Introduction

Chapter 1. Development of organizational forms of distance learning

1.1. Distance Learning as a Sociocultural Phenomenon of World Educational Practice

1.2. The evolution of organizational forms of distance learning in Russian education

Chapter 2 Organizational forms of distance learning as an object of sociotechnical design

2.1. The educational process in the structures of distance learning as an object of didactic analysis and design

2.2. Didactic principles and conditions for their implementation in distance learning

Chapter 3. Didactic potential of information and communication technologies in the development of organizational forms of distance learning

3.1. The role and importance of information and communication technologies in improving the organizational forms of distance learning

3.2. Paradigms of virtual education in the information society: the context of contradictions

Chapter 4 Application of distance learning technologies in the system of correspondence education: practical aspects

4.1. Experience in creating an innovative educational structure for distance learning - Correspondence Polytechnic Institute

4.2. The social context of the educational process at the Correspondence Polytechnic Institute

Conclusion 279

Bibliography 284

Applications

Introduction to work

The relevance of research. Undoubtedly, the priority of the problems of the development of Russian education for the future of the country, its socio-economic progress, the creation of conditions for the harmonization of cognitive interests and educational needs of the individual and the needs of society. In the works of A.A. Andreeva, V.I. Dobrenkova, V.Ya. Nechaeva, A.D. Ivannikova, V.G. Kinelev, G.A. Krasnova, M.A. Lukashenko, Ya.M. Neymatova, E.I. Rybnova, SB. Smirnova, V.I. Soldatkina, V.P. Tikhomirova, A.N. Tikhonov, V.M. Filippova, Yu.G. Fokina, D.V. Chernilevsky, M.Yu. Shvetsova, F.E. Sherega and many others, progress in the field of education is associated with the implementation of the ideas of open education and the concepts of continuous education, with the widespread use of organizational forms and distance learning technologies.

Some of these works analyze modern foreign studies in the field of distance learning, which are distinguished by considerable diversity. There are several theories and concepts of distance learning: the theory of "industrialization" (O. Peters), the theory of "autonomy and independence of distance learning" (C. Wedemeyer, M.G. Moore and others), the theory of "interaction and communication" (A.W. Bates, V. Holmberg , and others). In the works of D.R. Garrson, B. Holmberg, J. Huisman, T. Lajos, V. Gremeniere, A. Szucs, P. Marland, R. Mason, S. Nipper, O. Peters, E. Wagner, C.A. Wedemeyer, N. Zeller and others considered: organizational, institutional, intercultural problems of distance learning; the idea of ​​interactivity in learning, psychological and pedagogical aspects of communication, economics and management of distance learning.

The first domestic research in the field of the theory of remote

learning are associated with the names of S.A. Shchennikova, N.K. Nikitina,

CM. Nikitina, V.V. Verzhbitsky, V.G. Kineleva, B.C. Meskova, V.I. Ov-

\ Syannikova, V.V. Popov. It should be noted that distance learning

training is of the greatest importance for the system of higher professional
leg education. It is for this reason that a significant influence on the theory
distance learning, rendered education research
adults S.G. Vershlovskiy, B.C. Zbarovsky, S.I. Zmeeva,

Yu.N. Kulyutkina, V.G. Onushkina, V.I. Podobeda, G.S. Sukhobskaya and others. The importance for distance learning of works on the pedagogy of vocational education N.V. Kuzmina, A.A. Verbitskaya, A.M. Novikova, V.A. Slastenin and other authors. In this paper, special attention is paid to the consideration of organizational forms of distance learning on the example of the higher education system.

In the works of A.A. Andreeva, YAL. Vagramenko, A.D. Ivannikova, B.C. Lazareva, V.I. Ovsyannikova, E.S. Polat, V.I. Soldatkina, V.P. Tikhomirova, V.M. Filippova, S.A. Shchennikov and some other authors considered distance learning as a new form of education, different from the existing model of both full-time and distance learning. The innovativeness of distance learning is determined by the peculiarity of network structures, organizational forms and the nature of the relationships between subjects in the distance learning system. The most attractive advantage of distance learning is the reduction in the cost of education. The didactic potential of distance learning technologies was actually considered as the fundamental basis of "open education". With the development of distance learning, hopes are associated for the openness of education to the future and the integration of all ways of human exploration of the world; on the personal orientation of the learning process (V.M. Filippov, V.P. Tikhomirov, etc.).

From 1995 to the present, along with the development and implementation of distance learning, in Russia there has been a process of reducing the traditional system of distance education, which has a long history. However, despite the closure of a number of correspondence departments of educational institutions, the system of correspondence education, integrating progressive organizational

we and distance learning technology continues to successfully exist. Within the framework of this system, new organizational structures and forms of distance learning appear, which are an innovative basis for the further development of the distance learning system. The basis of such organizational structures are the departments of the educational institution that oversee all aspects of the educational process, capable of implementing various forms of education (full-time, part-time, part-time separately and / or in any combination) using distance learning technologies, ensuring the maximum efficiency of the functioning of the educational institution.

Organizational forms and technologies of distance learning are closely related to the use of information and telecommunication technologies, which have significant didactic potential. This potential can be successfully realized in distance learning. Information and telecommunication technologies ensure the use of electronic educational resources (multimedia encyclopedias, electronic teaching aids, simulators, etc.) and the organization of the presentation of educational material, monitoring of the educational process and effective feedback using telecommunication networks. Information and telecommunication technologies can make a certain contribution to the organization of network interaction between participants in the educational process, contributing, to a certain extent, to the formation of a professional community of students.

Currently, a number of questions have turned out to be beyond the interest of researchers:

trends in the development of organizational forms of distance learning;

didactic principles and conditions for their implementation within the framework of various organizational forms of distance learning;

a set of requirements for innovative organizational structures of distance learning educational institutions that can provide training for competitive specialists in demand on the labor market;

a system of principles for the formation of innovative organizational structures of distance learning educational institutions, ensuring their effective functioning;

the role of information and telecommunication technologies in the development of organizational forms and technologies of distance learning;

social aspects of the educational process of the functioning of distance learning structures within the framework of the correspondence education system.

Many areas of development of education in the country, marked as a priority in the Concept for the Modernization of Russian Education until 2010, are associated with the development of distance learning. This initiates scientific research in this area and determines the relevance of the topic of this work.

Striving to find solutions contradictions between the need: 1) to develop common conceptual and methodological approaches to the development of organizational forms of distance learning; 2) in identifying the principles and organizational and pedagogical conditions for functioning within the framework of various organizational forms of distance learning structures that provide training for competitive specialists in demand on the labor market; 3) in the most complete realization of the didactic potential of information and communication technologies in improving the organizational forms of distance learning; and the state of theoretical knowledge in this area led to problem of the present study. AT theoretically this is the problem of the socio-cultural and didactic potential of organizational forms and technologies of distance learning and identifying the principles of its effective implementation in educational practice. AT in practical terms this is the problem of developing a scientifically based, practice-oriented concept of the educational policy of distance learning structures aimed at improving the socio-economic efficiency of the Russian education system.

The object of the study is the educational process, carried out with the use of distance learning technologies in the system of distance education.

The subject of the study is the theoretical foundations for the development of organizational forms and technologies of distance learning in an educational institution.

Purpose of the study- development of a practice-oriented concept for the use of organizational forms and technologies of distance learning in the educational process of an educational institution, aimed at improving its socio-economic efficiency.

Research hypothesis. The hypothesis of the study lies in the assumption that an increase in the socio-economic efficiency of distance learning in a modern Russian school can be achieved if organizational forms and technologies of distance learning are implemented and applied, providing:

The functioning of innovative organizational structures dis
station training of educational institutions capable of preparing in demand
bathed in the labor market, competitive professionals, maneuvering
teaching resources, controlling the quality of education, to ensure
the possibility of implementing various forms and levels of education, promoting
deliver educational services to consumers;

coordination of the activities of distance learning structures of universities operating in accordance with state educational standards within the framework of the federal infrastructure;

educational policy of distance learning structures of educational institutions, focused on equalizing the conditions for the development of social strata, groups, individuals, and also allowing to accumulate cultural achievements, fulfill the task of legitimizing the semantic universals of human existence, support the interaction of various subcultures, ethnic cultures, generate new pedagogical experience;

the possibility of transferring the learning mode to the mode of self-learning, self-education, the development by the individual of study as a universal lesson in optimal terms;

overcoming the deficit of the socio-emotional context of communication mediated by a computer; elimination of the phenomenon of overattribution, which prevents an adequate comprehensive assessment of communication partners;

Development of reflective abilities, stimulation
independence in the educational process and professional decision
theoretical and applied problems, familiarization with the values ​​and meanings of educational
professional activities, strengthening the role of professionally oriented
forged knowledge;

Effective use of information and telecommunications
technologies in the educational process, primarily as a means of monitoring
and intensification of the educational process and solving organizational problems.

Research objectives. In accordance with the purpose and hypothesis, the following research objectives are defined:

reveal the essence of the educational process in the structures of distance learning as an object of sociotechnical and didactic design and, on this basis, identify new aspects and opportunities, organizational forms and technologies of distance learning;

to analyze the theoretical and methodological foundations of the application of organizational forms and technologies of distance learning in the context of the experience of educational practice of distance learning structures of an educational institution;

systematize the requirements for innovative organizational structures of distance learning educational institutions that can provide:

Preparation of competitive candidates in demand on the labor market
specialists,

The possibility of implementing training for various forms and levels of
education using traditional and innovative technologies
learning,

Promotion of competitive educational services to
consumers;

to formulate a system of principles for the functioning of innovative organizational structures of distance learning educational institutions that ensure the effective use of organizational forms and technologies of distance learning;

determine the role of information and telecommunication technologies in the educational process of distance learning.

In order to verify the reliability of the main results of the study, in addition to their theoretical substantiation, an attempt was made in the dissertation to put into practice the individual elements of the proposed methods and technologies in an educational institution.

Research methods. To solve the set tasks and test the initial assumptions, a set of interrelated research methods adequate to its subject was used: analysis of philosophical, psychological and pedagogical literature; sociological methods (questionnaires, conversations); pedagogical observation; studying and summarizing the experience of distance learning structures; study and analysis of the results of the pedagogical activity of teachers and the educational activity of students. The methods of descriptive statistics and correlation analysis were used to process the results of the survey.

Base experimental work- Samara State Technical University (SamSTU).

Scientific novelty of the research is as follows:

The essence of distance learning as a social
pedagogical phenomenon, which is a system of education
structures that implement distance learning technologies, orient
determined for dominance in the educational process of independent
the work of trainees within the framework of various organizational forms;

A complete, integral system of principles of effective func-
positioning of distance education structures, including the principle
legitimacy of distance education structures, cultural-generative
principle, the principle of coherence of the social-universal and personal
distance education orientation, technology subjectivity principle
distance learning, the principle of vocational training in the structure
distance education;

the role of information and telecommunication technologies in the educational process of distance learning has been revealed, which consists in the use of electronic educational resources for modeling the objects under study and the interactive interaction of the student with the computer, as well as the use of telecommunications for the transmission of educational information, monitoring, management of the educational process and the formation of network professional interaction, allowing to position the use of information and communication technologies in the system of distance learning not as an end in itself, but as a means of intensifying the educational process;

the factors predetermining the prospects for the use of distance learning technologies (demographic situation, depth of use of information and communication technologies, labor market conditions) are determined.

theoretical significance. The results of the study contribute to the development of the fundamental problem of pedagogy - the problem of applying educational forms and technologies of distance learning. These results allow for a broader and at the same time pragmatic

approach to solving social problems of democratization and humanization of education. They expand the scientific understanding of the mechanisms of pedagogical activity, which ensures the self-development of the individual in the process of his education, self-education, self-determination and self-realization in various developing environments of distance learning structures.

Practical significance of the study lies in its focus on improving the practice of applying organizational forms and technologies of distance learning. Creation of such an innovative organizational structure as the Correspondence Polytechnic Institute, the features of which are:

lack of full-time teachers, which makes it easy to maneuver teaching resources, provide the necessary flexibility in organization of the educational process while maintaining scientific and methodological quality control of educational services for the leading departments of Sam-GTU;

the possibility of implementing educational services for adults in within various forms of education and using traditional and innovative learning technologies;

wide opportunities in promoting educational services to their consumers;

high competitiveness in the market of educational services, achieved by optimizing non-production costs, has become one of the real prerequisites for the renewal and modernization of modern education.

Methodological basis of the study were the philosophy of education, pedagogical theories and concepts. In particular, the following were of significant conceptual importance for the present work:

The main provisions of the methodology of pedagogy (M.A. Danilov,
IN AND. Zagvyazinsky, B.C. Ilyin, V.V. Kraevsky, A.M. Novikov, V.M. Full
sky, M.N. Skatkin and others);

The provisions of the philosophy and philosophy of education (D. Bell, B.M. Bim-
Bud, SI. Gessen, J. Dewey, M.S. Kagan, B.T. Likhachev, N.N. Moiseev,
A.I. Rakitov, O. Toffler, G.P. Shchedrovitsky and others);

Modern approaches to the problems of humanization of education
(A.G. Asmolov, M.N. Berulava, E.V. Bondarevskaya, E.D. Dneprov,
V.V. Serikov, E.N. Shiyanov, I.S. Yakimanskaya, and others);

psychological and pedagogical studies of the content and structure of pedagogical activity (V.P. Bespalko, F.N. Gonoblin, T.V. Dobudko, I.A. Zimnyaya, M.V. Klarin, A.K. Markova, L.N. Mitina, V. A. Slastenin, G. V. Sukhodolsky, V. D. Shadrikov and others);

theoretical foundations of management of educational systems and the concept of lifelong education (A.A. Verbitsky, A.D. Ivannikov, A.N. Tikhonov, V.A. Yasvin, etc.);

didactic research on the problems of distance education and adult education (A.A. Andreev, Ya.A. Vagramenko, A.V. Gustyr, A.D. Ivannikov, V.S. Lazarev, V.I. Ovsyannikov, E.S. Polat, V. I. Soldatkin, A. N. Tikhomirov, V. M. Filippov, S. A. Shchennikov, S. G. Vershlovsky, V. S. Zbarovsky, S. Zmeev, Yu. N. Kulyutkin, V. G. Onushkin, V. I. Podobed, G. S. Sukhobskaya, E. P. Tonkonogaya, D. R. Garrson, B. Holmberg, J. Huisman, T. Lajos, V. Gremeniere, A. Szucs, P. Marland, R. Mason, S. Nipper, O. Peters, E. Wagner, CA. Wedemeyer, N. Zeller and others);

scientific research devoted to understanding the state of Russian higher education (N.G. Bagautdinova, G.A. Balykhin, V.I. Dobrenkov, V.Ya. Nechaev, A.D. Ivannikov, G.F. Krasnozhenova, M.A. Lukashenko, Y. M. Neymatov, I. M. Ilyinsky, G. F. Okorokova, E. I. Rybnov, V. A. Sadovnichy, S. S. Smirnov, V. I. Soldatkin, V. P. Tikhomirov, A. N. Tikhonov, V. M. Filippov, Y. G. Fokin, D. V. Chernilevsky, M. Y. Shvetsov, F. E. Sheregi, etc.).

Organization and stages of the study. The work within the framework of this study was carried out from 2001 to 2006. and can be roughly divided into three main stages.

Stage 1 (2001-2003). The study of the pedagogical reality of the educational environment and the experience of functioning of the Correspondence Polytechnic Institute of Samara State Technical University in the aspect of increasing its creative, intellectual potential. The analysis of thematically related studies served as the basis for substantiating the topic of the study, its subject and purpose, for determining the hypothesis, objectives, methodology and methods of research (OOZ-2004). In the course of experimental work, combined with a theoretical analysis of the experience of functioning of distance learning structures of the university, the research hypothesis was tested and refined, organizational and pedagogical principles were concretized and embodied in educational practice, ensuring an increase in the creative, professionally oriented potential of the named environment, experimental data were analyzed and generalized.

Stage 3 (20004-2006). The concept of the study has been developed. Empirical data are theoretically comprehended, on the basis of the analysis of which a normative model for the formation of the educational policy of the Correspondence Polytechnic Institute is built. An analysis of the effectiveness of experimental work was carried out. Dissertation completed.

Reliability of the study results ensured by the compliance of the research methodology with the problem posed; completeness of consideration at the theoretical and experimental levels of the object of study, covering its substantive and procedural characteristics; application of a set of methods adequate to the subject of research; the duration of practical work and the possibility of its reproduction.

Testing and implementation of research results. The results of the study were discussed and approved at the international, all-Russian scientific and practical conferences "Acmeology of vocational education" (Yekaterinburg, 2005), "Personally developing professional education" (Yekaterinburg, 2005), "Culture and Society" (St. Petersburg, 2005), "Social technologies and modern society" (St. Petersburg, 2005), "Modern problems of science and education" (Alushta, 2005), "Innovative processes in higher education" (Krasnodar, 2005), "Problems of education in modern Russia and in the post-Soviet space” (Penza, 2005), “Mathematical methods and information technologies in economics, sociology and education” (Penza, 2005), “Pedagogical management and progressive technologies in education” (Penza, 2005); All-Russian scientific and technical conferences "Synergetics of modern management of socio-economic systems" (Togliatti, 2004), "Socio-economic and innovative problems of the region" (Samara, 2005), "Economics of the Volga region" (Samara, 2005), "Organizational, economic and social problems of higher education management" (Penza, 2005), "Economics of the Volga region" (Samara, 2005), "Problems of informatics in education, management, economics and technology" (Penza, 2005), "Computer technologies in science, practice and education "(Samara, 2005), "Pedagogical process as a cultural activity" (Samara, 2005).

Provisions for defense

1. The experience of using distance learning technologies in Russian education shows:

On the need to improve the organizational forms of distance learning within the framework of the existing system of distance learning, which implements state-certified educational programs at all levels,

What are the organizational forms of distance learning structures with ie
rarchic type of organizational culture in the Russian system of education
formations are evolving towards a market-adhocracy type
organizational culture.

2. The use of organizational forms and technologies of distance learning ensures the socio-economic efficiency of distance learning in the case of the implementation of a complete, holistic system of principles:

-legitimacy of structures distance learning, which assumes that the development of organizational forms and technologies for distance learning for higher education will be carried out within the framework of the federal infrastructure based on the coordination of the activities of universities in order to minimize their economic costs and ensure the competitiveness of distance education structures operating in accordance with state educational standards;

- egalitarianism distance learning, providing education
policy of organizational structures of distance learning, orien
aimed at equalizing the conditions for the development of social strata, groups, individuals
species, as well as to level the negative costs of the Russian system of
education related to the selection, distribution of students according to
types of education, professional occupations, stratification positions
in accordance with the income of parents, through competitive selection;

cultural generative the principle of distance learning, which makes it possible to accumulate cultural achievements, preserving them for transmission to the next generations, to support the interaction of various subcultures, ethnic cultures, territorial and political entities, to generate new pedagogical experience, methodological, educational material; promote the disclosure of the talents of the teaching corps;

consistency of social-universal and personal orientation distance learning, which allows for a compromise between the social

universally-universal and personal orientation of the educational process based on the transfer of the learning mode to the mode of self-learning, self-education, the development of learning by the individual as a universal occupation in optimal terms;

subjectivity distance learning, which provides overcoming the deficit of the socio-emotional context of communication mediated by a computer; elimination of the phenomenon of overattribution, which prevents an adequate comprehensive assessment of communication partners; leveling the peculiar effect of "mechanomorphism"; compensation of "filtered" parameters of non-verbal communication;

principle vocational training in the structures of distance learning, involving:

professional orientation, professional selection, professional consultations, professional adaptation based on the identification and forecasting of needs in professions; description of all characteristics (technological, psychophysiological, informational, sociocultural, etc.) that are associated with the profession;

reduction in distance learning structures of professional experience, including such components as regulatory and informational (requirements for goals, actions, means, situations, orienting information);

translation of professional methods into pedagogically acceptable forms of education; transformation of professional experience into a universal disciplinary fragment; proactive development of disciplinary areas; determination of forms, means, methods, conditions of vocational training.

3. Improving the organizational forms of distance learning is associated with the use of information and communication technologies, which have significant didactic potential, which

can be implemented using electronic educational resources (for the presentation of educational information, current control, etc.) and the widespread use of communication technologies for continuous monitoring and management of the educational process. The use of information and communication technologies in distance education can, to a certain extent, solve organizational problems associated with the formation of corporate relations among students and their familiarization with professional ethics.

At the same time, the use of new information and communication technologies in the distance learning system, potentially acting as a means of intensifying the educational process, is not an end in itself, but a means of intensifying the educational process.

4. The dominant position in the market of educational services will be occupied by innovative organizational structures of distance learning of universities that can ensure the fulfillment of a set of requirements:

ensure the training of competitive specialists in demand on the labor market;

it is easy to maneuver teaching resources that provide flexibility in organizing the educational process while maintaining scientific and methodological quality control of educational services for the leading departments of the university;

ensure the possibility of implementing educational services for adults within the framework of various forms of education using traditional and innovative learning technologies;

have ample opportunities in promoting educational services to their consumers and have high competitiveness in the market of educational services, achieved by optimizing non-production costs.

Distance Learning as a Sociocultural Phenomenon of World Educational Practice

There are various systems of periodization of the history of distance education, carried out from the point of view of certain views on its essence. So, S.A. Shchennikov is looking for the prerequisites for the first historical form of distance education - correspondence education in the 17th century. At the same time, Canadian and American authors (D.R.Garrison, S.Nipper, etc.) identify stages in the development of distance education in accordance with the change of generations of information and communication technologies.

Note that, in our opinion, the period from the middle of the 19th to the middle of the 20th centuries can be considered as the first stage in the development of distance education. And this stage fully deserves the name correspondent. In fairness, it should be said that most researchers indicate the period from the middle of the 19th century as this stage. to 1930, when the decisions, first of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, and then the Collegium of the People's Commissariat of Education, determined the principles and organizational foundations of the Soviet state system of correspondence education in universities and secondary specialized institutions. At the same time, the creation of a system of Soviet correspondence education is singled out as a separate, second stage. In the context of the objectives of our study, the development of the Soviet system of correspondence education is of independent interest and is analyzed in the next paragraph. Here, the periodization of the development of only the foreign system of distance education is considered.

The chronicle of the development of distance education abroad at the first stage can be presented as follows:

1840 - Isaac Pitman's first regular correspondence course in shorthand appeared;

1856 - creation by Ch.Tussen - a teacher of French at the University of Berlin and G. Langenscheidt - a member of the Berlin Society of Modern Languages ​​in Berlin, an institute based on the correspondence form of teaching foreign languages;

1858 - at the University of London, applicants are allowed to defend their theses without prior training (over time, the university moves to the correspondence course of such "externs").

To the same practice of training pass: in 1874 - the University of Illinois (USA); in 1877 - St. Andrew's University (Scotland); in 1889 - Queen's University of Canada; in 1891 - the University of Chicago (USA); in 1906 - the University of Wisconsin (USA); in 1911 - University of Queensland (Australia).

In the second half of the XIX century. and the first three decades of the 20th century. from "correspondence courses" arise private "correspondence schools" and so-called external departments at universities and colleges.

The most famous private correspondent schools of the second half of the 19th - the first third of the 20th centuries. were institutions of further education. They offered short-term vocational training courses (training in shorthand, accounting, translation, safety, etc.) and various pre-exam preparation courses.

External departments of colleges and universities used the correspondence method of teaching both separately and in combination with face-to-face classes outside of school hours, held on campus or in external classrooms remote from campus - evening, Sunday, summer classes and schools. Among the first universities to conduct this kind of training were the University of Chicago (1890), the University of Wisconsin (1906). The functioning of these educational institutions was based on the assumption that teaching can be done not only through direct contact between students and teachers, but through the use of the first stable regular public communication system - mail. These educational institutions did not have an official status, which did not prevent them from being quite profitable and in demand. They started the reputation of "learning at a distance" as a promising business venture with a vast consumer market. As noted in the work: “Correspondence courses”, which were distinguished by a diverse and flexible assortment, a high degree of independence from the place and time of education, an affordable price, the absence of discriminatory restrictions related to gender, nationality, religion, etc., were reasonably in high demand .

The main contingent is a rapidly growing social stratum of literate, adult, enterprising, self-employed people whose careers were directly related to the opportunity to "on the job" in a short time to improve or expand their professional qualifications and thus social mobility and competitiveness. Orientation to the educational needs of this social stratum, on the effective consideration of which the existence of correspondence schools directly depended, largely determined the features of the didactics used, based on the general didactic principles of the “correspondent tradition”.

According to the authors of the work: “These general principles include: - the interpretation of distance education as a form of education based on independent study, requiring the creation of special educational, methodological and certification materials that provide it - a special mobile and interactive educational environment;

Minimizing the number of face-to-face classes (sessions), requiring a special form of these classes that justifies their expediency;

The separation of the roles of the teacher as a teacher, presenting the subject content being studied, and as a consultant and mentor (tutor), directing independent study through two-way didactic communication (dialogue), carried out mostly asynchronously.

Having expressed doubts that the interpretation of this or that concept can be considered as a principle, we agree with the authors of the work in the following. Distance learning a priori assumes a significant share of independent study of a subject by students. Such training should be facilitated as far as possible through the creation of appropriate educational and methodological and certification materials. Of course, minimizing the number of face-to-face classes (sessions), and, accordingly, the requirement for a special form of these classes that justifies their expediency, can be considered as a didactic principle, but rather, this is a characteristic feature of distance education. As for the division of the roles of a teacher as a teacher (in the usual sense of the word) and a tutor (consultant - to put it more simply, the organizer of the student's independent work), the growth of the "consulting" component in the teacher's activity is also his characteristic feature of distance education.

The educational process in the structures of distance learning as an object of didactic analysis and design

The term "distance education" has firmly entered the world pedagogical thesaurus. The industry of educational services under the name "distance education" is developing. It impresses not only with the huge number of students, the number of educational institutions, the size and complexity of the infrastructure, the scale of investments and cash flow, but also with its results (by no means always positive). The development of distance education was recognized as a key area of ​​UNESCO's main educational programs "Education for All", "Education for Life", "Education without Borders". At the same time, we note that so far there is no generally accepted definition of the term "distance education".

“Distance education contains a remarkable paradox: it has confidently asserted its existence, but is not able to define what it is,” the paper noted.

Perhaps this is due to the wide variety of educational services and distance education structures. Perhaps the reason lies in the inherent polysemy of pedagogy of its categories - a rare concept related to education, has a generally accepted definition. So, in the understanding of the ITC (Instructional Telecommunications Council (ITC) www.itcnetwork.org; www.sinclair.edu/community/itc) distance education is:

“The process of distributing and delivering educational services or opportunities for the use of educational resources to locations outside a classroom, building, or center, or to another classroom, building, or center, using video, audio, computer, multimedia communications, or some combination thereof with other traditional delivery methods.

This definition fully reflects the "translational" understanding of distance education, which is predominantly characteristic of the American system. A shorter definition, which has official status in the United States (American Council on education (ACE)), is as follows:

"Distance education is a system and process of connecting students with distributed educational resources."

As you can see, there is the same translational approach to distance education, and not entirely correct, since any educational resources are distributed somewhere and somehow. Apparently, they mean electronic educational resources, but this can only be guessed at.

Definition from the short guide to DL often mentioned in American sources (by Barry Willis), posted on the website of the University of Idaho (College of Engineering University of Idaho, Distance Education at a Glance, 1995 www.uidaho.edu/evo/newhtml/eomain .htm) reads:

“At its most basic level, distance education occurs when teacher and student(s) are separated by physical distance, and technology (i.e. voice, image, data and print technology), often combined with face-to-face communication, used to bridge this gap.”

In fact, the teacher and student(s) are always separated by a physical distance, so this definition can hardly be recognized as correct, although its meaning is quite clear in the limit.

As another official definition of DL in the United States (the source is the glossary of the National Center for Education Statistics of the US Department of Education (The Condition of Education 1999. Glossary)), which is the main one in official statistical studies, the following is used:

"Educational or training courses delivered to remote ("off-campus") locations using audio, video or computer technology."

A peculiar interpretation of this definition is the definition (1998) used in US law (Passage of P.L. 105-244, Amendments to the Higher Education Act of 1965. New legislative definition of distance education (Title IV, Part G, Section 488):

“The term 'distance education' means an educational process that is characterized by the separation, in time or location, of teacher and student. In this sense, the term may include courses offered primarily through (1) television, radio, or computer transmission (open air, closed network, cable, microwave, or satellite television); (2) audio or computer conference; (3) video cassette or disk or (4) by correspondence" (mail correspondence - comp.) ".

The definition of DETC - one of the largest centers in the United States for the accumulation, analysis and exchange of information about DL in private educational institutions in the United States - is formulated as follows:

“Distance education (or correspondence-correspondence education) is registration and training in an educational institution that provides educational materials arranged in a certain sequence and logic, intended for independent study by the student. At the end of each lesson, the student faxes, mails or uses a computer to send a test paper to qualified teachers for assessment, commentary and guidance on the study of the subject. Corrected test papers are returned to the student; an interchange is established that ensures interpersonal relations between the tutor and the student.

Accordingly, according to Capella University, which is part of DETC, a private university specializing in distance business education for business people (Capella University: Discover Distance Learning: What is Distance Learning):

“The term ‘distance learning’ encompasses a wide range of educational services, from non-accredited continuing education courses to accredited degree programs, where students, their faculty and peers predominantly teach and learn at a distance rather than in the classroom. To connect people, distance learning programs use a wide range of tools - interactive computer technology (including the World Wide Web and email), telephone, fax, and regular mail.

A slightly different view of the essence of distance education is presented in its definition from section IV "Modes of education provision" of cross-qualification variables of the latest version of ISCED:

“Learning at a distance. Education is implemented through a combination of postal, radio, television electronic communications, telephone and newspapers with limited direct contact between the student and the teacher or the complete absence of it. Teaching is carried out mainly through specially prepared printed, audiovisual or other materials provided to students or study groups.

According to the definition given by University of South Africa (UNISAO) researchers:

The role and importance of information and communication technologies in improving the organizational forms of distance learning

In almost all concepts of distance education, information and communication technologies are considered as an integral component of distance learning. And this is not surprising, and for two reasons. The essence of the first is that if you mentally "remove" these technologies from consideration, then nothing better than the Soviet system of distance learning will work. We have already said a lot about the quality of such distance education, so there is no point in repeating it. The second reason is related to the a priori assumption that information and communication technologies have significant didactic potential. This potential within the framework of distance (and traditional) education can be realized using multimedia programs for educational purposes (for presenting educational information, current control, etc.) and the widespread use of communication technologies for continuous monitoring of the educational process.

Thus, practically all the problems of the development of distance education are reduced in an elementary way, in our opinion, to two: multimedia in education; network testing.

In other words, if the quality of education using multimedia programs is an order of magnitude higher than with traditional education, and network testing is able to provide constant, high-quality and objective monitoring of the level of knowledge of students, then it will make sense to talk about higher professional education as an open, available, etc. system.

In modern psychological and pedagogical literature devoted to the problems of distance education, the hypothesis formulated above is considered practically an axiom - in fact, the potential capabilities of a computer as a means of education are fetishized. Therefore, within the framework of our study, it seems appropriate to discuss these possibilities as objectively as possible.

So, about the problem of multimedia in education.

First of all, it makes sense to define the terminology, since there are many definitions, for example, of such a phenomenon as multimedia. Some of them are listed below.

1. To qualify as "multimedia", an application must include two or more of the following: simple or animated graphics, presentation, or video, audio, or text and numeric data.

2. Multimedia is generally defined as the combination of text, graphics, audio, video and animation on a computer.

3. Today, multimedia, in general, means the use of copyright programs such as HyperCard or MacroMind Director to create and reproduce multimedia products.

4. Multimedia - computer mixing of graphics, sound and video.

5. The term "multimedia" describes a new problem-based technology that is based on the multi-sensory nature of humans and the ability of computers to transmit various types of information.

6. Multimedia is a computer interactive integrated system that provides animated computer graphics and text, speech and high-quality sound, still images and moving video ...

7. Multimedia is a modern computer information technology that allows you to combine text, sound, video, graphics and animation (animation) in a computer system ...

8. Multimedia is a complex of hardware and software that allows you to combine information presented in various forms (text, sound, graphics, video, animation) and work with it interactively.

Among the features and advantages of multimedia include the following: - storage of a large amount of very different information on one medium; - increase (detail) on the screen of the image or its most interesting fragments while maintaining image quality; - comparison of the image and its processing by various software tools for research or educational purposes; - selection in the text or other visual material accompanying the image of "hot words (areas)", for which immediate reference or any other explanatory (including visual) information is obtained (hypertext and hypermedia technologies); - the implementation of continuous musical or any other audio accompaniment corresponding to a static or dynamic visual range; - the use of video fragments from films, video recordings, etc., the “freeze frame” function, frame-by-frame “scrolling” of the video; - inclusion in the contents of the disk of databases, image processing techniques, animation (accompanying the story about the composition of the picture with a graphic animation demonstration of geometric constructions), etc.; - connection to the global network Internet; - work with various applications (text, graphic and sound editors, cartographic information); - creation of own "galleries";

- "remembering the path traveled" and creating "bookmarks" on the interest I, popping the screen "page";

Automatic viewing of the entire content of the product ("slide show") or the creation of an animated and voiced "guide-guide" for the product ("talking and showing user manual"); inclusion of game components with information components into the product;

- "free" navigation through the information and access to the main menu (enlarged content), to the full table of contents or even from the program at any point in the product.

Without going into details, which of the aforementioned approaches to the definition of the term “multimedia” has a greater reason, further, in accordance with the established terminological practice, according to which each researcher is free to give his own definitions, under multimedia programs for educational purposes we will understand a software product that represents various types of information (text, video, sound, graphics, animation) and provides the student with an interactive mode of work, specially created or adapted to the educational process.

At the same time, interactivity in the mentioned interpretation is quite fully described by the following statement:

“Interactivity contains a wide range of possibilities for influencing the course and content of information: controlling objects on the screen with the mouse; linear navigation...; hierarchical navigation...; dialog help function...; Feedback...; constructive interaction...; reflective interactions...; simulation interactivity...; uncontrolled contextual interactivity...; controlled contextual interactivity...” .

Experience in creating an innovative educational structure for distance learning - Correspondence Polytechnic Institute

Describing key events in the history of adult education in the USSR, the authors noted:

“Since the end of the 1950s, much attention has been paid to higher correspondence and evening education for adults employed in production. If in the 1945/46 academic year there were 28% of all students in the evening and correspondence departments, then in the 1960/61 academic year their number reached almost 52%. Now the focus on generalists is becoming a priority. Benefits are expanding for on-the-job trainees.

From the middle to the end of the 50s. The country occupies a leading position in higher education in the world.

Since the 60s, there has been a widespread progressive approval of the course for the priority implementation of the developing function of adult education in the context of the unfolding scientific and technological revolution and scientific and technological progress.

This thesis is clearly illustrated by examples from the history of the Samara State Technical University (SamSTU).

So, in 1951, at the Kuibyshev Industrial Institute (as SamSTU used to be called), an evening department was organized at Gidrostroy

(in Stavropol-on-Volga). It trained engineers in the specialties "Electrical stations, networks and systems", "Hydrotechnical construction". At that distant time, the branch was located in the building of a secondary school in the village of Komsomolsk. The assembly hall and two classrooms were used for classes in the evening. Instead of four days a week, set according to the plan, students studied for three days, and laboratory and practical classes were not held. The living conditions of the students of the branch were not easy either:

“Twenty students of the branch lived in the building of the hydrotechnical college. All of them were placed in one room with an area of ​​48 square meters. m. It had one small table and six stools. There was no washbasin in the hostel. In such conditions, they lived, and worked, and studied.

In 1956, the evening department of the Kuibyshev Industrial Institute was opened in the city of Novokuibyshevsk at the Novokuibyshev Oil Refinery. In 1957, the Kuibyshev Industrial Institute had evening faculties in the years. Kuibyshev, Stavropol, Chkalov, Ulyanovsk and an evening branch in Novokuibyshevsk, where 1838 students studied. In 1959, an evening department was established in the city of Otradnoe.

In 1960, on the basis of the order of the Minister of Higher and Secondary Specialized Education of the RSFSR No. 137 of February 15, 1960 "On the expansion of the network of evening and correspondence faculties and educational and consulting points in the universities of the Ministry of Higher Education of the RSFSR" at the Kuibyshev Polytechnic Institute named after

V.V. Kuibyshev, a correspondence faculty was organized. It was created on the basis of educational and consulting points and branches of various institutes, including the All-Union Correspondence Polytechnic, Machine-Building, Energy; Moscow petrochemical named after I.M. Gubkin, Kazan Chemical Technology and a number of other universities. Georgy Mikhailovich Ladygin, Associate Professor of the Department of Engineering Graphics, was elected the first dean of the full-time faculty in 1960. The plan for enrolling students in the first year in 1960 was 750 people, and until 1965 it was maintained at this level. In 1962, the enrollment of students in the evening and correspondence departments exceeded the enrollment in the daytime. In the same 1962, more than half of the students of the institute studied on the job. In general, during the first years of the existence of the correspondence faculty, training was conducted in nineteen specialties of various profiles, and over ten years more than three thousand students were trained.

The main part of the students studied in the city of Kuibyshev, and for students living in the Bezymyanka area, the correspondence department had an educational and consulting center in the Kirovsky district of the city. Most of the employees of the aviation plant and the Progress plant were engaged in this UKP. Classes at that distant time were held three times a week in the evening system. The UKP also worked in the city of Chapaevsk. Later, the Kirov UKP was disbanded, and the Chapaevsky UKP was transferred to the evening education system at the Faculty of Engineering and Technology. Such a rapid growth of the network of branches, faculties, departments, educational and consulting centers had both positive and negative aspects. On the one hand, the Kuibyshev Industrial Institute gave a "start in life" to such polytechnic institutes as Togliatti, Orenburg, Ulyanovsk. On the other hand, as rightly noted in the work:

“There was a clear disproportion in the admission of students to the day and evening departments. One of the ideas of the future communist society about the harmonious combination of mental and physical labor began to be implemented faster than all the others. True, it is hardly possible to speak of a harmonious combination of these two forms of labor; rather, there was a dissonance ... ".

Thus, in the 60s. 2326 engineers were trained in KPTI by correspondence course. Table data. 4.2, 4.3 give a sufficient idea of ​​the scale of the educational activities of the correspondence faculty in the 70s.

The innovative way of development of the sphere of education causes a corresponding change in the goals, forms and methods of management. In conditions when intellectual property is not protected by law, it is necessary to find new forms of relations between commercial structures at an educational institution and management, as well as improve the organizational forms of management of educational institutions.

To improve the organizational forms of management of educational institutions operating in a market economy, it is necessary to follow the principles of marketing and a differentiated approach, taking into account the specifics of the functioning of these institutions in a particular region. Solving problems in the field of education is possible only if the policy of each educational institution is changed in the direction of development based on the principles of marketing and program-target management, carried out on the basis of the principles of marketing and program-target management, carried out on the basis of the development and implementation of marketing programs for a specific target market educational services. Targeted marketing programs, a set of works on the development of regulatory frameworks for the commercial implementation of the results of scientific research and innovative developments, as well as the formation of an organizational and economic mechanism for managing the elements of the education system on their basis, can provide conditions for solving the problems of adapting educational institutions to market relations.

As a result of the development of science and technology, communication methods are changing so rapidly that there is a need for continuous professional education, the leading component of which is professional educational institutions. The system of continuous education can be represented by a set of educational programs, institutions and information and communication networks focused on meeting the cognitive needs of the individual throughout life.

Today, entrepreneurs of all industries need specialists who can perform integrated functions. Identification of the features and priority of these functions is the task of the management system of educational institutions that develop and implement programs for the development of the educational process.

To implement plans to improve the mechanism for managing the education sector, in our opinion, the following is necessary:

• - carrying out the integration of primary and secondary education units to bring secondary vocational educational institutions closer to the needs of the regions;
• - development of amendments to existing legislation to streamline integrated institutions with the right to implement curricula for primary, secondary and primary higher education (on the basis of universities);
• - creation of normative acts of state certification of scientific and research activities of the university and its relationship with the educational process.

Under the Ministry of Education of the region, it is recommended to create departments (groups) of continuous primary, secondary general and vocational education, as well as the creation of task forces under the Ministry that study educational issues (on training programs, vocational education, university, academic, etc.), whose activities coordinated by a collegiate body under the Ministry of Education. It is expedient to create information and distribution centers - to organize job fairs.

The economic and social changes taking place in the country have revealed a clear trend towards the convergence of educational systems, which manifests itself in the emergence of similarities in structures and functions, despite the fact that the country's leadership assigns an important role to vocational education in the process of socio-economic development, the need to increase the level of priority of vocational education needs broad public support.

The regions today need a new system for training independent competent professionals of various profiles, in contrast to the previously existing system for training specialists in mass professions, which creates the basis for the integrated development of the social and economic structure. In other words, the development of creative thinking of specialists graduating from professional institutions can be viewed as an integrated factor in solving social, economic and personal problems.

In accordance with the instructions of the Ministry of Education of Russia, in a professional lyceum that trains skilled workers and technicians, when mastering a related profession, a distinction is made between the implementation of standards for primary and secondary vocational education. This hinders the creation of a system of continuous education, the provision of opportunities for integrating its levels in the educational process. Although professional institutions have such opportunities, neither the Ministry nor the Academy of Vocational Education of Russia, which unites workers of primary, secondary and higher education at various levels, does not solve the problem of meeting the needs of society.

It is more expedient to solve the problem of integration of primary and secondary vocational education institutions at the level of subjects of the Federation, at the regional level.

Colleges of vocational training, which have received priority in integrating programs of primary, secondary vocational education of science-intensive, high-tech industries, today face a low level of educational preparation of applicants for mass school, which does not correspond to the level of college admission requirements. In this regard, in modern theory and practice of management organization, much attention is paid to program-target management structures that solve the problem of interfunctional coordination and integration of various activities in an organized manner, subordinating them to the achievement of certain goals. Such forms of management organization make it possible to solve the problems of an effective combination of "vertical" and "horizontal" connections in management, the optimal ratio of centralization.

An important element of all new organizational forms are management information systems, the task of which is to link together operations that are spatially and organizationally separated from each other. Cost management systems have become widespread in the organization of state administration (ministry), the task of which is to determine how federal programs are being implemented in terms of results achieved in comparison with the resources expended. Such a system can ensure that each program or ministry manager has clear program objectives and clarity about what the end results are to be. The concept of a management system by objectives can be expressed by the following basic principles:

• - regulation of goals for each program and subordinating them to the achievement of the effectiveness of all activities for the implementation of the program;
• - the program should have one specific manager responsible for the final results and having sufficient authority to manage the program;
• - indicators for evaluating the results should correspond to the set goals and the tasks arising from them;
• - the timing of the implementation of all elements of the program should be developed in a planned manner for all indicators, including the indicator of resource use;
• - constant and timely adjustment of actual results with planned targets.

The development of such a system begins with an analysis of the main information needs for higher authorities and the formulation of general, final goals and a system of goals of lower levels that determine intermediate results. Matrix management structures are quite effective when used in the research activities of universities. The management of research and development financed by the government (federal, regional) should be carried out mainly by the program-target method.

Major programs should be managed by the Ministry of Education, carrying out their coordination, general management, organizational services and control over all research and development in the region (country) under the relevant programs.

Many specialists in the field of research and development management believe that it is more appropriate to have specialized bodies for the targeted management of individual programs than to create integrated management bodies. The organization of research activities in educational institutions can be carried out both within the framework of a linear-functional structure, and program-targeted. Within the educational institution, fundamental and applied research is carried out by a limited number of departments for which traditional forms of management are acceptable. When performing research tasks of national importance, special programs are developed, for the management of which a management body can be created that performs mainly control and coordinating functions, since direct organizational and scientific management cannot, for the most part, be concentrated at one level due to the diverse content and creative nature of the work performed. This is due to the fact that mainly not only educational institutions, but also research and design institutes, commercial and industrial complexes, financial institutions, and various funds participate in specialized educational and research programs. The powers of the coordinating bodies are limited to collecting information, evaluating the planned and actual indicators for the implementation of the program goal, agreeing on individual decisions and preparing proposals for senior management.

The organization of management in the field of education in perfect conditions is based on a set of principles, methods and forms that differ significantly from those used in other areas of activity. Therefore, in order to assess the mechanism and organizational form of management, it is necessary to consider the field of education as a whole separately from other socio-cultural areas of activity. Under the influence of the requirements of scientific and technological progress and a market economy, a new concept of assessing the quality of education and the tasks of managing them is being formulated in the country, which is reflected in the use of appropriate organizational forms of management.

Considering various alternatives for organizing work to ensure the quality level of education and its maintenance, it must be remembered that their construction follows from the goals of education and, at the same time, is determined by the nature of market relations. At the same time, the quality of education can be understood as the degree of compliance of its program with the requirements of society and the economy to perform certain functions after receiving education.

However, one cannot unequivocally approach the assessment of the quality of all levels of education, since the objective and market assessment of the quality of education can be very contradictory and are determined by the ratio of supply and demand, the competition of educational institutions of various forms of ownership, the organization and economic potential of consumers. In the absence of state control over the quality of education, the formation of requirements for it, education actually turns into an uncontrollable process. This situation cannot be viewed from the standpoint of "bad-good", it is necessary that higher education clearly distinguish between the training of research personnel and qualified specialists for the service sector, as the basis of the future "information society". This is exacerbated today by the fact that the commercial aspects of sectoral development are able to displace the necessary fundamental knowledge from higher education, the level of quality of which is correspondingly reduced. In this regard, it is necessary to distinguish between organizational and methodological management of educational and commercial activities in professional institutions. At the same time, the functioning of structures that differ in the nature of scientific and practical activities within the framework of one educational complex needs to be coordinated on the basis of the creation of a new economic mechanism linking all these areas. To date, a traditional organizational structure of higher educational institutions has developed, the activities of which are implied in the following areas: educational, methodological, educational, R&D and administrative and economic.

Educational, methodological and educational activities are carried out by faculties, special research units, and administrative and economic work is performed by service and auxiliary economic units.

Under the conditions of market relations, the role of the marketing, commercial and information functions of a professional institution increases dramatically. The degree of complexity of the structure of the organizational system of professional institutions depends on the composition and nature of the functions performed by the system. The main goal is to realize the educational (educational) and scientific and practical potential of the institution. An enlarged diagram of the organizational structure for managing the commercial activities of a higher educational institution is shown in fig. 3

The processes of managing educational activities performed by faculties are well studied and implemented. However, the management of the commercial activities of professional educational institutions requires the application of a marketing orientation and the implementation of additional activities. Despite the fact that the concept of marketing allows you to analyze, to the maximum satisfaction of consumer demand for educational and research services, it is only a guide to planning. At the same time, focusing on the consumer means studying the needs of the market and developing plans to meet them.

Goods and services in this case act as a means to an end, and not the end itself. From the position of integrated marketing, all types of commercial activities are coordinated to meet the interests of consumers of services of educational institutions. Depending on the range of services produced, the nature of the participation of marketing specialists is changing, which is reflected in the organizational structure of marketing departments. The service (department, group) of marketing performs the study of target markets for educational, research services and other types of commercial activities, and also carries out planning based on the development of marketing programs, the complexity of which depends on the quality of educational services, based on the mission of the university, the content of its activities and industry specifics.

First of all, the commodity complex of an educational institution is being investigated, which includes methods, methods, activities that can make an educational institution more attractive and interesting for consumers.

One of the problems of professional secondary and higher educational institutions is the problem of employment of graduates, especially at the regional level, therefore it is rational to have information and distribution units for organizing job fairs in the management structure of these institutions, which can be elements of marketing departments. A new approach to the training of workers, professionals and specialists gives grounds to take a fresh look at the problem of educating students, the relationship between the team and the individual, the role of the individual in the team in the team.

Rice. 3.

This requires the development of a system of continuity in educational work at each stage of vocational training, as well as self-education, the role of the public, the social environment and the family. There is a need for a permanent Bank of Information (at the regional and federal levels) on changes in the content of labor, territorial and professional needs in new professions.

At the same time, the outstripping nature of the development of education in terms of primary vocational education in relation to the country's economy is necessary, since this is of decisive importance for the formation of the labor market, ensuring effective employment and developing human resources. At the same time, the regionalization and municipalization of vocational (primary, secondary) education, corresponding to the real potential of the Russian economy, is becoming relevant.

Regional educational management structures need to coordinate the efforts of scientific and educational institutions of the regions to introduce applied developments into the practice of continuing professional education, as well as to ensure coordination of interactions with international organizations in the field of introducing best practices into the practice of educational institutions.

On the basis of professional educational institutions, it is expedient for the governing bodies of regional entities to organize training and retraining of socially unprotected layers of the adult population.

Pedagogy 9-16

Methods of organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities of students: verbal, visual, reproductive, search. The problem of improving teaching methods in a modern educational organization.

Method (literally, the way to something) means a way to achieve the goal, a certain way of ordered activity.

The teaching method is a method of ordered interconnected activities of the teacher and students, activities aimed at solving the problems of education, upbringing and development in the learning process.

Teaching methods are one of the most important components of the educational process. Without appropriate methods of activity, it is impossible to realize the goals and objectives of training, to achieve the assimilation by trainees of a certain content of educational material.

Verbal teaching methods

The verbal teaching methods include a story, a lecture, a conversation, etc. In the process of explaining them, the teacher sets out and explains the educational material through the word, and the students actively perceive and assimilate it through listening, memorization and comprehension.

Visual teaching methods

The source of information is contemplation, perception of the surrounding reality.

Methods: demonstration, illustration.

Demonstration - visual acquaintance of students with phenomena, processes, objects in their natural form in order to reveal the dynamics of the studied phenomena, their appearance and internal structure.

Demonstration requirements: The object must be clearly visible; attention must be paid to the essential properties and qualities of the object; move from external to internal, from whole to part.

Illustration - showing and perception by students of objects, processes, phenomena in their symbolic image with the help of posters, maps, drawings, diagrams.

Requirements: must be combined with verbal methods, use the optimal number of illustrations, use technical means for teaching, must be aesthetically correct, beautiful, evoke aesthetic feelings.

Reproductive and problem-search teaching methods

Reproductive and problem-search methods of teaching are singled out, first of all, on the basis of an assessment of the degree of creative activity of students in the knowledge of new concepts, phenomena and laws. They are distinguished, first of all, on the basis of an assessment of the degree of creative activity of students in the knowledge of new concepts, phenomena and laws.

10. Methods of motivation and stimulation of educational and cognitive activity of students: cognitive games, educational discussions, rewards, punishments, etc. The problem of the optimal choice of teaching methods .

Educational games. A valuable method of stimulating interest in learning can be called the method of cognitive games, which is based on the creation of game situations in the educational process. The game has long been used as a means of arousing interest in learning. In the practice of the work of teachers, board and simulator games are used, with the help of which history, wildlife, types of aircraft and ships are studied. A valuable method of stimulating interest in learning can be called the method of cognitive games, which is based on the creation of game situations in the educational process. The game has long been used as a means of arousing interest in learning. In the practice of the work of teachers, board and simulator games are used, with the help of which history, wildlife, types of aircraft and ships are studied. Educational Discussions. The methods of stimulating and motivating learning also include the method of creating a situation of cognitive dispute. It is known that truth is born in a dispute. But the controversy also causes increased interest in the topic. Some teachers are skilled at using this method of activating learning. First, they skillfully use the historical facts of the struggle of scientific points of view on a particular problem. However, the teacher can create a dispute situation at any time by asking the most trivial question “Who thinks otherwise?”. And if such a technique causes controversy, then the trainees themselves are divided into supporters and opponents of one or another explanation and wait with interest for the reasoned conclusion of the teacher. So the educational dispute acts as a method of stimulating interest in learning. Great results in this area are achieved with the help of electronic discussions. promotion - a way of expressing a public positive assessment of the behavior and activities of an individual student or team. Its stimulating role is determined by the fact that in not)! contains public recognition of the mode of action that is chosen and carried out by the student in life. Experiencing feelings of satisfaction, the student experiences a rise in vivacity and energy, self-confidence and further movement forward. Punishment - this is such an impact on the personality of the student, which expresses the condemnation of actions and deeds that are contrary to the norms of social behavior, and forces students to steadily follow them. Punishment corrects the child's behavior, makes it clear to him where and what he made a mistake, causes a feeling of dissatisfaction, discomfort, shame. A. S. Makarenko called this state "pushing out of the general ranks." This state gives rise to the student's need to change his behavior. But punishment in no case should cause the child suffering - neither physical nor moral. There is no depression in punishment, but there is an experience of alienation from the team, even if it is temporary and small.

11. Methods of control and self-control in learning: written work, laboratory and practical work. Types of control: current, thematic, final, frontal, differentiated, machine and machineless, programmed control. The variety of teaching methods in a general educational organization, the factors that determine their choice. Methods of written control. They are aimed at analyzing the documentary material, determining the nature of the mistakes made by students and ways to overcome them. The following methods of written control are common: tests, works, dictations, written tests, control tests of a programmable type (list of questions and possible answers .; Methods of laboratory control. These methods provide an opportunity to check the level of formation of the ability to apply the acquired knowledge in practice. They are aimed at testing the students' ability to use laboratory equipment (ammeter, barometer, voltmeter, thermometer, etc.) The laboratory control method also covers written and graphic work, solving experimental problems requiring the implementation of experiments.

Types of control: current control is carried out in everyday work in order to check the assimilation of the previous material and identify gaps in the knowledge of students. It is carried out with the help of the teacher's systematic observation of the work of the class as a whole and of each student individually at all stages of education. Thematic control carried out periodically as the passage of a new topic, section and aims to systematize the knowledge of students. This type of control takes place in repetitive-generalizing lessons and prepares for control activities: oral and written tests. Final control is held at the end of a quarter, half a year of the entire academic year, as well as at the end of education in primary, incomplete secondary and complete secondary schools. oral frontal control (survey) requires a series of logically interconnected questions on a small amount of material. With a frontal survey from students, the teacher expects short, concise answers from the floor. Usually it is used to repeat and consolidate educational material in a short period of time. The most widely used types programmed control when students are asked to choose the correct answer from several possible answers. The advantage of machine control is that the machine is impartial. At the same time, this method does not reveal the way to obtain the result, difficulties, typical mistakes and other nuances that do not pass the attention of the teacher during oral and written control.

12. Educational and educational functions of control and evaluation of knowledge and skills. educational function is to foster a sense of responsibility and active learning activities. A teacher who exercises control correctly has the ability to constantly encourage students to improve their knowledge and skills, to develop the need for self-control.

Assessment of knowledge and skills.

Requirements for the assessment of knowledge and skills:

· Objectivity. The assessment should reflect the actual level of assimilation of the educational material provided for by the program, as well as how consciously and concisely the student owns this material, uses it independently.

· Individual character means that the assessment fixes the result of a purely individual process, the level of knowledge of a particular student.

· Glasnost. The grade, once announced, has an impact on the student to whom it is given, as it receives corrective information. Evaluation also has an impact on the group, which correlates knowledge and skills with the requirements of control and results in a form of co-evaluation on their part.

· Validity. The assessment should be motivated and persuasive, correctly correlated with self-assessment and the opinion of the student team. Validity is a necessary condition for maintaining the authority of the teacher and the prestige of his assessment in the eyes of students.

In pedagogical theory and practice, it is customary to distinguish between final and current grades.

final grade characterizes the achievements of students in general, the level of their training in accordance with the requirements of the curriculum.

current score is a pedagogical tool that regulates the interaction between a teacher and a student in the educational process. The teacher individually shows the student the level of his specific achievements, efforts. According to the current assessment, one can judge the student's diligence and diligence, but it is difficult to draw a conclusion about his general development. That is why the final score should not be the arithmetic average of the current ones.

There are no generally accepted evaluation criteria yet. The starting point in the assessment is the orientation towards the desired result. The achieved real result is compared with it.

Learning activities can be assessed as follows (according to approximate criteria):

· "5" - for a deep and complete mastery of the content of the educational material, in which the student is easily oriented, the conceptual apparatus, the ability to connect theory with practice, solve practical problems, express and justify their judgments. An excellent mark implies a competent, logical presentation of the answer (both verbally and in writing), high-quality external design;

"4" - if the student has fully mastered the educational material, owns the conceptual apparatus, orients himself in the studied material, consciously applies knowledge to solve practical problems, correctly states the answer, but the content, form of the answer have some inaccuracies;

"3" - if the student reveals knowledge and understanding of the main provisions of the educational material, but presents it incompletely, inconsistently, makes inaccuracies in the definition of concepts, in the application of knowledge to solve practical problems, does not know how to substantiate his judgments conclusively;

"2" - if the student has disparate, unsystematic knowledge, does not know how to distinguish between the main and the secondary, makes mistakes in defining concepts that distort their meaning, randomly and uncertainly presents the material, cannot apply knowledge to solve practical problems;

· "1" - for complete ignorance and misunderstanding of the educational material or refusal to answer.

Organizational forms of education. The problem of organizational forms of education in the history of pedagogy.

The form of education (organization of the form of education) is the interaction between the teacher and the student, regulated by the definition, pre-established order and mode. In the history of world pedagogy, a variety of forms of organization of education are known. Their emergence, development and gradual death are connected with the needs of a developed society. Each new stage in the development of society leaves its mark on the organization of education. In didactics, 3 systems of organizational design of the pedagogical process are known:

1. individual training and education

2. class-order system

3. lecture and seminar system

The main form of the educational process (since primitive society) is an individual form of education. Essence: the student performs the task individually in the house of the teacher or student. This form was the only one in ancient times, the Middle Ages, and in some countries until the 18th century. The main advantage of individual learning is that it allows you to fully reflect the individuality of the content, methods and pace of the child's learning activities. The value of individual learning since the 16th century. decreases and gives way to an individual-group form of organization of the educational process: the lesson is conducted with a group of children of different ages, whose level of preparation was different. The teacher worked with each student separately. At the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries, there was a surge in new educational needs in Europe. Consequently, the concept of collective learning appears, which was first introduced in the schools of Belarus and Ukraine (16th century), and became the embryo of the class-lesson system of education. The theorist of this system was Ya.A. Kamensky.

At present, the organization of learning, modified and filled, is predominant in the schools of the world. The essence of the classroom system:

1. students of the same age and level of training - a class. which is maintained for the entire period of study;

2. the class works according to a single annual plan and program, according to the schedule.

3. the main unit of classes is a lesson.

4. the lesson is devoted to 1 subject, topic;

5. The work of students is supervised by a teacher who evaluates the results of their studies in their subject.

Advantages of the class-lesson system: a clear organization and structure, simple management of the educational process, the ability for children to communicate with each other and ensure consistency and consistency in achieving knowledge.

Disadvantages: the class-lesson system focuses on the average student (difficulties for the weak and delays the development of abilities for the strong), does not provide organizational communication between older and younger students.

Definition of the principle of education and the basis for the classification of the creation of principles. Principles of education

5. System of principles

Lecture 3 The content of the educational process

Basic concepts of the theory of education

2. Content blocks of the educational process

2. Systematization of the content of education

Building the content of a general education school based on the components of the basic culture

Lecture 4 Methods and means of education

1. The concept of the method of education

2. Classification of methods of education

3. Basic means of education

Lecture 5 Forms of organization of the educational process

The concept of the form of organization of the educational process

The variety of forms of educational work

3. Algorithm for preparing and conducting any form of educational work

Fundamental ideas and techniques for constructing creative forms of educational work

Teacher's Oath

Lecture 6 Educational models, concepts and theories

Basic models of education and their paradigm representation

Pedagogy of authority

3. The paradigm of pedagogy of the manipulation of education

Author's pedagogical manipulations of education

Other possible approaches to identifying educational models

Lecture 7 The totality of pedagogical paradigms in modern theory and practice of education

Paradigm Definition

The main pedagogical paradigms of the XXI century

Cognitive Information Paradigm

4. Personal paradigm

Cultural paradigm

Competency paradigm

Paradigm ratio

Basic principles of harmonization of educational paradigms

Lecture 8 National originality of education

Theoretical foundations of the organization of the process of education, taking into account the national factor

Accounting for national and regional traditions in the process of education

Formation of a culture of interethnic and interethnic communication

Lecture 9 Education of tolerance among schoolchildren

The concept of "tolerance"

2. Principles of education of tolerance

The content of the education of tolerance

Lecture 10 Civic education as a factor in the socialization of schoolchildren

1. Genesis of the problem of civic education of schoolchildren

Cultural and historical prerequisites for the formation of the problem of civic education

3. The current state of the problem of civic education as a factor in the socialization of schoolchildren

Lecture 11 Possible concept of civic education of schoolchildren

Lecture 12 The system of civic education of schoolchildren

The main components of the system of civic education of schoolchildren

2. Pedagogical conditions for the implementation of the system of civic education of schoolchildren

Lecture 13 School self-government: yesterday, today, tomorrow

2. Self-government and the Russian school

3. Models of school student self-government

Lecture 14 Social Pedagogy

1. The concept of socialization

2. Factors of socialization

Pedagogical structure of the process of socialization

The social experience of the child as the basis of his socialization

1.2. learning theory

Learning as a didactic process

Functions of the learning process

Methodological foundations of training

Lecture 2 Laws, patterns and principles of learning

The concept of law, patterns and principles of learning

Overview of the basic laws and patterns of learning

Principles and rules of training

4. Relationship of learning principles

Lecture 3. The content of education

The concept and essence of the content of education

2. The main theories of the formation of the content of education

3. State educational standard

Curricula, programs, textbooks and teaching aids

Lecture 4 Teaching methods and tools

The concept and essence of the method, technique and rules of learning

2. Classification of teaching methods

Means of education

4. Choice of teaching methods and means

Lecture 5 Forms of learning

The concept of the form of education

Formation and improvement of forms of education

Forms of organization of the educational process

4. Types of training

Lecture 6 Diagnostics and control in training

Diagnostics of the quality of education

Types, forms and methods of control

Evaluation and accounting of the results of educational activities

4. Estimation errors

1.3. Pedagogical technologies

Lecture 1

Pedagogical technologies: signs,

Features, classification and content

The concept of "pedagogical technology", its features and structure

Classification of pedagogical technologies

Lecture 2 Technology for the development of critical thinking through reading and writing

Critical thinking. Signs and characteristics

2. Basic technological model for the development of critical thinking through reading and writing

3. Didactic cycle of L.Ya. Zorina

Lecture 3 The potential of the pedagogical workshop as a means of self-education

1. The concept of "teaching workshop"

The main stages, features of the technology of the pedagogical workshop

Pedagogical technology and pedagogical skills

Lecture 4 Technology for the development and implementation of social projects

The project method in world pedagogy

1. Social project. social engineering

3. Implementation of design work

Chapter II. Seminars and practical classes

2.1. Theory of education Seminar 1 General methods of education

Seminar 2 Modern educational systems of the school

Seminar 3 The team as an object and subject of education

Seminar 4 Functions and main directions of the educational work of the class teacher in a modern school

Seminar 5 Raising a basic culture of personality

Seminar 6 Organizational forms and means of education

Seminar 7 National originality of education

Seminar 8 Tolerance, non-violence, peacefulness

Seminar 9 Family as a factor of upbringing

2.2. Theory of learning (didactics)

Seminar 1

The content of general education as a means of learning

And a factor in the development of the personality of the student

Seminar 2. Differentiated learning

Seminar 3. Methods and means of training

Seminar 4. Forms of organization of training

Pedagogical technologies Practical lesson 1 Modeling school self-government

Practical session 2 Portfolio ("portfolio") of the future teacher

Practical lesson 3 Modeling and diagnosing the educational work of a teacher

Game interaction

Evaluation of one's own behavior in a conflict situation

Test for assessing the level of personality conflict

Practical session 4 Educational systems of the 20th century

Practical lesson 5 Competition "Experts in Pedagogy"

Dictionary

Bibliographic list

Content

Chapter I. Lectures on the course "Pedagogy" 6

1.1. Theory of education. Social Pedagogy 6

1.2. Theory of learning (didactics) 128

1.3. Pedagogical technologies 202

Chapter II. Seminars and practical classes

2.1. Theory of education 234

2.2. Theory of learning (didactics) 250

2.3. Pedagogical technologies 256

Chapter III. Organization of an independent

Pedagogy

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454080, Chelyabinsk, V.I. Lenina, 69

1. Formation and improvement of forms of education

Forms of education are dynamic, they arise, develop, replace one another, depending on the level of development of society, production, and science. The history of world educational practice knows various systems of education in which the advantage was given to one form or another.

Even in primitive society there was a system individual training as the transfer of experience from one person to another, from the oldest to the youngest. However, a small number of students could be taught in this way. The further development of society required more literate people. Therefore, individual learning has been replaced by other forms of its organization. But individual learning has retained its significance to the present in the form of tutoring, tutoring, mentoring, tutoring.

Tutoring, as a rule, is associated with the preparation of the student for passing tests and exams. Tutoring and mentoring more common overseas. These forms of education are able to provide a productive educational activity of the student. A mentor, understood as a student's adviser, his mentor, introduces individuality into the content of the subject being studied, assists in completing tasks, and helps to adapt in life. The tutor is the supervisor of the student. The functions of a tutor can be performed by teachers in preparing students for presentations at conferences, round tables and other scientific events. Recently, such a form of family education as tutorship.

With the development of scientific knowledge and the expansion of access to education for a larger circle of people, the system of individual learning has been transformed into individual-group. With individual-group teaching, the teacher worked with a whole group of children, but the educational work still had an individual character. The teacher taught 10-15 children of different ages, whose level of preparation was different. He in turn asked each of them the material they had covered, and also explained the new educational material to each individually, and gave individual tasks. Having finished working with the last student, the teacher returned to the first one, checked the assignment, presented new material, gave the next task, and so on until the student, according to the teacher, mastered science, craft or art. The beginning and end of classes, as well as the terms of study for each student, were also individualized. This allowed students to come to school at different times of the year and at any time of the day.

Individual-group training, having undergone certain changes, has survived to this day. There are rural schools, usually primary ones, with a small number of students. In one class there can be two or three students who are engaged in the program of the first class, and several people - in the program of the second class.

In the Middle Ages, with the actualization of the need for educated people, due to progressive socio-economic development, education becomes more and more widespread. There was an opportunity to select children of approximately the same age in groups. This led to the emergence classroom learning systems. This system originated in the 16th century. in the schools of Belarus and Ukraine and received a theoretical justification in the 17th century. in the book "Great Didactics" by Jan Amos Comenius.

This system is called classroom because the teacher conducts classes with a group of students of a certain age, which has a solid composition and is called a class. Lesson - since the educational process is carried out in strictly defined periods of time - lessons. After Ya.A. Comenius, a significant contribution to the development of the theory of the lesson was made by K.D. Ushinsky. The class-lesson system has become widespread in all countries and in its main features has remained unchanged for about four hundred years.

However, already at the end of the XVIII century. the class-lesson system of education began to be criticized. The search for organizational forms of education that would replace the class-lesson system was associated mainly with the problems of quantitative enrollment of students and management of the educational process.

An attempt to reform the classroom system was made at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century. English priest A. Bell and teacher J. Lancaster. They sought to resolve the contradiction between the need for a wider dissemination of elementary knowledge among workers and the maintenance of minimal costs for the education and training of teachers.

The new system is called bell lancaster peer learning system and was simultaneously applied in India and England. Its essence lay in the fact that older students first studied the material under the guidance of a teacher, and then, having received appropriate instructions, taught their younger comrades, which ultimately made it possible to carry out mass training with a small number of teachers. But the very quality of education turned out to be low and therefore the Bell-Lancaster system was not widely used.

Scientists and practitioners have also made attempts to find such organizational forms of education that would remove the shortcomings of the lesson, in particular, its focus on the average student, the uniformity of content and the average pace of educational advancement, the immutability of the structure, which hinders the development of cognitive activity and independence of students.

At the end of the XIX century. forms of selective education appeared - Batavian system in the USA and Mannheim in Western Europe. The essence of the first was that the teacher's time was divided into two parts: the first was devoted to collective work with the class, and the second to individual lessons with those students who needed them. The Mannheim system, first applied in Mannheim (Europe), was characterized by the fact that, while maintaining the class-lesson system of education, students were divided into different classes depending on their abilities, level of intellectual development and degree of preparation.

Based on the principle of matching the workload and teaching methods to the real abilities and capabilities of children, the founder of this system, I. Zikkinger, proposed creating four types of classes: classes for the most capable, main classes for children with average abilities, classes for the incapacitated and auxiliary classes for mentally backward. Selection for such classes was based on psychometric measurements, teacher characteristics, and examinations. I. Zikkinger believed that students would be able to move from one type of class to another, but in practice this turned out to be impossible due to significant differences in educational programs.

In 1905 arose individualized learning system, first applied by the teacher Elena Park-hurst in Dalton (USA) and called dalton plan. This system is often referred to as the laboratory or workshop system. Its goal was to enable the student to learn at his optimum speed and at a pace appropriate to his abilities. Students in each subject received assignments for a year and reported on them in a timely manner. Traditional classes in the form of lessons were canceled, there was no single class schedule for all. For successful work, students were supplied with all the necessary teaching aids, instructions, which contained methodological instructions. Collective work was carried out for one hour a day, the rest of the time the students spent in subject workshops and laboratories, where they studied individually. Experience has shown that most of them were unable to study independently without the help of a teacher. The Dalton plan was not widely used.

In the 1920s the Dalton plan was sharply criticized by scientists and practitioners of the school. At the same time, it served as a prototype for development in the USSR brigade-laboratory training system, which practically replaced the lesson with its rigid structure. In contrast to the Dalton plan, the brigade-laboratory training system assumed a combination of the collective work of the entire class with the brigade (link) and individual work of each student. In general classes, work was planned, tasks were discussed, the teacher explained difficult issues of the topic and summed up the results of the general activity. Determining the task for the team, the teacher set the deadlines for its implementation and the mandatory minimum of work for each student, individualizing the tasks if necessary. At the final conferences, the brigade leader, on behalf of the brigade, reported on the completion of the task, which, as a rule, was performed by a group of activists, while the rest were only present. Marks were exhibited the same for all members of the brigade.

For the brigade-laboratory system of organizing classes, which claimed to be universal, it was characteristic to diminish the role of the teacher, reducing his functions to periodic consultations of students. The reassessment of the educational abilities of students and the method of self-acquisition of knowledge led to a significant decrease in academic performance, the absence of a system in knowledge and the lack of formation of the most important general educational skills. In 1932, training in this system ceased.

In the 1920s in domestic schools also began to apply project-based learning system (project method), borrowed from the American school, where it was developed by W. Kilpatrick. He believed that the basis of school programs should be the experimental activity of the child, connected with the reality surrounding him and based on his interests. Neither the state nor the teacher can develop a curriculum in advance; it is created by children together with teachers in the learning process and is drawn from the surrounding reality. The students themselves choose the topic of the project development. Depending on the specialization (bias) of the study group, it should reflect the socio-political, economic, industrial or cultural side of the surrounding reality. That is, the main task of the projects was in arming the child with tools for solving problems, searching and researching in life situations. However, the universalization of this method, the rejection of the systematic study of school subjects led to a decrease in the level of general education of children. This system is also not widely used.

In the 1960s of the last century became famous trump plan, named after its developer, American professor of pedagogy L. Trump. This form of organization of education involved a combination of classes in large classrooms (100-150 people) with classes in groups of 10-15 people and individual work of students. 40% of the time was devoted to general lectures using a variety of technical means, 20% to the discussion of lecture material, in-depth study of individual sections and the development of skills and abilities (seminars), and the rest of the time the students worked independently under the guidance of a teacher or his assistants from strong students. Classes under this system were abolished, the composition of small groups was unstable.

Currently, according to Trump's plan, only a few private schools are working, and only certain elements have taken root in the mass ones: teaching by a team of teachers of one subject (one lectures, others conduct seminars); involvement of assistants who do not have special education to conduct classes with a large group of students; organization of independent work in small groups. In addition to the mechanical transfer of the university system of education to the general education school, Trump's plan asserted the principle of individualization, which is expressed in providing the student with complete freedom in choosing the content of education and methods of mastering it, which was associated with the rejection of the leading role of the teacher and ignoring education standards.

In modern practice, there are other forms of organization of training. In the West there are ungraded classes when a student is studying in one subject according to the program of the seventh grade, and in another, for example, the sixth or fifth.

Experiments are underway to create open schools where training is conducted in training centers with libraries, workshops, i.e. the very institute "school" is being destroyed.

A special form of organization of training - dive when for a certain period of time (one to two weeks) students master only one or two subjects. Training is organized in the same way. by era in Waldorf schools.

This is a brief history of the development of organizational forms of learning. The class-lesson system proved to be the most stable of all the listed forms of mass education. It is indeed a valuable achievement of pedagogical thought and advanced practice in the work of a mass school.

Organizational forms of education. The problem of organizational forms of education in the history of pedagogy.

In didactics, attempts are made to define the organizational form of learning. I.M. Cheredov’s approach seems to be the most reasonable. He defines the organizational form of education as a special structure of the learning process, the nature of which is determined by its content, methods, techniques, means, and activities of students.

In the history of pedagogy and education, the most famous are three main organizational systems of education, which differ from one another in the quantitative coverage of students, the ratio of collective and individual forms of organization of students' activities, the degree of their independence and the specifics of the management of the educational process by the teacher: individual, class-lesson and lecture-seminar systems.

System individual learning has developed in primitive society as the transfer of experience from one person to another, from older to younger. With the advent of writing, the elder of the family or the priest passed on the experience through speaking signs to his potential successor, studying with him individually.

With the development of scientific knowledge and the expansion of access to education for a larger circle of people, the system of individual education was transformed in a peculiar way into individual-group. The teacher still taught individually 10-15 people. Having presented the material to one, he gave him a task for independent work and moved on to another, third, etc. Having finished working with the latter, the teacher returned to the first, checked the completion of the task, presented a new portion of the material, gave the task, and so on until the student, according to the teacher, mastered science, craft or art. The content of education was strictly individualized, so the group could have students of different ages, different degrees of preparedness. The beginning and end of classes for each student, as well as the terms of training, were also individualized. The teacher rarely gathered all the students of the group for collective discussions, instructions, or memorization of scriptures and poems.

In the Middle Ages, due to the increase in the number of students, it became possible to select children of approximately the same age in groups. This necessitated the creation of a more perfect organizational system of training. her became classroom system, developed in the 17th century. Ya. A. Comenius and described by him in the book "Great didactics". He introduced the school year in schools, divided students into groups (classes), divided the school day into equal segments and called them lessons. The class-lesson system of education was further developed by K. D. Ushinsky. He scientifically substantiated all its advantages and developed a coherent theory of the lesson, especially its organizational structure and typology. A. Diesterweg made a great contribution to the development of the scientific foundations of the organization of the lesson. He developed a system of principles and rules of teaching relating to the activities of a teacher and a student, substantiated the need to take into account the age capabilities of students. The search for organizational forms of education that would replace the class-lesson system was associated mainly with the problems of quantitative enrollment of students and management of the educational process.

So, at the end of the XIX century. in England, a system of education took shape, covering simultaneously six hundred or more students. The teacher, being with students of different ages and levels of preparedness in the same room, taught the older and more advanced students, and those, in turn, the younger ones. During the session, he also observed the work of groups led by his assistant monitors. This training system was called B elleLAncastrian from the names of its creators - priest A. Bell and teacher D. Lancaster. Its invention was driven by a desire to resolve the contradiction between the need for a wider dissemination of elementary knowledge among workers and the preservation of minimal costs for the education and training of teachers.

Other scientists and practitioners directed their efforts to finding such organizational forms of education that would remove the shortcomings of the lesson, in particular, its focus on the average student, the uniformity of content and the average pace of educational advancement, and the immutability of the structure. The disadvantage of the traditional lesson was that it hindered the development of cognitive activity and independence of students.

The idea of ​​K.D. Ushinsky that children in the lesson, if possible, work independently, and the teacher supervises this independent work and gives material for it, at the beginning of the 20th century. E. Parkhurst tried to implement it in the USA with the support of John and Evelyn Dewey, influential teachers at that time. In accordance with her proposed color blind laboratory plan (Dalton Plan), traditional classes in the form of lessons were canceled. Students received written assignments and, after consultation with the teacher, worked on them independently according to an individual plan. However, work experience has shown that most students were unable to study independently without the help of a teacher. The Dalton plan was not widely used.

With the advent of the first universities, lecture and seminar education system. It has hardly undergone significant changes since its inception. Lectures, seminars, practical and laboratory classes, consultations and practice in the chosen specialty still remain the leading forms of education within the lecture-seminar system. Its invariable attributes are colloquia, tests and examinations. The experience of directly transferring the lecture-seminar system to the school did not justify itself.

In the modern period, the modernization of the class-lesson system of education was carried out by a teacher from the Odessa region N. P. Guzik. He called it lecture-seminar, although it would be more correct to call it lecture-laboratory: lecture -> lecture with elements of conversation -> practical and laboratory classes.

So, organizational forms of education are an external expression of the coordinated activity of teachers and pupils, carried out in the prescribed manner and in a certain mode. They have a social conditionality, regulate the joint activities of the teacher and pupils, determine the ratio of the individual and the collective in the educational process, the degree of activity of students in educational activities and ways of managing it by the teacher.

Organizational forms of the pedagogical process, their classification Discussion around the problem forms of organization of the pedagogical process in OUCH

(university, school, etc.) do not subside on the pages of pedagogical literature. And this is no coincidence. There is no clear definition in pedagogical science of the concepts of "form of organization of education" or "organizational forms of education", as the concept of "form of educational work" as pedagogical categories.

The theoretical foundations of organizational forms are considered in the works of domestic scientists and teachers, such as I.M. Cheredov, M.I. Makhmutov, I.Ya. Lerner, M.N. Skatkin, I.F. Kharlamov and others. In the literature, they are interpreted as a didactic category, which denotes the external side of the organization of the educational process and which is associated with the number of students, the place and time of training, as well as the order of its implementation; the construction of segments, cycles of the learning process, implemented in a combination of the managerial activity of the teacher and the controlled educational activity of students in mastering the methods of activity. This design of learning is an internal organization of content, which in real pedagogical reality is the process of interaction, communication between the teacher and students when working on a certain educational material; organized interaction between the teacher and students in the course of obtaining knowledge. It reflects the organizational side of the pedagogical process; involves “ordering, establishing, bringing into a system” the interaction of a teacher with a student when working on a certain content of educational material; provides for taking into account the level of preparedness of students, the structure and duration of the lessons, the type of educational program, the type of subject, the specifics of the joint activities of participants in the pedagogical process in a computerized environment, etc. ; a purposeful, clearly organized, rich in content and methodically equipped system of cognitive and educational communication, interaction, relations between the teacher and students. They are realized in the pedagogical process as a unity of the purposeful organization of the content, means and methods of teaching; sustainable completed organization of the pedagogical process in the unity of all its components, etc. The relationship between the components of the pedagogical process is shown in (Fig. 36).

Distinctive sign organizational forms is that they are not directly related to the characteristics of the learning process (in a special way organized communication between the teacher and the student), its basic patterns, organizational forms affect the specific course and final result of the pedagogical process, contributing to its success. The main thing is that distinguishes method from form that's what's in method the method of acquiring knowledge and the degree of participation of the student himself are set. Forms of study represent an external expression of the coordinated activity of the teacher and students, carried out in the prescribed manner and in a certain mode.

Forms of study have a social conditionality, regulate the joint activities of the teacher and students, determine the ratio of individual and collective learning, the degree of activity of students in educational and cognitive activity and its management by the teacher.

Being an expression of the external side, the organization of learning, the form of the pedagogical process is inseparably linked with its internal, procedural and content side. This relationship is determined by factors such as purpose, methods, techniques, teaching aids, content and structuring of the studied content educational information.

The origin of the forms of the pedagogical process comes from the needs of people and society as a whole. When the need arose for the mass organization of the pedagogical process for the assimilation of human experience, then arose lesson - the easiest and cheapest way to organize.

In the second half of the 70s of the last century, new forms began to appear in our country: informal interest clubs, round tables, discos, etc., which became a harbinger of the democratization of society as a whole. The process of shaping is long. So the lesson arose in the 17th century, when homework appeared, but it took more than 100 years to develop until it was described by Ya. A. Comenius.

The emergence of any form begins when an appropriate activity is found to achieve a goal that expresses a need. The active essence of form is undeniable. So conversation came from the action "talk",discussion- from "discuss"lesson - "give an assignment" As soon as the form acquires the rights of citizenship, it begins to dictate to the teacher and the student certain actions (within this form).

In the learning process, organizational forms perform certain functions. B.B. Icemontas in his work gives the following functions:

1. Educational- contributes to the active manifestation of all the spiritual forces of the student.

2. Organizational- requires from the teacher a clear organizational and methodological presentation of meaningful educational information.

3. Teaching-educational- allows you to create the best conditions for the transfer of knowledge, skills and abilities to students, the formation of their worldview, the development of talents and practical abilities, active participation in production and public life.

4. Psychological- consists in developing in students a certain biorhythm of activity, the habit of working at the same time.

5. Informative the form of training sessions in conjunction with active teaching methods performs developmental function.

6. Forms of organization of the pedagogical process provide collective and individual activities of students by performing integrating-differential function, the implementation of which allows students to exchange information in practical matters, learn mutual understanding and mutual assistance.

7. Systematizing and structuring functions- consist in the fact that the organization of training requires a breakdown of all meaningful educational information into parts and topics, its generalization as a whole.

8. In relation to each other, the forms of learning are able to perform compensatory and coordinating functions.

9. stimulating- manifests itself with the greatest force when training corresponds to the characteristics of the age of students, the specifics of the development of their psyche and body.

Pedagogy in organizational forms, as it were, collects the best and pedagogically expedient elements that encourage the assimilation of experience faster, stronger and more efficiently.

More than 1000 forms (according to V.S. Bezrukova) require classification in order to be able to use them. One of the signs of classification: degree of difficulty. Allocate simple forms, compound and complex.

simple shapes built on a minimum number of methods and means. They, as a rule, are devoted to one topic, solving one type of problem (conversation, excursion, quiz, consultation, test, exam, briefing, dispute, cultural trip, additional classes, exhibitions, chess and drafts tournaments, etc.). Organizational forms of other groups are formed from them.

Composite forms are built on the development of simple ones or on their various combinations. It can be a lesson, a festive evening, a labor landing, a conference, a KVN, etc. The conference may include the release of a bulletin, reports, debates, round tables, exhibitions. In the case of entering into complex forms, simple ones can perform the functions of a method. A conversation, for example, can be an independent form, or it can be included as a method in a composite form. Complex shapes are created by a targeted selection of simple and compound shapes. These are open days, freshman days, days dedicated to the chosen profession, a day of laughter, knowledge, sports week, theater week, folk and confessional holidays (Christmas, Easter, Shrovetide). The name complex is conditional, since most often they are associated with their duration or type of activity.

Another shape classifier by belonging to directions of the content of education students: physical, aesthetic, labor, mental, moral (spartakiads, cross-country, labor landing, evening, conversation, excursion, KVN, etc.).

In pedagogical practice, organizational forms of education are of particular importance. Among them are lesson at school (occupation in a higher educational institution). This is a collective form of learning, which is characterized by a constant composition of students, a stable time frame, a pre-compiled schedule and the organization of work on the same educational material. The task of the lesson should be commensurate with the clock time, the development of students. Lesson structure- a set of its elements, parts that ensure its integrity and the achievement of didactic tasks. The structure is also determined by the purpose, content, methods and means of training, the level of training of students and their individual typological characteristics. In the theory and practice of the lesson, an important place is occupied by the issues of preparing the teacher for the lesson, planning, analysis and forecast. In solving these issues, the teacher relies on knowledge of the learning process and its patterns, subject methodology, pedagogical psychology and ergonomics, etc.

If the classification of lessons is based on didactic goals (B.P. Esipov), then they are as follows: mixed or combined lessons; lessons of assimilation of new knowledge by students; lessons of consolidation of the studied educational material; repetition lessons; lessons of systematization and generalization of new educational material; lessons for checking and evaluating knowledge, skills and abilities.

The most common forms of organization of the pedagogical process in school are the following:

1) under the direct supervision of a teacher: lessons (various types); lectures; workshops (laboratory, practical classes); seminars; electives; educational excursions; additional classes with students (current consultations, thematic, generalizing);

2) according to the method of organizing the activities of students: frontal; group; individual; steam rooms; collective;

3) extracurricular work of students: mugs, olympiads, competitions, etc.; homework of students.

In modern school practice, mainly two general organizational forms are used: frontal; individual.

Classification by the number of students:

Individual

group

Collective

Classification by time of training sessions:

Cool (scheduled)

Extracurricular

Classification by place:

School

extracurricular

Classification according to the frequency of classes:

Full-time (every day)

Correspondence (2 times a year for 25 days)

Part-time (2 times a week)

Evening

The individual form prevailed until the Middle Ages, in the 20th century it again became relevant. The essence: 1 teacher teaches 1 student in the house of a teacher or student. The most effective at present is tutoring and home-based learning. In this case, there is a lack of communication, which makes it difficult for the child to socialize.

Individual-group. Essence: 1 teacher teaches a group of different ages and levels of training. These are Fraternal Schools of Ukraine. It is ineffective, almost never used, except for small rural schools in Russia.

Group. 17th century - Fraternal schools of the Czech Republic. Essence: 1 teacher teaches a group of students of the same age and level. Thanks to Comenius' innovations, this form was transformed into a class-lesson form. currently prevails. Allows you to clearly organize, plan the educational process, train a group of students at a good level, saves time.

Bell Lancaster. 18th century, England. Bell and Lancaster - a system of mutual learning. The bottom line: the teacher selects the most capable students from the group and works with them. And then they teach the rest. Enhanced individual approach. Tension between peers, effective for 20%-30% of students.

Mannheim form. Early 20th century, Germany, Mannheim - J. Zikkenger. This is a differentiated learning system. Children are divided into 3 groups: weak, strong and average. 3 criteria: results of examinations or control tests, results of psychometric examinations, characteristics of previous teachers. The system provides for the possibility of moving from one level to another, but in practice this rarely happened. It is still used in various versions today. Especially popular in America. Allows you to learn at the level of your abilities. It is not always possible to accurately determine the current level of development of the child.

Dalton plan. 1911, America, Dalton, Massachusetts. Elena Parkhurst. Individualized learning system, laboratory system or workshop system. Training in well-equipped subject workshops or laboratories according to individual curricula. The pace of learning and the schedule of classes is made by the student himself. He is learning on his own. The teacher as a consultant. At the beginning of each month, the student makes a commitment to the due date of the report on that month's material. Reporting schedules are filled in, review lectures on the subject are held once a week. Attendance on request. The teacher is in the workshop every day. In 1932, the system was in Russia on an experimental basis. Krupskaya - "brigade-laboratory method". The change was that the tasks were given to a team of students. The experiment went on for 4 years. In 1936, the results of control tests showed low efficiency and the form was canceled and even banned.

Jena-plan-school. 1920s, Germany. Peterson has developed a program of successive education det.sad - beg. school for children 3-12 years old. Children are divided into strain groups of 20-30 people. In each group, children of different ages with an interval of 3 years. (3-6, 6-9, 9-12). Children are divided into groups into wards and chiefs. Each strain group has its own room. Features of the organization of training:

School day 9-18

In the schedule, lessons alternate with classes of strain groups

Every month 3-4 holidays at a high level of organization

The parent committee is involved in planning

Mugs and sections

No traditional homework

There is research work

Peterson in 1955 made a presentation on the results of the international ped. congress. After that, the system quickly spread throughout Europe and within 2 years the Jena-Plan-School movement was created. In Russia, the first publication in 1991. In practice, it didn't.

Waldorf schools. Steiner. The first school was for the children and workers of the Waldorf Cigarette Factory and Stuttgart. Initially, the school was for teaching adult literacy and for the eradication of illiteracy. Then the children began to receive secondary education. Evening lectures for adults. Leisure (dancing). Currently Features:

Immersion method - one subject is studied from 1 to 3 weeks

The day consists of 3 parts: educational, lunch, developing and improving (aerobics, speech, exercises, meditation, physical and musical classes, everyone played the flute).

After that, lunch again, crafts and arts, applied activities to prepare for adulthood.

Non-judgmental system

Parents may be involved

Schools should embody the “beautiful” category

In Russia there was one school in Moscow.