction of wide circles of the nobility, demanding the limitation of the supreme power in their favor.

February. Using the split in the nobility, Anna Ioannovna refuses the Mitav conditions and accepts "autocracy"

March 4 (15). Anna Ioannovna abolishes the Supreme Privy Council and restores the powers of the Senate.

April. Dolgoruky removed from power.

July. A cadet corps was established to allow the children of the nobility to avoid the soldier's "strap".

18 (29) October. The Cabinet of Ministers was established, to which the functions of the Supreme Privy Council were transferred.

1731 Manifesto of Anna Ioannovna, in which her niece Anna Leopoldovna, the future Duchess of Brunswick, is called the heir to the throne.

1732 The court and the higher authorities are transferred back to St. Petersburg. Creation of a commission to control the activities of governors. Changes to the recruiting system: one recruit per 350 peasants with the possibility of redemption.

1734 The hetmanship in Little Russia is again abolished, and its administration is entrusted to the Provisional Commission, which means a return to centralization.

1735 Approval of the supreme authority of the Cabinet of Ministers: in the absence of the Empress, its decrees acquire the force of law.

1736 Law restricting the service of the nobility and allowing one of the sons to remain on the estate.

17 (28) October. Death of Anna Ioannovna. Biron was appointed regent for the two-month-old Ivan Antonovich, whom it was prescribed to address as "Your Highness."

8 (19) November. Field Marshal Minich orders Biron to be arrested and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress, Anna Leopoldovna is proclaimed regent, and Minich himself becomes the first minister.

1741, January. Another redistribution of powers between ministers; Minikh was left only in command of the troops, and foreign policy was transferred to the jurisdiction of A. I. Osterman.

November 25 (December 6). Palace coup by Elizabeth Petrovna, daughter of Peter the Great. In the manifesto she released, she substantiates her right to the throne with the will of Catherine I. The emperor and his family are taken into custody.

1742, January. Osterman and Munnich, originally sentenced to death, were exiled with Biron to Siberia. The management of foreign policy was entrusted to A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin.

April. Coronation of Elizabeth in Moscow.

November. In her manifesto, Elizabeth appoints her nephew, the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, as heir to the throne.

December. The abolition of the Cabinet of Ministers and the restoration of the rights of the Senate, which was expanded to 14 members. Dolgoruky is again among the close associates of the Empress.

1743 Creation of the Conference of Ministers, to which the functions of the abolished Cabinet are transferred, the Senate continues to play an important role.

1750, February. Kirill Razumovsky, brother of the morganatic husband of Elizabeth Petrovna Alexei, was elected hetman of Ukraine.

1757 Recruitment changes; previously limited to ten Russian provinces, it is now extended to Little Russia and the Baltic provinces.

Foreign policy

1725, March 31 (April 11). Catherine I gives an audience to the French envoy Campredon, offering to conclude an alliance between Russia and France, which would be sealed by the marriage of Elizabeth Petrovna and Louis XV.

1726, July. The expulsion from Mitava of Moritz of Saxony, whom the Diet of Courland repeatedly elected Duke.

July 26 (August 6). Accession of Russia to the Treaty of Vienna, concluded by 1725 between Emperor Charles VI of Habsburg and Spain. Russia puts a 30,000-strong army at the disposal of the allies in exchange for support in the event of a war with the Ottoman Empire.

1727, February. The Sejm of Courland confirms the election of Moritz of Saxony and again rejects A. Menshikov, Catherine's candidate.

August. Treaty of eternal peace with China on the basis of the territorial status quo, the establishment of regular trade relations.

1731 Transition under the protection of Russia of the Lesser Kazakh Zhuz.

1732, June. During the Russian-French negotiations, Osterman opposes Biron and insists on remaining loyal to the alliance with Austria.

1733, August. Russia supports the candidacy of August III for the Polish throne against the French-backed Stanisław Leshchinsky.

1734, June. Fulfilling his obligations against France during the war for the "Polish Succession". Anna Ioannovna sends her fleet to the Baltic Sea, which at Danzig defeats the French squadron that was going to help Stanislav Leshchinsky.

1736, May. Minich's campaign against the Crimean Tatars. October. Russia, in alliance with Austria, starts a war against Turkey.

1737, March. The Diet of Courland elects Biron Duke. In July this election was ratified by Augustus III.

1738 Resumption of Russian-French diplomatic relations. The Russian envoy Prince Cantemir arrives in Paris.

1739, September. Belgrade treaty to end the war between Russia and Austria with Turkey. Thanks to the victories won by Minikh (Azov, Ochakov, Yasy), Russia regains Azov and Zaporozhye, lost under Peter I.

1741-1742 Russian-Swedish war.

18 August. The signing of an agreement in Abo between Russia and Sweden, which ceded the southeastern corner of Finland (the provinces of Kymengard, Vilmanstrand and Nislot).

December. The resumption of Russian-French diplomatic relations, interrupted during the war with Sweden; the return of the French ambassador, the Marquis de la Chétardie.

1744, January 24 (February 4). On the initiative of Bestuzhev-Ryumin, an agreement was concluded between Russia and Saxony, drawing Russia into the Anglo-Austrian coalition. New break with France.

December 28 (January 8, 1745). Elizabeth joins the Warsaw Pact between Austria, Saxony, England and Holland.

1746, May 22 (June 2). Austro-Russian defensive alliance: the parties undertake to provide each other with a 30,000-strong contingent of troops. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, the main organizer of this treaty, receives 6,000 ducats from the emperor.

1747, June 1 (12). Anglo-Russian subsidy treaty: Russia receives £100,000 to equip its army.

1748, April. For the first time in its history, Russia is directly involved in a conflict in Western Europe by sending its troops to the Rhine.

December 31 (January 11, 1757). Russia joins the Treaty of Versailles (on the union of France and Austria).

1757 January 11 (22). Austro-Russian convention: each side undertakes to field an army of 80,000 in the event of a joint war with Prussia.

August 19 (30). The Russian army under the command of S.F. Apraksin and Rumyantsev defeats the Prussian troops at Gross-Egersdorf. Instead of developing success and occupy Pomerania, Apraksin retreats to Tilsit.

14 (25) August. The Russian army, surrounded by Prussian troops, manages to break out of the ring after a bloody battle near Zorndorf.

1759 February 25 (March 8). Russo-Swedish convention, joined by France and Denmark. Its goal is to close access to the Baltic for all foreign warships.

July. The Russian army under the command of Saltykov defeats the troops of the Don at Palzig and opens its way to the Oder, Frankfurt and Berlin.

July 30 (August 10). Saltykov, together with the Austrian troops of Lauden, utterly defeats the Prussian army of Frederick II near Kunersdorf. Disagreements among the allies prevent them from developing success.

September 28 (October 9). Saltykov enters Berlin. After capitulation, the city is given over to plunder and undertakes to pay 1.5 million thalers.

1760, 12 (23) March. Choiseul is negotiating with Austria, seeking that Russia receive from Poland the right bank of the Dnieper and, as compensation from Frederick II, East Prussia.

wiki.304.ru / History of Russia. Dmitry Alkhazashvili.