Russian medieval literature is the initial stage in the development of Russian literature. Its emergence is closely connected with the process of formation of the early feudal state. Subordinate to the political tasks of strengthening the foundations of the feudal system, it in its own way reflected the various periods in the development of public and social relations in Russia in the 11th-17th centuries. Old Russian literature is the literature of the emerging Great Russian people, gradually taking shape into a nation.

The question of the chronological boundaries of ancient Russian literature has not been finally resolved by our science. Ideas about the volume of ancient Russian literature still remain incomplete. Many works perished in the fire of countless fires, during the devastating raids of the steppe nomads, the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar invaders, the Polish-Swedish invaders! And at a later time, in 1737, the remains of the library of the Moscow tsars were destroyed by a fire that broke out in the Grand Kremlin Palace. In 1777, the Kyiv library was destroyed by fire. The works of ancient Russian literature were divided into "worldly" and "spiritual". The latter were supported and disseminated in every possible way, as they contained the enduring values ​​of religious dogma, philosophy and ethics, while the former, with the exception of official legal and historical documents, were declared "vain". Thanks to this, we present our ancient literature to a greater extent ecclesiastical than it actually was. When embarking on the study of Old Russian literature, it is necessary to take into account its specific features, which differ from the literature of modern times. A characteristic feature of ancient Russian literature is handwritten nature of its existence and distribution. At the same time, this or that work did not exist in the form of a separate, independent manuscript, but was part of various collections that pursued certain practical goals. "Everything that serves not for the sake of benefit, but for the sake of embellishment, is subject to the charge of vanity." These words of Basil the Great largely determined the attitude of the ancient Russian society to the works of writing. The value of this or that handwritten book was evaluated in terms of its practical purpose and usefulness. One of the characteristic features of ancient Russian literature is its connection with church and business writing, on the one hand, and oral poetic folk art, on the other. The nature of these connections at each historical stage in the development of literature and in its individual monuments was different. However, the wider and deeper literature used the artistic experience of folklore, the more vividly it reflected the phenomena of reality, the wider was the scope of its ideological and artistic influence.

A characteristic feature of ancient Russian literature is historicism. Her heroes are predominantly historical figures, she almost does not allow fiction and strictly follows the fact. Even numerous stories about "miracles" - phenomena that seem supernatural to a medieval person, are not so much the fiction of an ancient Russian writer, but accurate records of the stories of either eyewitnesses or the persons themselves with whom the "miracle" happened. Old Russian literature, inextricably linked with the history of the development of the Russian state, the Russian people, is imbued with heroic and patriotic pathos. Another feature is anonymity.

Literature glorifies the moral beauty of the Russian man, who is capable of giving up the most precious thing for the sake of the common good - life. It expresses a deep faith in the power and ultimate triumph of good, in the ability of a person to elevate his spirit and defeat evil. The Old Russian writer was least of all inclined to an impartial presentation of facts, "listening to good and evil indifferently." Any genre of ancient literature, be it a historical story or a legend, a life story or a church sermon, as a rule, includes significant elements of journalism. Concerning mainly state-political or moral issues, the writer believes in the power of the word, in the power of conviction. He appeals not only to his contemporaries, but also to distant descendants with an appeal to take care that the glorious deeds of their ancestors are preserved in the memory of generations and that the descendants do not repeat the sad mistakes of their grandfathers and great-grandfathers.

The literature of Ancient Russia expressed and defended the interests of the upper classes of feudal society. However, it could not fail to show an acute class struggle, which resulted either in the form of open spontaneous uprisings, or in the forms of typical medieval religious heresies. Literature clearly reflected the struggle between progressive and reactionary groupings within the ruling class, each of which was looking for support among the people. And since the progressive forces of feudal society reflected the interests of the whole state, and these interests coincided with the interests of the people, we can talk about the folk character of ancient Russian literature.

periodization

According to the established tradition in the development of ancient Russian literature, there are three main stages associated with the periods of development of the Russian state:

I. Literature of the ancient Russian state of the XI - the first half of the XIII centuries. The literature of this period is often referred to as the literature of Kievan Rus. The central image is Kyiv and the Kyiv princes, the unity of the world outlook, the patriotic beginning are glorified. This period is characterized by the relative unity of literature, which is determined by the relationship between the two main cultural centers of the state - Kyiv and Novgorod. This is a period of apprenticeship, in the role of mentors Byzantium and Bulgaria. Translation literature prevails. It is first dominated by religious texts, and then secular literature appears. The main theme is the theme of the Russian land and its position in the family of Christian nations. The second half of the 11th century (before this period) - Ostromir Gospel, Izborniki, translation of Greek chronicles, based on cat. "Chronograph according to the great exposition", "Sermon about the Law and Grace of Hilarion". In the middle of the 11th - the first third of the 12th genres of the didactic word appeared

(Theodosius of the Caves, Luka Zhidyata), genre varieties of original lives (“The Tale” and “Reading” about Boris and Gleb, “The Life of Theodosius of the Caves”, “Memory and Praise to Prince Vladimir”), historical legends, stories, legends that formed the basis of the chronicle , which at the beginning of the XII century. is called The Tale of Bygone Years. At the same time, the first “walking” appeared - the journey of Abbot Daniel and such an original work as “Instruction”

Vladimir Monomakh.

II. Literature of the period of feudal fragmentation and the struggle for the unification of northeastern Russia (the second half of the 13th - the first half of the 15th centuries). The rise of books. Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. "The Tale of the Tatar-Mongolian Invasion", a cycle of stories about the Battle of Kulikovo. In the regional centers, local chronicles, hagiography, genres of travel, historical stories are created. "Kiev-Pechersk Patericon", "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "The Tale" by Daniil Zatochnik and "The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land". In the 14th century, fictional legends "The Tale of Babylon City" appear. "The Tale of the Mutyansk Governor Dracula". B15 c. Appeared "Journey beyond three seas" by Afanasy Nikitin.

III. Literature of the period of creation and development of the centralized Russian state (XVI-XVII centuries). Fight against heresy, liberation from spiritual illness. Satire appears, a household story.

The historical significance of the Battle of Kulikovo and its reflection in the literature of the late 14th-15th centuries \ annalistic story, "Zadonshchina", "The Tale of the Life and Death of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich", "The Tale of the Mamaev Massacre".

In 1380, the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich rallied almost the entire North-Eastern Russia under his banners and dealt a crushing blow to the Golden Horde. The victory showed that the Russian people have the strength to decisively fight the enemy, but these forces can only be united by the centralized power of the Grand Duke. After the victory at the Kulikovo field, the question of the final overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke was only a matter of time. The historical events of 1380 were reflected in the oral folk art and works of literature: the chronicle story, "Zadonshchina", "The Tale of the Life and Death of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich", "The Tale of the Mamaev Massacre".

Chronicle of the Battle of Kulikovo. The chronicle story about the Battle of Kulikovo has come down to us in two versions: short and lengthy. The story not only sets out the main facts: the gathering of enemy forces and Russian troops, the battle on the Nepryadva River, the return of the Grand Duke to Moscow with a victory, the death of Mamai, but also gives an emotionally expressive journalistic assessment of these facts. The central character of the chronicle story is the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich. He "Christ-loving" and "God-loving" the prince is an ideal Christian, constantly turning to God with prayers, at the same time a brave warrior who fights on the Kulikovo field "ahead". The battle itself is depicted using techniques characteristic of a military story: “Swiftly the battle is great and the battle is strong and the coward is great zeal ... shedding blood like a rain cloud of both ... fall the corpse on the corpse, and fall the Tatar body on the body of the peasants.”

The main goal of the chronicle story is to show the superiority of the courage of the Russian troops over arrogance and ferocity "raw eaters" "godless Tatars" and "foul Lithuania" stigmatize the betrayal of Oleg Ryazansky.

The short story was included in the "Rogozhsky chronicler" and is a work of an informative type, with a traditional 3-part structure. A significant place is given to the 3rd part - the consequences of the battle. But new details also appear: a list of the dead at the end of the story; methods of stringing homogeneous paths (“the godless evil prince of the Horde, Mamai is filthy”) and connecting tautological turns (“the dead are countless”). The lengthy story has been preserved as part of the Novgorod Chronicle 4. The composition of the factual information is the same as in the summary, but since this is a story of an event type, the author increased the number of compositional elements characterizing the characters. The number of prayers of the protagonist increases: before the battle - 3, after the battle - a prayer of thanksgiving. Another lyrical fragment also appears, which has not been used before - the lament of Russian wives. A variety of figurative and expressive means are also used, especially bright in relation to enemies: “dark raw-eater Mamai”, apostate Oleg Ryazansky, “soul-destroying”, “peasant blood-drinker”. The descriptions of the Battle of Kulikovo itself in all stories are distinguished by emotionality, which is created by the author's exclamations and the inclusion in the text of elements of the landscape that were not previously used. All these features make the narrative more plot-motivated and emotionally intense.

The composition of the "Tale" structurally follows the tradition of a military story, but the narrative consists of a number of separate episodes-microplots, interconnected by plot-motivated or chronological inserts, which is an innovation. Also, the new is manifested in the author's desire to show the personality of each hero individually and show his role throughout the story. The characters are divided into main (Dmitry Ivanovich, Vladimir Andreevich and Mamai), secondary (Sergius of Radonezh, Dmitry Bobrok, Oleg Ryazansky, etc.) and episodic (Metropolitan Cyprian, Foma Katsibey, etc.). Also, a compositional feature is a lot of lyrical fragments (prayers, lamentation) and natural descriptions. Vision also appears in the text. A new descriptive element appears - the image of the Russian army, as the princes saw it from the hill. Along with the preservation of military formulas, many epithets and comparisons are used, the role of metaphors emphasizing the experiences of the characters is enhanced. The author of "Zadonshchina" took "The Lay of Igor's Campaign" as a model. In the introduction, Boyan is also mentioned, and at the end the time of the event is set (“And from the Kalat rati to Mamaev, the battle is 160 years old”). The rest of the text is generally traditional - 3-part structure. But within each part, the narrative is built on the basis of individual episodes-pictures, alternating with the author's digressions. The story has documentary elements, the use of digital data, enumerations. There are minor deviations from the chronology, which is unconventional for a military story. Lyrical fragments are not numerous, according to the canons of the military story. There are no detailed descriptions of the characters (except for Dmitry Ivanovich), and the enemies are described quite schematically. Folklore influence can be seen in the use of negative comparisons (“Those were not gray wolves, but having come to the defilement of the Tatars, they want to go through the whole Russian land fighting”). "Zadonshchina" is a monument created at the intersection of traditions: folklore, military story and "Words". But the leading one should still recognize the tradition of a military story.

"Zadonshchina". Zadonshchina" came to us in six lists, the earliest of which (the Euphrosynus list) dates back to the 1470s, and the latest to the end of the 17th century. "Zadonshchina" is the name of the work in question in the Euphrosynus list. In other lists, it is called "The Tale of the Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich and his brother Prince Vladimir Andreevich." The Efrosinovsky list is an abbreviated revision of the original lengthy text that did not reach, in the rest of the lists the text is full of errors and distortions.

In "Zadonshchina" the poetic attitude of the author to the events of the Battle of Kulikovo is expressed. His story (as in The Tale of Igor's Campaign) is transferred from one place to another: from Moscow to Kulikovo Field, again to Moscow, to Novgorod, again to Kulikovo Field. The present is intertwined with memories of the past. The author himself described his work as “pity and praise to Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich and his brother, Prince Vladimir Ondreevich”, “Pity” is lamentation for the dead, “Praise” is glory to the courage and military prowess of the Russians.

The first part of "Zadonshchina" - "a pity" describes the gathering of Russian troops, their campaign, the first battle and defeat. Nature in the "Zadonshchina" is on the side of the Russians and portends defeat "nasty": the birds are crying, the sun is shining on Dmitry Donskoy. The fallen warriors are haunted by their wives: princesses and noblewomen. Their laments are built, like the lament of Yaroslavna, on the appeal to the wind, the Don, the Moscow River.

The second part of "Zadonshchina" - "praise" glorifies the victory won by the Russians when the regiment of Dmitry Bobrok Volynets stepped out of the ambush. The enemies fled, and the Russians got rich booty, and now Russian wives put on the clothes and jewelry of women from the Horde.

The entire text of the "Zadonshchina" is correlated with the "Tale of Igor's Campaign": here is the repetition of entire passages from the "Lay", and the same characteristics, and similar poetic devices. But the appeal of the author of "Zadonshchina" to "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" is creative, not mechanical. The victory of the Grand Duke of Moscow over Mamai is perceived by the author of Z. as revenge for the defeat suffered by Igor on Kayala. The Christian element is significantly strengthened in the "Zadonshchina" and there are no pagan images at all.

It is generally accepted that "Zadonshchina" was written by Zephanius Ryazanets: this name, like the name of its author, is named in the title of two works. However, Zephanius Ryazanets is also called the author of the "Tale of the Mamaev Battle" in a number of lists of the main edition of the "Tale". The name of Zephanius Ryazanets is also mentioned in the very text of the “Zadonshchina”, and the nature of this mention is such that in Zephanius Ryazanets one should most likely see not the author of the “Zadonshchina”, but the author of some poetic work about the Battle of Kulikovo that has not come down to us, who, regardless from each other, both the author of "Zadonshina" and the author of "The Tale of the Battle of Mamaev" took advantage . We do not have any information about Zephanius Ryazanets, except for the mention of his name in the "Zadonshchina" and in the "Tale of the Mamai Battle".

"Zadonshchina" is an interesting literary monument, created as a direct response to the most important event in the history of the country. This work is also remarkable in that it reflected the advanced political idea of ​​its time: Moscow should be at the head of all Russian lands and the unity of Russian princes under the rule of the Moscow Grand Duke serves as a guarantee of the liberation of the Russian land from Mongol-Tatar domination.

"The Legend of the Mamaev Battle". "The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev" is the most extensive monument of the Kulikovo cycle, written in the middle of the 15th century. This is not only a literary monument, but also the most important historical source. In it, the most detailed account of the events of the Battle of Kulikovo has come down to us. The "Tale" describes the preparation for the campaign and the "training" of the regiments, the distribution of forces and the setting of their military task before the detachments. The Tale describes in detail the movement of the Russian troops from Moscow through Kolomna to the Kulikovo field. Here is a listing of the princes and governors who took part in the battle, tells about the crossing of Russian forces across the Don. Only from the Tale we know that the outcome of the battle was decided by the regiment under the leadership of Prince Vladimir Serpukhovsky: before the start of the battle, he was ambushed and an unexpected attack from the flanks and rear on the enemy who broke into the Russian disposition inflicted a crushing defeat on him. From the "Tale" we learn that the Grand Duke was shell-shocked and found unconscious after the end of the battle. These details and a number of others, including legendary epic ones (the story of the duel before the start of the battle between the monk-hero Peresvet and the Tatar hero, episodes telling about the help of Russian saints, etc.), were brought to us only by the “Legend of Mamaev's massacre.

The "Tale" was repeatedly rewritten and revised, up to the beginning of the 18th century, and has come down to us in eight editions and a large number of options. O popularity The monument of the medieval reader as the “fourth” (intended for individual reading) work is evidenced by a large number of obverse (illustrated with miniatures) lists of it.

The protagonist of the Tale is Dmitry Donskoy. "The Tale" is not only a story about the Battle of Kulikovo, but also a work dedicated to the praise of the Grand Duke of Moscow. The author portrays Dmitry as a wise and courageous commander, emphasizing his military prowess and courage. All other characters of the work are grouped around Dmitry Donskoy. Dmitry is the eldest among the Russian princes, all of them are his faithful assistants, vassals, his younger brothers. The image of Dmitry Donskoy still mostly bears the features of idealization, but future tendencies of turning to the personal principle are also visible in it - the author sometimes talks about the special emotions of DD (sadness, rage, etc.)

In the Tale, Metropolitan Cyprian blesses Dmitry Ivanovich's campaign. In fact, Cyprian was not in Moscow in 1380. This is not the mistake of the author of the Tale, but. For journalistic reasons, the author of the Tale, who set himself the task of drawing an ideal image of the Grand Duke of Moscow, the ruler and head of all Russian forces, had to illustrate the strong alliance of the Moscow prince with the Metropolitan of All Russia. And in a literary work, he could, contrary to historical truth, talk about the blessing of Dmitry and his army by Metropolitan Cyprian, especially since formally Cyprian really was at that time the Metropolitan of All Russia.

During the Battle of Kulikovo, the Ryazan prince Oleg and the Lithuanian prince Jagiello, the son of the Lithuanian prince Olgerd, who died in 1377, entered into an alliance with Mamai. In the Tale, which describes the event of 1380, Olgerd is named Lithuanian ally of Mamai. As in the case of Cyprian, this is not a mistake, but a conscious literary and journalistic reception. For a Russian person of the late XIV - early XV centuries, and especially for Muscovites, the name of Olgerd was associated with memories of his campaigns against the Moscow principality. It was an insidious and dangerous enemy of Russia, whose military cunning was reported in an obituary chronicle article about his death. Therefore, they could call Olgerd an ally of Mamai instead of Jogail only at a time when this name was still well remembered as the name of a dangerous enemy of Moscow. At a later time, such a change of names did not make sense. .

Mamai, the enemy of the Russian land, is portrayed by the author of the Tale in sharply negative tones. There is a contrast: if Dmitry is a bright beginning, the head of a good deed, the deeds of which are led by God, then Mamai is the personification of darkness and evil - the devil stands behind him. Heroic character the event depicted in the "Tale" determined appeal author to oral tradition about the Mamaev massacre. Most likely, the episode of single combat before the start of the general battle of the monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery of Peresvet with the Tatar hero goes back to oral traditions. The epic basis is felt in the story about the "test of signs" by Dmitry Volynets; On the night before the battle, the experienced voivode Dmitry Volynets and the Grand Duke leave for the field between the Russian and Tatar troops, and Volynets hears the earth crying “in two” - about the Tatar and Russian soldiers: there will be many killed, but still the Russians will prevail. Oral tradition probably underlies the message of the Tale that Dmitry, before the battle, put on princely armor on his beloved governor, and he himself, in the clothes of a simple warrior with an iron club, was the first to rush into battle. In the weeping of Evdokia, notes of folkloric lamentation also sound.

Descriptions of the Russian army are bright and imaginative pictures. In the descriptions of pictures of nature, a certain lyricism and the desire to connect these descriptions with the mood of events can be noted. Some of the author's remarks are deeply emotional and not devoid of vital veracity. Telling, for example, about the farewell to the wives of the soldiers leaving Moscow for the battle, the author writes that the wives "in tears and exclamations of the heart cannot utter a word," and adds that "the great prince himself was a little afraid of tears, without choking shed tears for the sake of the people.

The “Legend of the Battle of Mamaev” was of interest to readers already because it described in detail all the circumstances of the Battle of Kulikovo. However, this is not the only attraction of the work. Despite a significant touch of rhetoric, "The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev" has a pronounced plot character. Not only the event itself, but also fate of individuals, the development of the vicissitudes of the plot made readers worry and empathize with what is being described. And in a number of editions of the monument, plot episodes become more complicated and increase in number. All this made "The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev" not only a historical and journalistic monument, but also a plot-fascinating work.

"A word about the life and death of the Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich, Tsar of Russia"

"A word about the life and death of the Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich, Tsar of Russia" in its style can be attributed to hagiographic monuments of expressive-emotional style.

it praise deeds of Dmitry Donskoy, about which the author of the "Lay" with genre-specific self-abasement declares at the end of his work that he is not worthy to describe the deeds of the master.

Stylistically and compositionally, the "Word" is close to the works of Epiphanius the Wise.

Book traditions of military biography and folklore traditions are combined (Eudokia's lamentation is filled with f. images).

The time of writing the Lay is dated in different ways. Most researchers attributed its creation to the 90s. XIV century, believing that it was written by an eyewitness to the death and burial of the prince (died in 1389).

He has a traditional structure of life (characteristics of DD, his father and mother), but at the same time, another hypostasis of the DI is intertwined - a statesman.

Accurate biographical information about Dmitry Donskoy and historical data are of little interest to the author. At the beginning, the continuity of Dmitry in relation to the Grand Duke Vladir I and the fact that he is a “relative” of the holy princes Boris and Gleb are emphasized. The battle on the Vozha and the Mamaev battle are mentioned. Both in these parts of the "Word of Life", and in others, where some specific events are implied; it is not so much a story about them that is given as their generalized characteristic. "Word" - a chain of praise to Dmitry and philosophical, very complex thoughts of the author about the greatness of the prince, in which biographical details are wedged. Comparing his hero with biblical characters (Adam, Noah, Moses), the writer emphasizes the superiority of his hero over them. In the same series of comparisons, Dmitry appears as the greatest ruler of all known world history.

Highlighted in the "Word" crying wife of Dmitry Donskoy, Princess Evdokia, imbued with deep lyricism. It reflected the influence of the people's widow's tale: Evdokia addresses the deceased as if he were alive, as if talking to them, are characteristic of folklore and the comparison of the deceased with the sun, the moon, the setting star. However, lamentation also glorifies the Christian virtues of the prince.

The “Word about Life” pursued a clear political goal: to glorify the Moscow prince, the winner of Mamai, as the ruler of the entire Russian land, the heir to the Kyiv state, to surround the prince’s power with an aura of holiness and raise his political authority to an unattainable height.

The ideal hero in the annals was the prince. It was created by the chronicler in "monumental grandeur", as on mosaics and frescoes of the 11th-13th centuries. The chronicler was interested in the official image of the prince, his significant deeds as a historical figure, and human qualities were left out of attention. brave, skillful in military affairs, courageous, crusher of enemies, guardian of the state) In such works of ancient Russian literature as lives, asceticism, the feat of serving the fatherland, the holiness and “brightness” of the life of Russian saints are also glorified. Their images combined an example of selflessness, passionate service to the idea, expressed the folk ideals of the spiritual beauty of the Russian people (Theodosius of the Caves, Sergius of Radonezh, etc.). In stories about saints, their greatness, their ideality is conveyed against an expressive-emotional background, which creates the expressive-emotional style of literature of the late 14th-15th centuries. This is especially evident in hagiographic literature, elevating the life of a saint to a lofty feat, to an ideal. In ancient literature, the saint is called the "warrior of Christ." He is an ascetic, the main thing in him is his feat, which he performs as a warrior. For example, Epiphanius the Wise calls Stephen of Perm "the courageous brave", i.e. hero. The image of Sergius of Radonezh is lofty and heroic. In the literature of the 11th-13th centuries, the epic style is also manifested in the depiction of heroes. It is especially noticeable in those works that are associated with oral folk art. As in folklore, the protagonists of the chronicle and the story are characterized "by one major act" ("The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu"). Both in the "Word" and in "The Tale" - a collective hero, a folk hero - a defender of the motherland. He is distinguished by strength and courage. The authors also transfer the exploits of his squad to him (Bui-Tur Vsevolod, Svyatoslav, Evpatiy Kolovrat). The image of a hero unites with a squad and grows into a hero - this is a collective image. Ancient literature created the heroic characters of women. These are images of wives, mothers, seeing off their loved ones on military campaigns and battles with enemies, widows mourning the dead. With love and warmth, Vladimir Monomakh writes about the widow of his murdered son, like a dove on a dry tree. The image of the wife of the Ryazan prince Fyodor Evpraksia, who threw herself from the wall with her baby (“The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”), is beautiful. The ideal of a woman of Ancient Russia, expressed in service to loved ones, love for the motherland, contempt for the enemy, is embodied in the annals, military stories, "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". The image of Yaroslavna, a faithful, loving woman, was created in the song and folklore tradition.
This is how the image of the hero of ancient literature and the artistic ways of depicting him undergo changes.

Artwork description: "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu", "Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh", etc. These works belong to ancient Russian literature. The literature of antiquity is based on real events and reflects Russia, its position at one time or another. Old Russian literature reflects the character of Russia and its inhabitants. It, like the history of Russia, contains information about its relations with other countries and within the country. This literature is rich in discussions about kings, princes and the common people. We are simply obliged to protect and study its riches.

Russian literature is a thousand years old. We know our great classical writers well, but know little of our literature of the first seven centuries. Every Russian person is well aware of only "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". Meanwhile, our ancient literature is rich in works of various genres. The chronicles told about the history of our country, starting from ancient, pre-literate times and ending with the events of the turbulent 17th century. Biographies ("lives") told about the lives of individuals. In ancient Russian literature there are works of oratory, descriptions of travels (“journeys”) to the East or Western Europe, essays aimed at eradicating social evil and injustice, calling for truth and goodness. There are a number of so-called "military tales" dedicated to the struggle of the Russian people with foreign enemies: with the Pechenegs, Polovtsy, Mongol-Tatars, German knights. There are stories that tell about princely civil strife and crimes. These stories are full of pain for untruth, for the suffering brought to people and the whole country. In the 17th century, everyday stories appeared. At the end of the same century, dramatic and poetic compositions appeared.

Old Russian literature, as you can see, is rich in written monuments. She was even richer. After all, only a small part of its entire treasury has come down to us, the rest was destroyed in the fire of fires, plundered by enemies, died from the storage of damp rooms, because of negligence and indifference of people.

Old Russian literature seems to us especially significant, because it has features that are consonant with our era. The works of our antiquity are marked by high citizenship, sincere love for the motherland. The writers, separated from us by many centuries, were proud of the greatness of Russia, its vastness, beauty, the “bright lordship and red ornamentation” of its fields and forests, the “impudence” of the Russian people, and high moral qualities. The true patriotism of ancient Russian authors was also manifested in the fact that they boldly wrote about the shortcomings and crimes of the princes.

The works of Ancient Russia captivate with chastity and purity. Old Russian literature does not linger on descriptions of atrocities, does not cherish the dream of retribution against enemies. She calls for the sublime, the good. In it we find noble ideals. Almost every writer of Ancient Russia could, like A. S. Pushkin, say about himself that he "awakened good feelings" with his work. He could declare, together with N. A. Nekrasov, that he "sowed the reasonable, the good, the eternal." Therefore, the works of ancient Russian authors so vividly respond to our time and the need for kindness and kindness that has grown in our country.

For ancient Russian literature, as well as for Russian literature as a whole, life-affirmation, lightness and clarity are characteristic. Let's take, for example. The most tragic "The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu". What could be worse! The army was defeated, all the princes perished on the battlefield, the city was taken, plundered, burned, almost all the inhabitants were killed. Only "smoke, earth and ashes" remained. But in the story there is no despair, no despondency. Lamentation for the Russian princes, glorification of their valor, pride that there were such princes. And the story ends with a major chord: one of the Ryazan princes, who accidentally survived, arrives, pays tribute to the dead, buries them with honor, gathers the surviving residents, restores the city, and everything ends with general appeasement. This fortitude is amazing.

Another property of ancient Russian literature is especially attractive in our time: ancient Russian writers treated other peoples, their customs, and their beliefs with deep respect. Tolerance is manifested in the relationship between the Russian governor Pritech and the Pecheneg prince in The Tale of Bygone Years, in the Tale of the Emshan Grass, which conveys the Polovtsian tradition, in the sermons of the Bishop of Vladimir Serapion, who wrote about the torments of the Russian people under the Tatar oppression, lamented the loss of the former the glory of Russia and at the same time spoke about the moral virtues of the Tatars. Respect for other peoples, sympathy for their troubles sounds with particular force in Afanasy Nikitin's Journey Beyond the Three Seas.

Even in stories describing the fight against enemies, for example, in The Tale of the Battle of Mamaev, the author notes the combat prowess of the enemies and considers both Russians and Tatars to be children of the same Mother Earth. Absolutely surprising is the admiration for the courage of the enemies in Kazan History, a work dedicated to the centuries-old struggle between Russians and Kazanians.

The best traditions of ancient literature continue in the new Russian literature of the 18th-20th centuries. However, ancient literature has its own characteristics that distinguish it from the literature of modern times.

In the art of the word of the new time, we are dealing with individual authors, and ancient literature, although it retained a number of names of writers - Illarion, Nestor, Kirill Turovsky and many others - as a whole was a collective work. If in modern times the works of classical literature are printed in the form in which the author wrote them, then the works of ancient writers have been changed over the centuries by different scribes. Each new copyist either shortened the text somewhat, then sought to “decorate” the presentation, then changed the general direction of the work. He adapted the work of his predecessor to the literary taste and ideological requirements of his time. Thus, new types, or, as they say, editions of the same monument arose. This situation is close to oral folk art: each storyteller sang the same epic in a different way, adding or omitting something.

In all new editions, the monuments of ancient Russian literature lived, retaining the main original features and acquiring new ones. Rare monuments have survived to us in the form in which they were first written, most of them came down in later correspondence, "lists".

Old Russian literature, unlike the new one, did not know fictional characters or plots. In ancient stories, historical figures always acted, historical events were described. Even if the author introduced the miraculous, the fantastic into his narrative, it was not a conscious fiction, because the writer himself and his readers believed in the veracity of what was being described. Conscious fiction appeared only in the literature of the 17th century. And even then, as a rule, he covered himself with references to historical events. So, the fictional character of one of the stories of the 17th century, Savva Grudtsyn, is shown in the Russian army of the boyar Shein, who besieged Smolensk.

We are used to the works we read being entertaining. Amusement for us is mainly connected only with the rapid development of a complex plot. The writers of Ancient Russia also, of course, sought to interest the reader. But their plot is simple, the narration is calm, not hastily.

The people of Ancient Russia read books earnestly, slowly, rereading the same work several times, reverently looking for instructions, advice, or images of significant events from the history of their country or other countries. It is not for nothing that books were figuratively compared with the depths of the sea, and the reader with a pearl seeker.

One of the achievements of modern literature was that it began to depict the ordinary, that its characters were the same people as each of us. In ancient Russian literature there are no mere characters, there are heroes who perform great feats on the battlefield and moral perfection.

Like folklore, literature stopped only at exceptional events; it did not condescend to the reader, but sought to raise him to his heights.

In ancient literature there were no verses, but there was poetry. Only the imagery of this poetry is different than in modern times, we need to get used to it, to understand it. Images were born as if by themselves. We would say: “I will come in the spring,” and a person of the 11th-17th centuries wrote: “I will come as soon as a leaf breaks on the trees.” Ancient authors did not write that someone had done a lot for their homeland, they wrote: “I lost a lot of sweat for my homeland”; we would say: "The enemies fled," and the ancient scribe wrote: "They showed their shoulders." They loved hyperbole: the name of Alexander Nevsky, according to his biographer, was glorified "throughout all countries to the Sea of ​​Egypt and to the mountains of Ararat." Old Russian authors often resorted to comparisons: warriors were compared with falcons, flying arrows - with rain, enemies - with ferocious beasts.

In ancient Russian works you will find many examples of rhythmic speech.

The poetry of ancient Russian literature is largely associated with its closeness to oral folk art. In our time, literature and folklore are strictly demarcated. Writers of the 18th-20th centuries turn to folklore, but never become storytellers. In ancient Russian literature it was different. Writers, like storytellers, created epic works. Epic is not only the initial tales of The Tale of Bygone Years, based on oral traditions - about Oleg, Igor, Olga, Vladimir, about the youth-kozhemyak and Belgorod wells. Later works of the 15th, 16th, and even 17th centuries are also epic. Many narratives that are examples of high rhetoric organically include epic parts. Such is the story about Yevpaty Kolovrat in "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu", about six brave men in "The Life of Alexander Nevsky". Folk songs are woven into the fabric of many works, for example, in The Tale of Prince Skopin-Shuisky. As a lyrical song, the literary basis "The Tale of Woe-Misfortune" is built. And what wonderful folk laments can be found in chronicles and stories! In addition to lamentations in literature, there are also glorifications - “glories”. Ritual in origin, pagan poetry was a living source to which writers turned all the time.

It is not necessary to exaggerate the importance of oral folk art in the literature of Ancient Russia. With all its closeness to folklore, it was written literature (the word "literature" from the Latin "litera" - a letter), while literature is very high, skillful, artistic. It arose as early as the 10th century, along with the adoption of Christianity under the influence of the needs of the church and state.

With the adoption of Christianity (988) from Slavic Bulgaria, which was experiencing a cultural dawn at that time, books were brought to Russia. Some of the books were rewritten into Bulgarian. The ancient Bulgarian language, called Church Slavonic in Russia, because liturgical books were written in it, was close to Old Russian and was well understood by Russian readers of that time. The Church Slavonic language, flexible and subtle, capable of expressing the most complex abstract ideas, greatly enriched the ancient Russian language and made it more expressive. Until now, synonyms live in our language: Russian-eyes, Slavic-eyes, and so on. Western Catholic countries were united by Latin, Slavic countries - Church Slavonic. From the end of the 10th to the beginning of the 11th century, translated books of a wide variety of genres, styles and purposes appeared in Russia. Here are biblical historical books, and Byzantine chronicles, and lyrical chants, sometimes joyful, sometimes full of sorrow and sadness. There are collections of oratorical works included in the art of eloquence of antiquity, and collections of aphorisms. Natural history and historical books were brought to Russia.

In the first half of the 11th century, “words” (speech) appeared in Russia. From the forties of the XI century, Metropolitan Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace" has been preserved, remarkable for its harmony and development of oratory techniques. Illarion was a “Rusin” (Russian) by birth, a priest of the country church of the Savior in the village of Berestovo near Kyiv (this church has survived to this day). Yaroslav the Wise appointed him metropolitan, head of the entire Russian church. In the "Sermon on Law and Grace", delivered in the presence of Yaroslav the Wise and his family, Hilarion gives a peculiar overview of world history and affirms the equality of the "new people", that is, the Russians who have recently been converted to Christianity, with the rest of the peoples of the Christian world.

The peak of the literature of the XII century is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" - a work characteristic of this century, when the art of the word reached a high development, and the consciousness of the need to preserve the unity of the Russian land was especially strong.

We do not know the names of the authors of the legends about Oleg's campaigns, about Olga's baptism or Svyatoslav's wars. The first known author of a literary work in Russia was the priest of the princely church in Berestov, later Metropolitan Hilarion. In the early 40s of the 11th century, he created his famous “Sermon on Law and Grace”. It speaks of the Church of the Annunciation at the Golden Gate, built in 1037, and mentions Irina (Ingigerda), the wife of Yaroslav the Wise, who died in 1050. The Word introduces us to the struggle between the religious and political ideas of the 11th century. Hilarion speaks in it about the baptism of Russia and praises Vladimir, who baptized the Russian land: “Let us praise our teacher and mentor, the great kagan of our land, Vladimir, the grandson of old Igor, the son of the glorious Svyatoslav, who in his years I rule, having courage and courage to listen to many countries and victories and fortresses are now commemorated even a word. Not in thine battles, not in the unknown land dominating, but in Ruska, even known and audible, there are all ends of the earth. Illarion appeals to Vladimir with a call to look at the greatness of Kyiv under Yaroslav, which the glorious city of Kyiv "like a crown overlaid with majesty." These words, apparently, should be understood as an indication of the newly built and majestic fortifications that surrounded the capital of the Kyiv princes. In the second half of the 11th century, other bright literary and journalistic works appeared: “The Memory and Praise of Vladimir” by monk Jacob, in which Hilarion’s ideas are further developed and applied to the historical figure of Vladimir I. At the same time, the “Legend of the initial spread of Christianity to Russia”, “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”, patron saints and defenders of the Russian land.

In the last quarter of the 11th century, the monk Nestor began to work on his compositions. Chronicle was his final fundamental work. Prior to that, he created the famous "Reading about the life of Boris and Gleb." In it, as in Hilarion's “Word,” as later in the Tale of Bygone Years, the ideas of the unity of Russia are heard, and tribute is paid to its defenders and guardians. Already at that time, Russian authors were worried about this growing political enmity in the Russian lands, in which they guessed a harbinger of a future political catastrophe.

Literature of the 12th century continues the traditions of Russian writings of the 11th century. New ecclesiastical and secular works are being created, marked by a vivid form, a wealth of thoughts, and broad generalizations; new genres of literature emerge.

In his declining years, Vladimir Monomakh wrote his famous Teaching to Children, which became one of the favorite readings of Russian people in the early Middle Ages. The teaching draws us in relief the life of the Russian princes of the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century. Vladimir Monomakh talks about his campaigns and travels. His whole life was spent in continuous wars with the Poles, then with the Polovtsy, then with hostile princes. It has 83 large campaigns, not counting small ones, as well as 19 peace treaties with the Polovtsy. To characterize the feudal ideology, the image of the ideal prince, drawn by Monomakh, is interesting. The prince should keep an eye on everything in the house, and not rely on a tiun or warrior (“lad”), so that they would not laugh at the order in the house and at dinner. During military campaigns, excess food and drink, as well as long sleep, should be avoided. By nightfall, appoint watchmen yourself, Monomakh instructs, and everyone, having settled around the army, go to bed, and get up early; and do not quickly take off your weapons from yourself, without looking out of laziness, “suddenly a person dies.” The prince's life is filled with wars and hunting, death is on the heels of a warrior. And this knightly ideology is perfectly expressed by the words of Monomakh, addressed to his second cousin Oleg Svyatoslavovich Chernigov. Monomakh offers him peace and friendship and promises not to avenge the death of his son, who was killed in battle with Oleg: “Is it wonderful that my husband died in the regiment” (is it any wonder that the warrior died during the battle). The teaching provides a lot of historical information that is not available in the annals; it is a valuable historical source.

At the beginning of the 12th century, one of Monomakh's associates, hegumen Daniel, creates his own, no less famous, "The Journey of Abbot Daniel to the Holy Places."

The pious Russian man went to the tomb of the Lord and made a long and difficult journey - to Constantinople, then through the islands of the Aegean Sea to the island of Crete, from there to Palestine and to Jerusalem, where at that time the first crusader state was founded, headed by King Baldwin. Daniel described in detail his entire journey, spoke about his stay at the court of the Jerusalem king, about the campaign with him against the Arabs. Daniel prayed at the tomb of the Lord, set up a lamp there from all the Russian land: near the tomb of Christ, he sang fifty liturgies "for the princes of Russia and for all Christians."

Both "Instruction" and "Walking" were the first genres of their kind in Russian literature.

XII - beginning of the XIII century. gave a lot of other bright religious and secular works, which replenished the treasury of Russian culture. Among them are “The Word” and “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik, who, having been in prison, having experienced a number of other worldly dramas, reflects on the meaning of life, on a harmonious person, on an ideal ruler. In the Lay, the author himself calls himself Daniil a sharpener, that is, a prisoner, an exile. The word is addressed to Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich. The message (Prayer) is addressed to Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich.

The word gives a curious characterization of feudal relations in the twelfth century. First of all, an indication of the importance of the personality of the prince as a feudal sovereign, to whom, depending on his personal qualities, “servants” - vassals gather, is striking: “Fingers harp, and the body is based on veins; the oak is strong with many roots; so our city is your power. Zane the prince is generous, the father is for many servants: many more leave the father and mother, resort to him. Serving a good master, you will earn a settlement, and serving an evil master, you will earn more work. The prince is glorious by those who surround him: “Pavoloka (expensive fabric) is more speckled with many sholkas and red, the face shows: so you, prince, are honest and glorious in all countries with many people.” The word of Daniil Zatochnik is the most valuable source for studying the class struggle in ancient Russian society. It repeatedly emphasizes the antagonism between the rich and the poor. The word vividly characterizes the orders of the patrimony of the period of feudal fragmentation: do not have a court near the tsar's court, Daniel exclaims, and do not keep a village near a princely village; his tiun is like a covered fire, and his “rankers” are like sparks. If you avoid fire, then you cannot “avoid yourself” from sparks and from burning clothes. The word of Daniel the Sharpener is woven from a number of aphorisms and teachings. It was this feature that made him very popular in medieval Russia.

In the Word, we also come across a constant theme of many ancient Russian writings - about evil wives. The ascetic nature of church writing contributed to the view of a woman as a "vessel of the devil." Here are a few attacks of the Sharpener against malevolent wives, if any husband looks at the beauty of his wife and at her affectionate and flattering words, but does not check her deeds, then God forbid he better get sick with a fever. Or in another place: “What is the wife of evil - the inn is indestructible, the blasphemer of demons. What is an evil wife? Worldly rebellion, blindness to the mind, leader of all malice, etc.

No less interesting is the second work associated with Daniil Zatochnik, the so-called Epistle (Prayer). The letter begins with an appeal to Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, whom researchers consider Pereyaslavsky, and later Grand Duke Yaroslav, son of Vsevolod the Big Nest. The message is extremely interesting in its social orientation. The author draws us the appearance of a prince of the era of feudal fragmentation, which is in good harmony with the biography of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, a warlike, intelligent and at the same time cruel prince: “The troops are wise, strong and strong cities; the brave regiments are strong and mad: on those there is a victory. Multitudes bo take up arms against large cities and from their own, from smaller ones, sit down. In this characterization of the prince, historical features are involuntarily felt. Such was Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, who chased the Novgorod table and often lost it. In the Epistle we read an unusually harsh review of monastic life: “Or you will say, prince: take the veil. So I did not see a dead man riding a pig, not a damn thing on a woman, I did not eat figs from oaks. Indeed, many, having departed from this world into monasticism, again return to worldly life and to worldly race, like dogs on their vomit: they go around the villages and houses of the glorious world of this world, like dogs caressing. Where there are weddings and feasts, there are blacks and blues and lawlessness. They wear an angelic image on themselves, but a dissolute disposition, a saintly one, have a dignity on themselves, and the custom is obscene.

Addressing his prince in the Prayer, Daniel says that a real person must combine the strength of Samson, the courage of Alexander the Great, the mind of Joseph, the wisdom of Solomon, the cunning of David. Turning to biblical stories and ancient history helps him convey his ideas to the addressee. A person, according to the author, should strengthen the heart with beauty and wisdom, help his neighbor in sorrow, show mercy to those in need, and resist evil. The humanist line of ancient Russian literature firmly asserts itself here as well.

An interesting monument of the XII century is the Epistle of Metropolitan Clement. Kliment Smolyatich, originally from Smolensk, was elected in 1147 by a council of Russian bishops as metropolitan of All Russia without the appointment of a patriarch, while other metropolitans were appointed patriarch in Constantinople. “The Epistle was written by Clement, Metropolitan of Russia, Thomas to the Presbyter, interpreted by Athanasius Mnich” was preserved in a manuscript of the 15th century. The authorship of Clement is attributed only to the first two parts, and the last to the monk Athanasius. The Epistle provides interesting material for characterizing the level of education in Kievan Rus. The author turns to Thomas with an answer to his message, which denounced Clement as proud of his philosophical knowledge, since Clement made references to Homer, Aristotle and Plato in his writings. Averting reproaches of pride from himself, Clement at the same time attacks those bishops who attach “house to house, villages to villages, and expel and syabry, and board, and reap, lyada and antiquity, from them the accursed Klim is very free."

In his “Parable of the Human Soul” (end of the 12th century), the Bishop of the city of Turov Kirill, relying on the Christian worldview, gives his own interpretation of the meaning of human existence, discusses the need for a constant connection between soul and body. At the same time, in his “Parable” he raises questions that are quite topical for Russian reality, reflects on the relationship between church and secular authorities, defends the national-patriotic idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land, which was especially important, while the Vladimir-Suzdal princes began to implement centralization policy on the eve of the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

Simultaneously with these works, where religious and secular motifs were constantly intertwined, scribes in monasteries, churches, in princely and boyar houses diligently copied church service books, prayers, collections of church traditions, biographies of saints, and ancient theological literature. All this wealth of religious, theological thought also constituted an integral part of the general Russian culture.

But, of course, the synthesis of Russian culture, the interweaving of pagan and Christian features, religious and secular, universal and national motives in it, sounded most clearly in the Tale of Igor's Campaign. The Word tells about the campaign of the Seversky princes in 1185, led by Prince Igor Svyatoslavovich against the Polovtsians. Shortly before this, the princes of Seversk refused to participate in the campaign against the Polovtsy, which was undertaken by their relative, Prince of Kyiv Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich. From the very beginning, the participants of the campaign were embarrassed by bad signs - an eclipse of the sun occurred. However, the princes decided to move on. The first battle was successful for the Russians. But things soon took a different turn. The Polovtsy defeated the Russian troops, and Igor Svyatoslavovich was taken prisoner, from which he escaped with the help of a certain Ovlur.

The word about Igor's regiment beautifully depicts princely relations at the end of the 12th century. In particular, the power of the two princes stands out, who, in terms of strength, are on a par with Svyatoslav of Kyiv or even higher than him. This Galician Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl and Vsevolod the Big Nest. Yaroslav sits high on his gold-forged table, he propped up the Carpathian (Hungarian) mountains with his iron regiments, closing the path for the Hungarian king and shutting the Danube gate for him, dominating all the way to the Danube. “Your thunderstorms are flowing across the lands, shooting a hundred gold of the saltani table behind the lands. Shoot, sir, Konchak, filthy koshcheya, for the Russian land, for the wounds of Igor, the bully Svyatoslavovich. This praise of Yaroslav of Galicia is confirmed in the annals. He was a wise, eloquent, God-fearing prince, revered in other lands, glorious in battles, we read in the annals of Yaroslav Galitsky.

No less powerful for the singer of the Word is the Vladimir-Suzdal prince Vsevolod the Big Nest. He addresses him with the words: “You can scatter the Volga with oars, and pour the Don with helmets.” If we recall that the Word about Igor's regiment was compiled in southern Russia, then such princely characteristics acquire special significance for us. They show the true balance of power between the princes of feudal Russia at the end of the 12th century, when the Galicia-Volyn and Vladimir-Suzdal lands were especially strengthened.

"The Tale of Igor's Campaign" has another remarkable feature. Created in the era of feudal fragmentation, it nevertheless testifies to the unity of the Russian people. The entire content of the Lay about Igor's Campaign rests on the notion that the Russian land can only fight against the Polovtsian raids as a whole. Patriotic words, full of ardent love for the motherland, about the Russian land hidden behind the hills sound like a constant chorus (“Oh, Russian land, you are already behind the Shelomian”).

The word unusually vividly depicts the feudal strife and strife of the princes, grieving that they are weakening the Russian land.

The Tale of Igor's Campaign is of great interest for studying the beliefs of ancient Russia. Nature is personified in Yaroslavna's lament: “About the wind, the sail! - Yaroslavna turns to the wind. - “What, sir, are you forcibly weighing? Why are the Khino arrows mooing on your easy wings in my own way howling? You never know how grief blows under the clouds, breezing ships on the blue sea. The river Dnieper is represented by the same living creature in Yaroslavna's lament. She even calls him with a patronymic - Slovutich. The Word also mentions the ancient Slavic deities. Bayan, named the grandson of Veles, the god of cattle and abundance, the patron saint of singers; Russians are the children of Dazhd-God, the great god of the sun.

Unlike other monuments of ancient Russian literature, the Word about Igor's Campaign does not reflect church ideology. Only once it mentions the Church of the Virgin Pirogoshcha, to which Igor goes when he returns to Kyiv.

The word about Igor's regiment included many legends unknown to us from other works. One of the sources for the author was Boyan's songs, to which he refers. Boyan recalled "the first days of strife." He sang songs about old Yaroslav, about the brave Mstislav, who slaughtered Redea in front of the Kasozhian regiments, about the beautiful Roman Svyatoslavovich.

We do not know the sources of the Word about Igor's regiment. But its author undoubtedly used a large number of oral traditions. This is confirmed by many epithets that find their analogy in the monuments of oral literature: “golden table”, “golden stirrup”, “gray eagle”, “blue sea”, “green grass”, “sharp swords”, “clear field”, “black crow".

A remarkable feature of the Lay about Igor's Campaign is its orientation. While the chronicles preserved mainly the Kievan tradition, the Tale of Igor's Campaign mainly reflects the Chernigov and Polotsk traditions. The singer's sympathies are on the side of the Chernigov princes. He writes about the “offense” of the Chernigov prince Oleg Svyatoslavovich, a young and brave prince, expelled by Vladimir Monomakh from his principality. But Vladimir himself is depicted as a cowardly prince plugging his ears from the ringing of Oleg's golden stirrups. The nickname “Gorislavich”, which the singer gives to Oleg, is an epithet denoting a person who became famous for his grief and misadventures.

The high artistic skill of the Lay is based not only on the folk tradition, but also on the Russian script known to the author. It is impossible not to see what pearls the author has selected in the annals and other works known to him! All this puts the "Word" next to the greatest monuments of Russian culture of the XII century.

The development of literature in the 15th century was facilitated by the cheapening of writing material: at that time, instead of expensive parchment, specially dressed calfskin, they began to use paper, which was imported from the West.

Serious changes are taking place in the literary manner of works. The upsurge that followed the Kulikovo victory led to the development of the so-called panegyric style: a style of pomp and solemnity, ornate and complex; it was figuratively called "weaving words" (meaning that the authors weaved word wreaths to the glory of ascetics and warriors). The most sophisticated writer who worked in this direction was Epiphanius the Wise and Pachomius Logofet, a native of Serbia. Both were writers - professionals, connoisseurs of the art of the word.

Such a delicate and elegant work as "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom", "The Life of Sergei Radonezh" dates back to the 15th century.

For the history of literature, the Book of Powers, a collection of biographies of the rulers of the Russian state, is of considerable interest. There are many legends in biographies, often of a romantic nature.

Among the interesting works of the middle of the 16th century is Domostroy; its creation is attributed to Sylvester, a priest of the Annunciation Church in the Kremlin.

Old Russian literature is valuable both for its own artistic achievements and for the fact that it paved the way for the emergence of the great Russian literature of modern times. Knowledge of ancient Russian literature helps to understand the literature of the 19th-20th centuries more fully and deeply.

But the value of ancient Russian literature is not only in this. It is for us that pure and life-giving source to which we turn in times of trouble and trial, “in days of doubt, in days of painful reflection,” as well as in times of upsurge. We draw deep thoughts from it, find high ideals, beautiful images in it. Her faith in goodness and the victory of justice, her ardent patriotism strengthen and inspire us. M. V. Lomonosov called the Russian chronicles "books of glorious deeds." The same can be said about most of the Old Russian stories.

CREATION

SCHOOL ESSAYS

The image of the hero in ancient Russian literature

"The first historical works allow the people to realize themselves in the historical process, to reflect on their role in world history, to understand the roots of contemporary events and their responsibility to the future."
Academician D. S. Likhachev

Old Russian literature, which includes epics, fairy tales, lives of saints, and (later) stories, is not just a cultural monument. This is a unique opportunity to get acquainted with the life, everyday life, spiritual world and moral principles of our distant ancestors, a kind of bridge connecting modernity and antiquity.
So, what is he, the ancient Russian hero of literature?

The first thing to note is that the depiction of a person in general in ancient Russian literature is very peculiar. The author deliberately avoids accuracy, certainty, detail, indicating a specific character. Professional activity or belonging to a certain social category determines the personality. If we have a monk in front of us, his monastic qualities are important, if the prince is princely, if the hero is heroic. The life of the saints is depicted specifically outside of time and space, being the standard of ethical standards.
The disclosure of the character of the hero of the story occurs through a description of his actions (acts, exploits). The author does not pay attention to the reasons that prompted the hero to this or that act, the motivation remains behind the scenes.
The Old Russian hero is an integral and uncompromising personality, living according to the principle: "I see the goal, I do not notice obstacles, I believe in myself." His image seems to be carved out of a granite monolith, his actions are based on unshakable confidence in the rightness of his cause. His activities are aimed at the good of his native land, for the good of fellow citizens. The epic hero, for example, is a collective image of the defender of the Motherland, albeit endowed with certain supernatural abilities, a model of civil behavior.
Whoever the hero is, he is courageous, honest, kind, generous, devoted to his Motherland and people, never looking for his own benefit, an Orthodox Christian. This man is strong, proud and unusually stubborn. Obviously, this fantastic stubbornness, so splendidly described by N.V. Gogol in the story "Taras Bulba", allows a person to achieve the task that he himself has determined for himself. For example, St. Sergius of Radonezh flatly refuses to become a metropolitan, Fevronia, contrary to her social status, becomes a princess, Ilya Muromets, not only defends Kyiv, but exterminates the enemies of the Russian land according to her own understanding.
A characteristic feature of the hero of ancient Russian literature is the absence of chauvinism, a humane attitude towards people of different nationalities. With all the patriotism, there is no aggressiveness. Thus, in the Tale of Igor's Campaign, the struggle against the Polovtsy is regarded as the defense of the Russian people from unexpected predatory raids. In the epic "The Legend of the Walking of the Kyiv Bogatyrs to Constantinople" "... young Tugarin is released to Constantinople and taught to conjure so that they do not come to Russia for centuries."
St. Sergius of Radonezh, blessing Prince Dmitry for the battle with Mamai, says: "Go against the barbarians, rejecting the great doubt, and God will help you. You will defeat your enemies and return healthy to your fatherland."
Female images of ancient Russian literature carry creation, the warmth of a family hearth, love and fidelity. These are unusually subtle and intelligent representatives of the beautiful half of humanity, who know how to achieve their goal not by force, but by reason.
The man of ancient Russia is inextricably linked with the nature around him. And although in ancient Russian literature there is no description of the landscape in the usual sense of the word for modern man, but the presence of living, animated forests and fields, rivers and lakes, flowers and herbs, animals and birds give the impression of an inseparable connection between people and the living world around.
The description of nature is most clearly expressed in the "Word ...", where natural phenomena, the animal world empathize with the hero:
"... The night has passed, and the bloody dawns
They proclaim disaster in the morning.
A cloud is moving in from the sea
For four princely tents….."
In all other works, the landscape is drawn extremely poorly, sometimes there is almost none at all.
However, St. Sergius seeks solitude among virgin forests, and Fevronia turns tree stumps into large trees with branches and foliage.

In general, we understand the language in which ancient Russian works of literature are written, because this, although ancient, is still Russian!
There certainly are outdated words (guni - outerwear, eliko - only, monk - monk, adamant - diamond, span - measure of length, incense - incense), the meaning of which is difficult to guess right away, but in the context of the work one can understand their meaning (prayer - worship, zegzitsa - cuckoo). Old Russian literature uses a very vivid, lively and figurative language. There is a lot of dialogic speech, respectively, colloquial vocabulary is used, which makes these works unusually folk. In ancient Russian literature, there are many epithets (silver shores, pearl soul) and comparisons (leaped like an ermine, swam like a white gogol, flew like a falcon, ran like a wolf, like a cuckoo, calls in a jura). Literary works are melodious, musical and unhurried due to the large number of vowels and sonorous sounds.
It is worth mentioning that the author does not use such an important thing as a portrait, without which we cannot imagine modern literature. Perhaps, in those days, the idea of ​​a particular hero was common, and it was not necessary to describe his appearance, because it (the idea) was unspoken.
Also a means of artistic expression is epic hyperbolization and idealization.
The technique of hyperbolization is widely used in epics, the capabilities of many heroes and objects are exaggerated, enlivening and emphasizing events. (For example, the description of Idol Skoropeevich in the Bogatyr Word:
"And growth is good, not according to custom,
Between his eyes, an arrow is going well,
Between his shoulders he has a large fathom,
His eyes are like bowls
And his head is like a beer cauldron.)
The method of idealization is a method of artistic generalization that allows the author to create an image based on his ideas about how it should be (saints are ideal, family values ​​are unshakable).
All elements of the composition (Prologue => Start of the action => Development of the action => Climax => Denouement => Epilogue) are present only in "The Tale of Igor's Campaign", and in epics, stories and lives there is no prologue, and the starting point of the action is the plot.
The spiritual values ​​defended by the heroes of ancient Russian literature are still relevant today, almost a thousand years later. National independence, solidarity and unity of the nation, family values, Christian values ​​(= universal values) are close and understandable to every citizen of Russia. The connection of times is obvious.
The first moral writings, socio-political writings, clarify social norms of behavior, make it possible to more widely disseminate the ideas of responsibility of each for the fate of the people and the country, instill patriotism and at the same time respect for other peoples.
The richness of the Russian language is the result of almost a thousand years of development of Russian literature.
In ancient Russia there was a beauty of moral depth, moral subtlety and, at the same time, moral might.
To join the ancient Russian literature is a great happiness and great joy.

Bibliography:
B.A. Rybakov "The World of History" 1984
D.S. Likhachev "Anthology of Old Russian Literature"

The literature of Ancient Russia arose in the 11th century. and developed over the course of seven centuries until the Petrine era. Old Russian literature is a single entity with all the variety of genres, themes, and images. This literature is the focus of Russian spirituality and patriotism. On the pages of these works, there are conversations about the most important philosophical, moral problems that heroes of all centuries think about, talk about, and meditate on. The works form love for the Fatherland and their people, show the beauty of the Russian land, therefore these works touch the innermost strings of our hearts.

The significance of Old Russian literature as the basis for the development of new Russian literature is very great. So images, ideas, even the style of compositions were inherited by A.S. Pushkin, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy.

Old Russian literature did not arise from scratch. Its appearance was prepared by the development of the language, oral folk art, cultural ties with Byzantium and Bulgaria, and was conditioned by the adoption of Christianity as a single religion. The first literary works that appeared in Russia were translated. Those books that were necessary for worship were translated.

The very first original works, that is, written by the Eastern Slavs themselves, belong to the end of the 11th-beginning of the 12th century. in. There was a formation of Russian national literature, its traditions were formed, features that determine its specific features, a certain dissimilarity with the literature of our days.

The purpose of this work is to show the features of Old Russian literature and its main genres.

Features of Old Russian literature

1. Historicism of content.

Events and characters in literature, as a rule, are the fruit of the author's fiction. The authors of works of art, even if they describe the true events of real people, conjecture a lot. But in ancient Russia, everything was completely different. The Old Russian scribe told only about what, according to his ideas, really happened. Only in the XVII century. Everyday stories appeared in Russia with fictional characters and plots.

Both the ancient Russian scribe and his readers firmly believed that the events described actually happened. So the chronicles were a kind of legal document for the people of Ancient Russia. After the death in 1425 of the Moscow prince Vasily Dmitrievich, his younger brother Yuri Dmitrievich and son Vasily Vasilyevich began to argue about their rights to the throne. Both princes turned to the Tatar Khan to judge their dispute. At the same time, Yuri Dmitrievich, defending his rights to reign in Moscow, referred to ancient chronicles, which reported that power had previously passed from the prince-father not to his son, but to his brother.

2. Handwritten nature of existence.

Another feature of Old Russian literature is the handwritten nature of existence. Even the appearance of the printing press in Russia did little to change the situation until the middle of the 18th century. The existence of literary monuments in manuscripts led to a special reverence for the book. What even separate treatises and instructions were written about. But on the other hand, handwritten existence led to the instability of ancient Russian works of literature. Those writings that have come down to us are the result of the work of many, many people: the author, editor, copyist, and the work itself could continue for several centuries. Therefore, in scientific terminology, there are such concepts as "manuscript" (handwritten text) and "list" (rewritten work). A manuscript may contain lists of various works and may be written by the author himself or by scribes. Another fundamental concept in textual criticism is the term "redaction", i.e., the purposeful processing of a monument caused by socio-political events, changes in the function of the text, or differences in the language of the author and editor.

The existence of a work in manuscripts is closely related to such a specific feature of Old Russian literature as the problem of authorship.

The authorial principle in ancient Russian literature is muted, implicit; Old Russian scribes were not careful with other people's texts. When rewriting the texts, they were reworked: some phrases or episodes were excluded from them or some episodes were inserted into them, stylistic "decorations" were added. Sometimes the ideas and assessments of the author were even replaced by the opposite ones. Lists of one work differed significantly from each other.

Old Russian scribes did not at all seek to reveal their involvement in literary writing. Very many monuments remained anonymous, the authorship of others was established by researchers on indirect grounds. So it is impossible to attribute to someone else the writings of Epiphanius the Wise, with his sophisticated "weaving of words." The style of Ivan the Terrible's epistles is inimitable, impudently mixing eloquence and rude abuse, learned examples and the style of a simple conversation.

It happens that in the manuscript one or another text was signed by the name of an authoritative scribe, which may equally correspond or not correspond to reality. So among the works attributed to the famous preacher St. Cyril of Turov, many, apparently, do not belong to him: the name of Cyril of Turov gave additional authority to these works.

The anonymity of literary monuments is also due to the fact that the Old Russian "writer" consciously did not try to be original, but tried to show himself as traditional as possible, that is, to comply with all the rules and regulations of the established canon.

4. Literary etiquette.

Well-known literary critic, researcher of ancient Russian literature academician D.S. Likhachev proposed a special term for the designation of the canon in the monuments of medieval Russian literature - "literary etiquette".

Literary etiquette is composed of:

From the idea of ​​how this or that course of an event should have taken place;

From ideas about how the actor should have behaved in accordance with his position;

From the ideas of what words the writer had to describe what is happening.

Before us is the etiquette of the world order, the etiquette of behavior and verbal etiquette. The hero is supposed to behave in this way, and the author is supposed to describe the hero only in appropriate terms.

The main genres of ancient Russian literature

The literature of modern times is subject to the laws of the "poetics of the genre". It was this category that began to dictate the ways of creating a new text. But in ancient Russian literature, the genre did not play such an important role.

A sufficient number of studies have been devoted to the genre originality of Old Russian literature, but there is still no clear classification of genres. However, some genres immediately stood out in ancient Russian literature.

1. Hagiographic genre.

Life is a description of the life of a saint.

Russian hagiographic literature includes hundreds of works, the first of which were written already in the 11th century. Life, which came to Russia from Byzantium along with the adoption of Christianity, became the main genre of ancient Russian literature, the literary form in which the spiritual ideals of Ancient Russia were clothed.

The compositional and verbal forms of life have been polished for centuries. A lofty theme - a story about a life that embodies the ideal service to the world and God - determines the image of the author and the style of narration. The author of the life narrates with excitement, he does not hide his admiration for the holy ascetic, admiration for his righteous life. The emotionality of the author, his excitement paint the whole story in lyrical tones and contribute to the creation of a solemn mood. This atmosphere is also created by the style of narration - high solemn, full of quotations from the Holy Scriptures.

When writing a life, the hagiographer (the author of the life) had to follow a number of rules and canons. The composition of the correct life should be three-part: an introduction, a story about the life and deeds of a saint from birth to death, praise. In the introduction, the author apologizes to the readers for their inability to write, for the rudeness of the narration, etc. The life itself followed the introduction. It cannot be called a "biography" of a saint in the full sense of the word. The author of the life selects from his life only those facts that do not contradict the ideals of holiness. The story about the life of a saint is freed from everything everyday, concrete, random. In a life compiled according to all the rules, there are few dates, exact geographical names, names of historical persons. The action of life takes place, as it were, outside historical time and concrete space, it unfolds against the backdrop of eternity. Abstraction is one of the features of hagiographic style.

At the conclusion of the life there should be praise to the saint. This is one of the most important parts of life, requiring great literary art, a good knowledge of rhetoric.

The oldest Russian hagiographic monuments are two lives of princes Boris and Gleb and The Life of Theodosius of Pechora.

2. Eloquence.

Eloquence is an area of ​​creativity characteristic of the most ancient period in the development of our literature. Monuments of church and secular eloquence are divided into two types: instructive and solemn.

Solemn eloquence required depth of conception and great literary skill. The orator needed the ability to effectively build a speech in order to capture the listener, set it up in a high way, corresponding to the topic, shake him with pathos. There was a special term for solemn speech - "word". (There was no terminological unity in ancient Russian literature. A military story could also be called a “Word.”) Speeches were not only delivered, but written and distributed in numerous copies.

Solemn eloquence did not pursue narrowly practical goals, it required the formulation of problems of a wide social, philosophical and theological scope. The main reasons for the creation of "words" are theological issues, questions of war and peace, defense of the borders of the Russian land, domestic and foreign policy, the struggle for cultural and political independence.

The oldest monument of solemn eloquence is Metropolitan Hilarion's Sermon on Law and Grace, written between 1037 and 1050.

Teaching eloquence is teachings and conversations. They are usually small in volume, often devoid of rhetorical embellishments, written in the Old Russian language, which was generally accessible to the people of that time. Teachings could be given by church leaders, princes.

Teachings and conversations have purely practical purposes, they contain the information necessary for a person. "Instruction to the brethren" by Luke Zhidyata, Bishop of Novgorod from 1036 to 1059, contains a list of rules of conduct that a Christian should adhere to: do not take revenge, do not say "shameful" words. Go to church and behave in it quietly, honor elders, judge by the truth, honor your prince, do not curse, keep all the commandments of the Gospel.

Theodosius of Pechersk, founder of the Kiev Caves Monastery. He owns eight teachings to the brethren, in which Theodosius reminds the monks of the rules of monastic behavior: do not be late for church, make three bows to the earth, observe deanery and order when singing prayers and psalms, and bow to each other when meeting. In his teachings, Theodosius of Pechorsky demands a complete renunciation of the world, abstinence, constant prayer and vigil. The abbot severely denounces idleness, money-grubbing, intemperance in food.

3. Chronicle.

Chronicles were called weather (by "years" - by "years") records. The annual record began with the words: "In the summer." After that, there was a story about events and incidents that, from the point of view of the chronicler, were worthy of the attention of posterity. These could be military campaigns, raids by steppe nomads, natural disasters: droughts, crop failures, etc., as well as simply unusual incidents.

It is thanks to the work of chroniclers that modern historians have an amazing opportunity to look into the distant past.

Most often, the ancient Russian chronicler was a learned monk, who sometimes spent many years compiling the chronicle. In those days, it was customary to start a story about history from ancient times and only then move on to the events of recent years. The chronicler had first of all to find, put in order, and often rewrite the work of his predecessors. If the compiler of the chronicle had at his disposal not one, but several chronicle texts at once, then he had to "reduce" them, that is, combine them, choosing from each one that he considered necessary to include in his own work. When the materials relating to the past were collected, the chronicler proceeded to present the incidents of his time. The result of this great work was the annalistic code. After some time, this code was continued by other chroniclers.

Apparently, the first major monument of ancient Russian chronicle writing was the annalistic code, compiled in the 70s of the 11th century. The compiler of this code is believed to have been the abbot of the Kiev Caves Monastery Nikon the Great (? - 1088).

Nikon's work formed the basis of another annalistic code, which was compiled in the same monastery two decades later. In the scientific literature, he received the conditional name "Initial Code". Its unnamed compiler supplemented Nikon's collection not only with news of recent years, but also with chronicle information from other Russian cities.

"The Tale of Bygone Years"

Based on the annals of the tradition of the 11th century. The greatest annalistic monument of the era of Kievan Rus - "The Tale of Bygone Years" - was born.

It was compiled in Kyiv in the 10s. 12th c. According to some historians, its likely compiler was the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Nestor, also known for his other writings. When creating The Tale of Bygone Years, its compiler drew on numerous materials with which he supplemented the Primary Code. Among these materials were Byzantine chronicles, texts of treaties between Russia and Byzantium, monuments of translated and ancient Russian literature, and oral traditions.

The compiler of The Tale of Bygone Years set as his goal not only to tell about the past of Russia, but also to determine the place of the Eastern Slavs among European and Asian peoples.

The chronicler tells in detail about the settlement of the Slavic peoples in antiquity, about the settlement by the Eastern Slavs of the territories that would later become part of the Old Russian state, about the customs and customs of different tribes. The "Tale of Bygone Years" emphasizes not only the antiquities of the Slavic peoples, but also the unity of their culture, language and writing, created in the 9th century. brothers Cyril and Methodius.

The chronicler considers the adoption of Christianity to be the most important event in the history of Russia. The story about the first Russian Christians, about the baptism of Russia, about the spread of a new faith, the construction of churches, the emergence of monasticism, the success of Christian enlightenment occupies a central place in the Tale.

The wealth of historical and political ideas reflected in The Tale of Bygone Years suggests that its compiler was not just an editor, but also a talented historian, a deep thinker, and a bright publicist. Many chroniclers of subsequent centuries turned to the experience of the creator of the "Tale", sought to imitate him and almost always placed the text of the monument at the beginning of each new chronicle collection.