Palace coups

Russia in the era of palace coups

History of Russia in the second quarter of the 18th century. was characterized by a sharp struggle of noble groups for power, which led to frequent changes in the reigning persons on the throne, rearrangements in their immediate environment. Six reigns over 37 years - this is what characterizes the so-called era of palace coups.

The reasons for the palace coups, according to most historians, were:

decree of Peter 1 of 1722 on the succession to the throne;

a large number of direct and indirect heirs of the Romanov dynasty;

contradictions between the autocratic power, the ruling elite and the ruling class.

IN. Klyuchevsky associated the onset of political instability after the death of Peter 1 with the "autocracy" of the latter, who decided to break the traditional order of succession to the throne (when the throne passed in a direct male descending line) - by the Charter of February 5, 1722, the autocrat was granted the right to appoint himself a successor of his own free will. “Rarely did autocracy punish itself so cruelly as in the person of Peter with this law of February 5,” Klyuchevsky concluded. However, Peter 1 did not have time to appoint an heir: the throne turned out to be given "to chance and became his toy." From now on, it was not the law that determined who would sit on the throne, but the guard, which at that time was the "dominant force."

There were a large number of direct and indirect heirs of the Romanov dynasty. In particular, there were three applicants for the throne: Ekaterina Alekseevna, her youngest daughter Elizaveta Petrovna (the eldest Anna renounced the Russian throne for herself and her offspring in 1724) and the grandson of Peter 1, the son of Tsarevich Alexei, 10-year-old Peter Alekseevich . The question of who would take a place on the throne was to be decided by the emperor's inner circle, the highest officials and the generals. Representatives of the tribal aristocracy (first of all, the princes Golitsyn, Dolgorukov) defended the rights of Peter Alekseevich. However, the "new" nobility, the "chicks of Petrov's nest" headed by A.D. Menshikov, behind whom the guards stood, wished for the accession of Catherine.

Very often in the literature they talk about the “insignificance” of the successors of Peter 1. According, for example, N.P. than about the affairs of the state.

After the death of Peter, state ties, legal and moral, break one after another, after this break the idea of ​​the state fades, leaving behind an empty word in government acts. The most autocratic empire in the world, found itself without an established dynasty, with only some placeless remnants of a dying royal house; hereditary throne without legitimate succession to the throne; a state locked in a palace with random and rapidly changing masters; a ruling class of mixed composition, well-born or highly bureaucratic, but itself completely powerless and shuffled every minute; court intrigue, guard action and police investigation - all the content of the political life of the country.

Palace coups, however, were not state coups, because. did not pursue the goal of radical changes in political power and state structure (with the exception of the events of 1730). Coups were reduced to a change of persons on the throne and shake-ups in the ruling elite.

The initiators of the coups were various palace groups, each of which sought to elevate its protege to the throne. A fierce struggle unfolded between the nominees (Menshikov's party), who supported Catherine 1, and the old Moscow nobility (the Golitsyn-Dolgoruky group), who advocated the candidacy of Peter 2. In addition, the guards were the driving force behind the coups. It was with the support of the guards units of A.D. Menshikov and other associates of Peter enthroned the wife of the late Catherine 1 (1725-1727).

Despite the frequent change of monarchs, the main line of government policy clearly emerges - the further strengthening of the position of the noble landlords and some measures in favor of the emerging Russian bourgeoisie. In one government decree, the nobility was called "the main member of the state." The Russian nobility received benefit after benefit. Now the officer rank of noble children grew up along with the children themselves: having reached the age of majority, they automatically became officers. The term of service for the nobles was limited to 25 years. Many of the nobles received the right not to serve at all, the vacations of the nobles to manage their estates became more frequent. All restrictions on any transactions with noble estates have been canceled. Those nobles who actively contributed to the assertion of any reigning person on the throne, gratuitously complained of land, peasants and state-owned factories. The nobles received the exclusive right to distillation. In the interests of the nobles, the collection of internal customs duties was abolished.

2. The accession of Catherine opened the palace coups of the middle of the XVIII century. In May 1724, in the main temple of Russia - the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin - the ceremony of coronation of the wife of the first Russian emperor took place. The French ambassador J.-J. Campredon reported to Paris: “It is very and especially noteworthy that, contrary to custom, the rite of anointing was performed on the queen in such a way that she was recognized as ruler and empress after the death of the king, her husband.”

Almost unlimited influence on Catherine, who was completely incapable of state activity, was exerted by Menshikov. He and Catherine had a long friendship; according to many historians, they simply needed each other's help to face their enemies. Menshikov became the de facto ruler of Russia.

The reign of Catherine did not last long - until her death on May 5, 1727. She was a weak ruler who lived, according to V.O. Klyuchevsky "safely and even cheerfully, did little business, dismissed the administration."

The struggle for power in the court factions flared up more and more. Under the empress, the Supreme Privy Council was established with broad powers limiting royal power (February 8, 1726), which became evidence of the “helplessness” of Catherine 1. It received great powers: the council received the right to appoint senior officials, manage finances, manage the activities of the Senate, Synod and colleges. The Supreme Privy Council included A.D. Menshikov, P.A. Tolstoy, G.I. Golovkin, F.M. Apraksin, A.I. Osterman and the most prominent representative of the old nobility D.M. Golitsyn. Recognizing the role of the real government of the country behind the council, it should be emphasized that he was with the person of the empress. The "supervisors" themselves recognized that the council was imperial, since Catherine "rules the presidency" in it, and their duty is "only Her Majesty's relief" to serve. The Supreme Privy Council was a purely “absolutist body” and traced its lineage to the tacit councils of Peter 1 - it was Peter who came up with the idea of ​​​​creating a small in composition, more flexible than the Senate, a permanent body. Its creation corresponded to the task of concentrating power in the hands of an absolute monarch. The same goal was pursued under Catherine by the restructuring of the work of the collegiums (downsizing, a tendency towards unity of command), the local state apparatus. A decree of March 15, 1727, ordered “to leave all the court courts, as well as all superfluous stewards and chancelleries and their offices, chamberlains and zemstvo commissars and others like that, and put all the reprisals and the court as before on the governors and governor.” Catherine 1 ordered the withdrawal of army regiments "from eternal apartments" and resettle them in suburban settlements. This measure, undoubtedly, alleviated the position of the peasants, since the maintenance of the regiments fell, according to Klyuchevsky, "a heavy and insulting burden" on the village; constantly "the soldiers with the peasants" had "disagreements".

The nearest support of the throne was the guards regiments, noble in composition. They represented that real armed force at the court, which could contribute to both the enthronement and the deposition of kings. Therefore, the rulers tried in every possible way to enlist the support of the guard, showered her with signs of attention and favors.

Before her death, the Empress appointed Peter Alekseevich as her successor. This appointment was demanded by the members of the Supreme Privy Council, the Synod, the presidents of the colleges, the guards. In particular, A.D. As early as 1726, Menshikov secretly went over to the side of the son of Tsarevich Alexei, planning to marry him to his daughter. In the hope of maintaining his leading position, A.D. Menshikov did not interfere with the princes Dolgoruky and Golitsyn when they put on the throne the 12-year-old grandson of Peter 1 (son of Tsarevich Alexei) - Peter 2 (1727-1730). Menshikov decided to marry Peter 2 to his daughter. But he was bypassed by the Dolgorukis, who were more successful in wooing an eccentric youth in the crown: Peter 2 made an offer to one of the Dolgoruky princesses. With the accession of Peter Alekseevich, Menshikov managed to become the sole guardian of the boy-emperor and, in essence, the regent of the state. However, the prince soon fell seriously ill, which was not slow to take advantage of his recent associates, and now enemies, dissatisfied with the extraordinary strengthening of Menshikov's power, primarily Osterman and Dolgorukov. For five weeks of the prince's illness, they were able to persuade Peter to their side. September 8 Menshikov announced the order of the Supreme Privy Council on house arrest, and then the decree of the emperor to deprive him of his ranks and awards and exile. Menshikov was removed from all posts, deprived of his huge fortune and exiled to Siberia with his family.

Peter 2 did not show any inclination for state affairs, but he was passionately fond of hunting, dogs, revels. According to one historian, at this time the main state institution was the kennel.

But Dolgoruky also failed. Shortly before the wedding, Peter 2 fell ill with smallpox and died. Before the "supreme leaders" (as the members of the Supreme Privy Council were called), the problem of succession to the throne arose again.

After a behind-the-scenes struggle, it was decided to betray the Russian crown to the niece of Peter the Great, the daughter of his older brother Ivan, Anna Ivanovna.

Anna Ivanovna was the Dowager Duchess of Courland and lived in Mitau. The leaders set out to limit the autocratic tsarist power and, together with an invitation to the throne, sent Anna Ivanovna secret "conditions" (conditions), drawn up in the spirit of a constitutional monarchy. According to the "conditions", the future empress was obliged, without the consent of the Supreme Privy Council, not to appoint senior officials, not to resolve issues of war and peace, not to manage public finances, etc. Only after Anna signed them, she was allowed to take the throne. Many nobles from different parts of Russia gathered in Moscow for the celebrations on the occasion of the proposed wedding of Peter 2. No matter how hard the leaders tried to hide their plan to limit the royal power, this became known to wide sections of the nobility, which had already received so much from this government and hoped to receive even more. A broad opposition movement unfolded among the nobility and clergy. Conditions limited the autocracy, but not in the interests of the nobility, but in favor of its aristocratic elite, which sat in the Supreme Privy Council. The mood of the ordinary gentry was well conveyed in one of the notes that went from hand to hand: "God save that instead of one autocratic sovereign, ten autocratic and strong families do not become!" At a large reception at the Empress's on February 25, 1730, the oppositionists directly turned to Anna with a request "to accept autocracy such as your glorious and laudable ancestors had, and those sent ... from the Supreme Council ... to destroy the points." Strong noble opposition to the leaders was evident, after which, feigning indignation at the fact that the conditions of the leaders were not approved by the nobility, the empress publicly tore the document and threw it on the floor. The guards were on the alert here too, expressing their full approval of the preservation of autocratic tsarist power. The Manifesto of February 28 announced its “acceptance” of “autocracy”.

The reign of Empress Anna lasted 10 years (1730-1740). At this time, many German nobles from Courland descended on Russia, and a complete dominance of foreigners was established in the country. The lazy and vindictive queen relied on her favorite, the Baltic German Biron, for everything. This time was dubbed Bironism, for Biron, a greedy and mediocre man, personified all the dark sides of the rulers of that time: unrestrained arbitrariness, shameless embezzlement, senseless cruelty. The secret police raged everywhere, and death sentences followed one after another. A contemporary aptly commented on the mental abilities of the queen's favorite: Biron speaks of horses and with horses like a man, and with people and people like a horse.

The predilection of a temporary worker (formerly a groom) for horses was boundless. However, Anna Ivanovna also had a weakness for hunting, dogs and horseback riding, not inferior to men in this. There were all sorts of rumors about the quirks of the Empress. She, for example, could not fall asleep without listening to the tale of the robbers. On her orders, they searched everywhere for “talkative women” who knew how to invent and tell scary stories. Princes were with her as jesters. The wedding of the jester in the “ice house”, built by order of the queen, received scandalous and sad fame.

The problem of "Bironism" has attracted the attention of historians more than once. There are still conflicting assessments of the state activities of Anna Ivanovna. Some historians say that it was during the reign that “the Germans fell into Russia like rubbish from a holey bag”, others agree that foreigners “fell down” long before the reign of Anna and their number was never frightening for the Russian people. From time immemorial, foreign specialists came to work in Russia, and Peter the Great opened the doors of the country especially widely for them. Many of Anna Ivanovna's orders were not aimed at protecting the interests of foreigners, but, on the contrary, defended the honor of Russians. For example, it was under Anna that the difference in salary, which was painful for Russian officers, was eliminated: they began to receive the same amount as foreigners, and not half as much as it was under Peter 1. Thus, “Bironism” did not put foreigners in any then special fabulous conditions. The internal situation of the country during the “Bironism” in the literature is also characterized as very dramatic: “The people, and with it the state economy,” writes Klyuchevsky, “were upset. Trade has dropped. However, the data of many other historians, especially modern ones, prove the opposite, namely, that the ideas about the decline of trade are not based on anything. The foreign policy of Russia during the reign of Anna did not undergo significant changes in comparison with the Petrine period and was not a deviation from the principles of the tsar-transformer.

The Russian nobles were not worried about the "dominance of foreigners", but the strengthening under Anna Ioannovna of the uncontrolled power of both foreign and Russian "strong persons", the oligarchic claims of part of the nobility. At the center of the struggle that went on within the nobility, therefore, was not a national, but a political question.

Anna Ioannovna herself actively participated in government. Historians note her "clearness of view and fidelity of judgment, constant search for the truth", "methodical mindset, love of order." In the reign of Anna, there is a further strengthening of the relative independence of the absolutist power. This was facilitated by the transformation of the public administration system. They began under the sign of a return to the precepts of Peter 1: on March 4, 1730, a manifesto followed on the abolition of the Supreme Privy Council and the restoration of the Governing Senate "on such a basis and in such strength as it was under Peter the Great." However, a small council under the Empress was soon created, which received the name of the Cabinet of Ministers in a decree of October 18, 1731. It included Osterman, Count G.I. Golovkin and Prince A.M. Cherkassky; after Golovkin's death, he was successively replaced by P.I. Yaguzhinsky, A.P. Volynsky and A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin. In fact, the Cabinet was the direct successor to the Supreme Privy Council. The line was continued on the subordination of the church to the state and the transformation of the clergy into a specific kind of bureaucracy obedient to the autocracy. Thus, on April 15, 1738, the Board of Economy was withdrawn from the Synod's department and transferred to the Senate. Together with her, the palace and state orders that existed under the Synod were also transferred there. In fact, the Synod became a bureaucratic institution that could only be supported by salaries from the general state treasury. During the reign of Anna Ioannovna, the nobility was returned the right to dispose of estates, which allowed them to divide their estates among all children. From now on, all estates were recognized as the full property of their owners. The collection of the poll tax from the serfs was transferred to their owners. The landowner was now obliged to observe the behavior of his serfs. In addition, however, the government obliged the landowners to feed their peasants in lean years. Thus, we can conclude that, in general, the absolutist state pursued a pro-noble policy - the nobility was its social support.

Shortly before her death, Anna Ivanovna declared Ivan Antonovich, the son of her niece Anna Leopoldovna, the heir to the throne, and Biron as regent (ruler) with full power. However, Biron did not remain in power for long. It became known that he was flirting with the contender for the throne - "Petrova's daughter" Elizabeth, was holding some kind of negotiations with her and allegedly wanted to marry her eldest son. Rumors spread that the regent intended to remove Osterman's cabinet minister, Field Marshal B.K. Minich and other influential dignitaries. Fearing this, yesterday's allies of the regent strike a preemptive strike: Biron was arrested on the night of November 7-8, 1740. Less than a month has passed since the death of Anna Ioannovna. The Guard overthrew the hated ruler.

Anna Leopoldovna is declared regent, but she was destined to remain in power for no more than a year. Dissatisfaction with her caused strong unrest in the nobility and guards regiments. Soon, the daughter of Peter 1, Princess Elizabeth, who had been in the shadow until then, supported by the guards, made a new palace coup and was proclaimed empress. She reigned for 20 years (1741-1761).

Traditionally, historical literature states that the coup of 1741 was of a “patriotic”, “anti-German” nature and was the culmination of the struggle of the Russian nobility against “foreign dominance” in the country. In fact, the guardsmen who participated in the conspiracy were inspired by the idea of ​​restoring strong autocratic power in Russia, which had been shaken under the baby emperor. An active role in the preparation of the coup was played by "foreigners" Johann Lestok and the French ambassador J. Chétardie. It is also important that under Elizabeth there were no cardinal changes in the composition of the ruling elite of the state apparatus - only the most odious figures were removed. Outwardly, it seemed that “new” times had come. The Cabinet of Ministers was abolished and the personal office of the Empress was established, similar in function to the Cabinet of Peter the Great. . The Empress founded the first real university - Moscow. On the very first day after the coup, a temporary body was created - “the meeting of Messrs. Ministers and generals" of 11 people, called the "council of 11". In the future, the role of the imperial council was played by “meetings” specially convened by Elizabeth, and in 1756 the Conference at the royal court was established - the direct successor to the Supreme Privy Council and the Cabinet of Ministers. One can thus speak of the stability of the supreme councils under the person of the monarch as an institution of Russian absolutism, its essential element. A secret investigative office has been preserved - the successor to the gloomy memory of the Preobrazhensky order.

Under the conditions of centralization, the collegiate system was degrading - one-man management turned out to be more effective. The presidents of the collegiums basically made decisions themselves, and the members of the collegiums only signed them later. Under Elizabeth, the question arose of the secularization of bishops' and monastic estates, but no final decision was made.

The supreme power acquired stability for a while. And the frivolous beauty on the throne indulged in entertainment. She was surrounded by capable statesmen (Shuvalovs, Vorontsov, etc.). But there were also quite random people among them. The highest military rank of general - field marshal was given to the former simple Ukrainian Cossack A.K. Razumovsky, who had never served in the army. He became the husband of Empress Elizabeth, with whom she secretly married.

There are various assessments of the activities of Elizabeth Petrovna. Some historians argue that her time was distinguished by humanity and religious tolerance, the strengthening of the role of the nobility in the state, the flourishing of manufacturing and trade, and the further development of education; others believe that there have been no fundamental and significant changes in the state and society. Therefore, speaking about the activities of the reigning person, it is necessary to take into account and take into account both points of view. For example, according to Klyuchevsky, she was a smart and kind, but disorderly and wayward Russian lady of the 18th century, who, according to Russian custom, was scolded by many during her lifetime and, according to Russian custom, everyone mourned after death.

Having ascended the throne by way of a coup, Elizaveta Petrovna did not feel firmly enough on it. Therefore, in order to strengthen her position, she hastened to call her nephew Karl-Peter from Kiel - the son of her sister Anna Petrovna and Duke Karl Friedrich, the grandson of Peter 1. On February 5, 1762, almost immediately after the death of Elizabeth, he was officially declared heir to the Russian throne .

On August 25, 1745, Peter 3 marries Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta, who was named Ekaterina Alekseevna in Orthodoxy. From this marriage, Catherine wanted to receive only the imperial crown, and not happiness in marriage with Peter. Therefore, in her manifestos, and then in the Notes, she tried to draw an ugly and grotesque image of a deceived spouse. This tendentious information migrated to the works of historians. CM. Solovyov called Pyotr Fedorovich "an alien sovereign", "a sworn enemy of Russia", a being physically and spiritually weak. For V.O. Klyuchevsky, Peter 3 was “the most unpleasant”, from “everything unpleasant that the Empress Elizabeth left behind”, a limited, insignificant, deceitful, drunk person, a hater of everything Russian. According to him, “the hated specter of the second Bironovshchina again rose before the indignant feeling of offended national dignity, and this feeling was fueled by the fear that the Russian army would be dispersed into army regiments, which Biron had already threatened. The whole society felt in the actions of the government of Peter 3 prank and whim, the lack of unity of thought and a certain direction.

True, one cannot ignore the positive judgments about Peter. For example, one should note an attempt to give an unbiased characterization of Peter. He notes that the emperor was by no means a rude martinet: he loved Italian music, played the violin, loved painting, books, showed a steady interest in the needs of Kiel University and the St. Petersburg Land Cadet Corps. He was characterized by such qualities as kindness, openness, excitement, observation, wit, but also irascibility, anger, haste in action.

On February 18, 1762, a manifesto was issued on granting liberties and freedom to the Russian nobility - the nobles were exempted from compulsory public service. The abolition of the Secret Chancellery should also have contributed to the development of a sense of dignity among the nobles: from now on, extrajudicial arbitrariness was replaced by a normal trial in cases of political accusation. The content of this decree can be most clearly expressed in the following words of the Manifesto: “We intend to preserve the landlords inviolably with their estates and possessions, and to keep the peasants in their due obedience.” The murder of their peasants by the landowners was qualified as "tyrannical torment", punishable by life exile. An alleviation of the fate of the church and monastery peasants was the decree on the complete secularization of immovable church property; church and monastic peasants were freed from their former fortresses, endowed with land and transferred to the jurisdiction of the state with the payment of an annual air tax, which in 1762 was set at one ruble per male soul. This measure was in line with the traditional line of subordinating the church to the absolutist state.

Trade and industrial activity and merchants were encouraged, a number of decrees were aimed at expanding the use of civilian labor in manufactories, at benefits for the merchants. The emperor put an end to the persecution of the Old Believers for their faith. He took steps to raise the combat capability of the army and navy. The emperor tried to strengthen military discipline in the guards, but his attitude towards the guards was extremely negative. Peter did not hide his intention to eventually abolish the guards regiments, but for a start he intended to send them to fight with Denmark. The army hastily rebuilt in the Prussian way. All this could not but give rise to opposition to Peter 3 among the officers, especially among the guards. Both the clergy and part of the nobility were dissatisfied, shocked by some of the emperor's antics, neglect of the rules of court etiquette, etc. They took advantage of this discontent.

Thus, we can note the presence in the legislation of Peter 3 elements of new trends. The general course of the country's government was pro-noble. After accession to the throne, Peter immediately announced that he would follow the footsteps of Peter the Great in everything. From the very first weeks of his reign, he paid special attention to strengthening order and discipline in the highest government places, himself setting an example for this. Continuity in the activities of Peter from his predecessor was also manifested in the selection of leadership personnel.

Peter 3 reigned for six months, after which he was deposed by his wife Ekaterina Alekseevna, an intelligent, ambitious woman who came from a family of poor German princes. In the conspiracy, which she inspired, the guardsmen played an active role. Some part of the nobility joined the conspirators in order to enthrone the heir, Pavel Petrovich, and make Catherine regent and, with her assistance, transform Russia into a constitutional monarchy. In order to increase the number of Peter's opponents, various rumors spread about his intention to kill Catherine and marry his favorite Elizaveta Vorontsova, dress Orthodox priests in pastoral clothes and shave off their beards, etc.

On June 29, 1762, when the day of Peter and Paul was celebrated according to the church calendar, Peter appointed a solemn ceremony. On the morning before, the emperor with his entourage went to Peterhof, where Catherine was supposed to be waiting for him. But it turned out that she had left for St. Petersburg a few hours before. On horseback, in a guards uniform and with a saber in hand, Catherine, at the head of the guards, opposed her husband on a June night. Peter 3 had to abdicate. And a week later, Peter 3 was killed by his wife's close associates. The issue of succession to the throne was not resolved for long: soon the throne of the Russian Empire was occupied by Catherine 2 (1762-1796).

3. Making a generalizing conclusion, we can say that for all the diversity of events and persons, the era of palace coups is characterized by a stable line of social policy. As mentioned above, it was during this period that there was a significant expansion of the privileges of the nobility, while at the same time even greater enslavement of the peasants. This is a manifesto about granting liberties and freedom to the Russian nobility - the nobles were exempted from compulsory public service. The right to dispose of estates was returned to the nobility, which allowed them to divide their estates among all children. From now on, all estates were recognized as the full property of their owners. The collection of the poll tax from the serfs was transferred to their owners. The landowner was now obliged to observe the behavior of his serfs. However, the rights of serfs were significantly reduced: they were forbidden to enter the military service without the consent of the landowner, they were forbidden to acquire real estates, enter into farms and contracts, and start factories. Serfs were not recognized as subjects of the state, but were considered subjects of their masters. They were also forbidden to give bills and take on guarantees without the permission of the landowner. At the same time, the government did not want the ruin of the serfs, so it obliged the landowners to feed their peasants in lean years. During the period of political instability, in order to strengthen the social base of their regime, the reigning persons made concessions to the nobility, and the fate of the peasants, especially the serfs, remained as difficult as before.

In the middle of the XVIII century. the first symptoms of the disintegration of the feudal-serf order, the beginning of the formation of capitalism, appear. The first capitalist manufactories appear, the founders of which are mainly private individuals. At the same time, freelance labor begins to be used. For example, in the manufactories of Moscow from 1753 to 1762, an increase in hired workers (compared to the period of 1745-1752) by more than 2 times was recorded.

Speaking about the political life of the country, it can be noted that the main development trend is the further concentration and bureaucratization of power. The role of the Senate is changing. Under Catherine, the Supreme Privy Council created by her actually directed the activities of the Senate. It was believed that this was a more flexible governing body, "purely absolutist"; thus, a special, independent from other institutions, control center under the monarch, who had real power, arises. Its creation corresponded to the task of concentrating power in the hands of an absolute monarch. However, then, under the reign of Anna, the council was abolished and the Governing Senate was restored at the same level as under Peter the Great. However, the cabinet created under the empress, in fact, was the successor to the Supreme Privy Council. The Board of Economy was transferred to the department of the Senate (later, under the reign of Elizabeth, it was returned back), the orders of the Palace and the Treasury.

The continued flourishing of favoritism should also be noted. In fact, people who were closest to the court often ended up in power, who had no right to do so, sometimes mediocrely influencing the decisions and decrees of the reigning persons. The throne turned out to be rulers who, at best, were mediocre, and at worst, completely far from politics. That is why favoritism flourishes at this time, power is concentrated in the hands of more influential persons close to the monarch, over the years there has been an intensification of the struggle between various palace factions.

Legendary Thirty, route

Through the mountains to the sea with a light backpack. Route 30 passes through the famous Fisht - this is one of the most grandiose and significant natural monuments in Russia, the highest mountains closest to Moscow. Tourists travel lightly through all the landscape and climatic zones of the country from the foothills to the subtropics, spending the night in shelters.

The overstrain of the country's forces during the years of Peter the Great's transformations, the destruction of traditions, and the violent methods of reform caused an ambiguous attitude of various circles of Russian society towards the Peter's heritage and created the conditions for political instability.

From 1725, after the death of Peter and until Catherine II came to power in 1762, six monarchs and many political forces behind them were replaced on the throne. This change did not always take place in a peaceful and legal way. Therefore, Klyuchevsky V. O. called this period "the era of palace coups."

The main reason that formed the basis of the palace coups was the contradictions between various noble groups in relation to the Peter's heritage. The split occurred along the line of acceptance and rejection of reforms. Both the new nobility, which came to the fore during the reign of Peter, and the aristocracy tried to soften the course of reforms. But each of them defended its narrow-class interests and privileges, which created a fertile ground for internal political struggle. Palace coups were generated by a sharp struggle of various factions for power. As a rule, it was reduced to the nomination and support of one or another candidate for the throne. An active role in the political life of the country at that time began to play the guard, which Peter brought up as a privileged support of the autocracy. now she assumed the right to control the conformity of the personality and policies of the monarch to the legacy that the emperor left. The alienation of the masses from politics and their passivity served as fertile ground for palace intrigues and coups. To a large extent, palace coups were provoked by the unresolved problem of succession to the throne in connection with the adoption of the Decree of 1722, which broke the traditional mechanism for the transfer of power.

The reign of Catherine 1.1725 - 1727.

Dying, Peter did not leave an heir. The opinion of the upper classes about his successor was divided: the "chicks of Petrov's nest" A.D. Menshikov, P.A. Tolstoy, P.I. , - for the grandson of Peter Alekseevich. The outcome of the dispute was decided by the guards, who supported the empress.

The accession of Catherine led to a sharp increase in the role of Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the country. Attempts to somewhat curb his lust for power with the help of the

The Supreme Privy Council (VTS), to which the first boards and the Senate were subordinate, did not lead to anything.

The temporary worker decided to strengthen his position by marrying his daughter to Peter's young grandson. P. Tolstoy, who opposed this plan, ended up in prison.

In May 1727, Catherine died, appointing Peter Alekseevich, the grandson of Peter, as her successor.

The reign of Peter II.1727 - 1730.

Peter was declared emperor under the regency of the military-technical cooperation. Menshikov's influence at court increased, he even received the rank of generalissimo. But, pushing away old allies and not gaining new ones, he soon lost influence on the young emperor (with the help of Dolgoruky and A.I. Osterman, a member of the military-technical cooperation), and in September 1727 he was arrested and exiled with his family to Berezov, where he soon died. The overthrow of Menshikov was essentially a coup d'état, since the composition of the military-technical cooperation (in which aristocratic families began to predominate) changed, and Osterman began to play a key role; the regency of the military-technical cooperation was put an end to, Peter II declared himself a full-fledged ruler; a course was outlined aimed at revising Peter's reforms.

Soon the court left St. Petersburg and moved to Moscow, which attracted the emperor by the presence of richer hunting grounds. The sister of the tsar's favorite, Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, was betrothed to the emperor, but during preparations for the wedding, he died of smallpox. The question of succession to the throne arose again, since there was no will again.

The reign of Anna Ioannovna. 1730-1740

In the conditions of the political crisis, the military-technical cooperation, which by that time consisted of 8 people (5 seats belonged to the Dolgoruky and Golitsyns), invited the niece of Peter I, the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna (a widow, did not have strong ties in Russia) to the throne. After meeting in Mitava with V. L. Dolgoruky, Anna Ioannovna, agreeing to accept the throne, signed condition that limited her power:

Undertook to rule together with the military-technical cooperation, which actually turned into the supreme governing body of the country;

- without the approval of the military-technical cooperation, she did not have the right to legislate, impose taxes, dispose of the treasury, declare war and make peace, grant and take away estates, ranks above the rank of colonel;

- the guard was subordinate to the military-technical cooperation;

- Anna undertook not to marry and not to appoint an heir;

- in case of non-fulfillment of any of these conditions, she was deprived of the crown.

However, having arrived in Moscow, Anna Ioannovna very quickly figured out the difficult domestic political situation (various noble groups proposed projects for the political reorganization of Russia) and, having found the support of part of the nobility and the guard, she broke the conditions and restored the autocracy in full.

A.I. Politics:

- liquidated the military-technical cooperation, creating instead the Cabinet of Ministers headed by Osterman;

- since 1735, she equated the signature of the Empress with the signatures of three cabinet ministers,

- repressed Dolgoruky and Golitsyn;

- Satisfied some requirements of the nobility:

a) limited the term of service to 25 years,

b) canceled that part of the Decree on single inheritance, which limited the right of the nobles to dispose of the estate during inheritance;

c) made it easier to obtain an officer's rank by allowing infants to be enrolled in military service

d) created a cadet noble corps, after which officer ranks were awarded.

- by decree of 1836, all working people, including civilians, were declared "eternally given", i.e. became dependent on the owners of factories.

Not trusting the Russian nobility and not having the desire and ability to delve into state affairs herself, A.I. surrounded herself with people from the Baltic states. Her favorite E. Biron played a key role. Some historians call the reign of A.I. "Bironism", believing that its main feature was the dominance of the Germans, who neglected the interests of the state, demonstrated contempt for everything Russian and pursued a policy of arbitrariness in relation to the Russian nobility.

In 1740, A.I. died, appointing her niece Anna Leopoldovna, the baby John Antonovich (Ivan YI), as the heir to her son. Biron was appointed regent under him. The head of the military collegium, Field Marshal Munnich, carried out another coup d'etat, pushing Biron aside, but, in turn, was pushed out of power by Osterman.

The reign of Elizabeth Petrovna.1741-1761.

On November 25, 1741, Peter's daughter, relying on the support of the guards, carried out another coup d'état and seized power. The features of this coup were that E.P. had broad support from ordinary people of the cities and the lower guards, and also that this coup had a patriotic coloring, because. was directed against the dominance of a foreigner, and foreign diplomats (French Chetardie and Swedish ambassador Nolken) tried to take part in its preparation.

E.P. Policy:

- restored the institutions created by Peter and their status: abolishing the Cabinet of Ministers, returned the importance of the highest state body to the Senate, restored Berg - and Manufactory - collegiums.

- brought the Russian and Ukrainian nobles closer, who were distinguished by their great interest in the affairs of the country. Thus, with the active assistance of I. I. Shuvalov, Moscow University was opened in 1755;

- internal customs were destroyed, import duties were increased (protectionism)

- on the initiative of I. Shuvalov, a transition began from the poll tax (a direct tax, which was paid only by peasants and townspeople) to indirect taxes (which were also paid by all non-taxable estates).

- Revenues from the sale of salt and wine have tripled;

- the death penalty was abolished

- social policy was aimed at turning the nobility into a privileged class and strengthening serfdom, which resulted in landowners obtaining the right to sell their peasants as recruits (1747) and exile them to Siberia (1760).

Russia joined the coalition of Austria, France, Sweden and Saxony in the war against Prussia.

The Seven Years' War began in 1756, ended in 1763 and brought the army of Frederick II to the brink of disaster, and only the death of E.P. on December 25, 1761 saved Prussia from complete defeat. Her heir, Peter III, who idolized Frederick, left the coalition and concluded a peace treaty, returning to Prussia all the lands lost in the war.

During the 20 years of H.P.’s reign, the country managed to rest and accumulate strength for a new breakthrough, which fell on the era of Catherine II.

The reign of Peter III. 1761 - 1762

E.P.'s nephew, Peter III (the son of Anna's elder sister and the Duke of Holstein) was born in Holstein and from childhood was brought up in hostility to everything Russian and reverence for German. By 1742, he turned out to be an orphan and E.P. invited him to Russia, immediately appointing him as her heir. In 1745 he was married to Anhalt-Zerbian princess Sophia Frederica Augusta (Ekaterina Alekseevna).

Peter turned against himself the nobility and the guards with his pro-German sympathies, unbalanced behavior, the signing of peace with Frederick, the introduction of Prussian uniforms, and his plans to send the guards to fight for the interests of the Prussian king in Denmark.

In 1762, he signed a manifesto on the granting of liberties and freedom to the Russian nobility, which

Then he abolished the Secret Investigative Office;

- stopped the persecution of dissenters,

- made a decision on the secularization of church and monastery lands,

- prepared a decree on the equalization of all religions.

All these measures met the objective needs of Russia's development and reflected the interests of the nobility.

But his personal behavior, indifference and even dislike for Russia, mistakes in foreign policy and an insulting attitude towards his wife, who managed to gain respect from the nobility and guards, created the preconditions for his overthrow. Preparing the coup, Catherine was guided not only by political pride, a thirst for power and the instinct of self-preservation, but also by the desire to serve Russia.

Foreign policy of Russia in the middle of the 18th century.

Tasks: maintaining access to the Baltic Sea; influence on Poland and the solution of the Black Sea problem.

1733-1734. As a result of Russia's participation in the "war for the Polish heritage", it was possible to put the Russian protege August 3 on the Polish throne.

1735-1739. As a result of the war with Turkey, Russia returned Azov.

1741-1743. The war with Sweden, which sought to take revenge for the defeat in the Northern War and return the coast of the Baltic Sea. Russian troops captured almost all of Finland and forced Sweden to abandon revenge.

1756-1762. Seven Years' War.

Russia was drawn into a war between two European coalitions - Russian-French-Austrian and Anglo-Prussian. The main reason is the strengthening of Prussia in Europe. In August 1757, the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal S. F. Apraksin, only thanks to the corps of P. A. Rumyantsev, defeated the Prussian army near the village of Gross-Egersdorf. Without continuing the offensive, the army retreated to Memel. Elizabeth deposed Apraksin. The new commander-in-chief V.V. Fermor in the winter of 1758 occupied Koenigsberg. In the summer, in the battle of Zorndorf, the Russian army lost 22.6 thousand (out of 42 thousand), and the Prussian 11 thousand (out of 32 thousand). The battle ended almost in a draw. In 1759, the Russian army was replenished with new guns - "unicorns" (light, mobile, rapid-fire), General P. A. Saltykov became the new commander. On August 1, 1759, Russian-Austrian troops defeated the Prussian army near the village of Kunersdorf. P

In 1760, the detachments of Totleben and Chernyshov captured Berlin. Prussia's position was hopeless. Russia announced its intention to annex East Prussia. Having ascended the throne after the death of Elizabeth, Peter 3 broke with the allies and made peace with Frederick, returning all the occupied territories.

The results of the era of "palace coups"

Palace coups did not entail changes in the political, and even more so the social system of society and boiled down to the struggle for power of various noble groups pursuing their own, most often selfish, goals. At the same time, the policy of each of the six monarchs had its own characteristics, sometimes important for the country. In general, socio-economic stabilization and foreign policy successes achieved during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna created the conditions for more accelerated development.

The era of palace coups in Russia.

In 1725, the Russian Emperor Peter I died without leaving a legitimate heir and without transferring the throne to the chosen one. Over the next 37 years, his relatives - contenders for the Russian throne - fought for power. This period in history is called era of palace coups».

A feature of the period of "palace coups" is that the transfer of supreme power in the state was carried out not by inheriting the crown, but was carried out by guardsmen or courtiers using forceful methods.

Such confusion arose due to the lack of clearly defined rules for succession to the throne in a monarchical country, which caused a struggle between supporters of one or another applicant among themselves.

The era of palace coups 1725-1762.

After Peter the Great, the following sat on the Russian throne:

• Catherine I - wife of the emperor,
• Peter II - grandson of the emperor,
• Anna Ioannovna - the emperor's niece,
• Ioann Antonovich - great-nephew of the previous one,
• Elizaveta Petrovna - daughter of Peter I,
• Peter III - the nephew of the previous one,
• Catherine II is the wife of the previous one.

In general, the era of upheavals lasted from 1725 to 1762.

Catherine I (1725–1727).

One part of the nobility, headed by A. Menshikov, wanted to see the second wife of the Emperor Catherine on the throne. The other part is the grandson of Emperor Peter Alekseevich. The dispute was won by those who were supported by the guard - the first. Under Catherine, A. Menshikov played an important role in the state.

In 1727, the Empress died, appointing the young Peter Alekseevich as successor on the throne.

Peter II (1727–1730).

Young Peter became emperor under the regency of the Supreme Privy Council. Gradually Menshikov lost his influence and was exiled. Soon the regency was canceled - Peter II declared himself ruler, the court returned to Moscow.

Shortly before the wedding with Catherine Dolgoruky, the emperor died of smallpox. There was no will.

Anna Ioannovna (1730–1740).

The Supreme Council invited the niece of Peter I, the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to rule in Russia. The challenger agreed to conditions that limited her power. But in Moscow, Anna quickly settled in, enlisted the support of part of the nobility and violated the previously signed agreement, returning the autocracy. However, it was not she who ruled, but the favorites, the most famous of which is E. Biron.

In 1740, Anna died, having chosen the baby John Antonovich (Ivan VI) as the heir to her great-nephew under the regent Biron.

The coup was carried out by Field Marshal Munnich, the fate of the child is still unclear.

Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761).

Again, the guards helped the native daughter of Peter I seize power. On the night of November 25, 1741, Elizabeth Petrovna, who was also supported by commoners, was literally brought to the throne. The coup had a bright patriotic coloring. His main goal was to remove foreigners from power in the country. The policy of Elizabeth Petrovna was aimed at continuing the affairs of her father.

Peter III (1761–1762).

Peter III is the orphaned nephew of Elizabeth Petrovna, the son of Anna Petrovna and the Duke of Holstein. In 1742 he was invited to Russia and became heir to the throne.

During the life of Elizabeth, Peter married his cousin, Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbskaya, the future Catherine II.

Peter's policy after the death of his aunt was aimed at an alliance with Prussia. The behavior of the emperor and his love for the Germans alienated the Russian nobility.

It was the emperor's wife who completed the 37-year leapfrog on the Russian throne. She was again supported by the army - the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky guards regiments. Catherine was brought to the throne as once - Elizabeth.

Catherine proclaimed herself Empress in June 1762, and both the Senate and the Synod swore allegiance to her. Peter III signed the abdication.

General characteristics of the era of palace coups

The era of palace coups is a time period (37 years) in the political life of Russia in the 18th century, when the seizure of political power was carried out by a series of palace coups. The reason for this was the lack of clear rules for succession to the throne, accompanied by the struggle of court factions and carried out, as a rule, with the assistance of the guards regiments. The desire of the nobles and boyars to regain the power, freedom and privileges lost under Peter I. The overstrain of the country's forces during the years of Peter the Great's reforms, the destruction of traditions, and the violent methods of reform caused an ambiguous attitude of various circles of Russian society towards the Peter's heritage and created the conditions for political instability.
From 1725, after the death of Peter I and until Catherine II came to power in 1762, six monarchs and many political forces behind them were replaced on the throne. This change did not always take place in a peaceful and legal way, which is why this period of V.O. Klyuchevsky, not entirely accurately, but figuratively and aptly, called the “epoch of palace coups”.

The struggle for power after the death of Peter I

Dying, Peter did not leave an heir, having only time to write with a weakening hand: “Give everything ...”. The opinion of the leaders about his successor was divided. “Chicks of Petrov’s Nest” (A.D. Menshikov, P.A. Tolstoy, I.I. Buturlin, P.I. Yaguzhinsky and others) spoke for his second wife Ekaterina, and representatives of the noble nobility (D.M.

Golitsyn, V.V. Dolgoruky and others) defended the candidacy of their grandson, Pyotr Alekseevich. The outcome of the dispute was decided by the guards, who supported the empress.
The accession of Catherine 1 (1725-1727) led to a sharp strengthening of the position of Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the country. Attempts to somewhat curb his lust for power and greed with the help of the Supreme Privy Council (VTS) created under the Empress, to which the first three colleges, as well as the Senate, were subordinate, did not lead to anything. Moreover, the temporary worker decided to strengthen his position by marrying his daughter to Peter's young grandson. P. Tolstoy, who opposed this plan, ended up in prison.
In May 1727, Catherine 1 died and, according to her will, 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730) became emperor under the regency of the military-technical cooperation. Menshikov's influence at court increased, and he even received the coveted rank of generalissimo. But, pushing away old allies and not acquiring new ones among the noble nobility, he soon lost influence on the young emperor and in September 1727 was arrested and exiled with his whole family to Berezovo, where he soon died.
A significant role in discrediting the personality of Menshikov in the eyes of the young emperor was played by the Dolgoruky, as well as a member of the military-technical cooperation, the tutor of the tsar, nominated for this position by Menshikov himself - A.I. Osterman is a clever diplomat who, depending on the alignment of forces and the political situation, was able to change his views, allies and patrons.
The overthrow of Menshikov was, in essence, an actual palace coup, because the composition of the military-technical cooperation changed, in which aristocratic families (Dolgoruky and Golitsyn) began to predominate, and A.I. began to play a key role. Osterman; the regency of the MTC was put an end to, Peter II declared himself a full-fledged ruler, who was surrounded by new favorites; a course was outlined aimed at revising the reforms of Peter I.
Soon the court left St. Petersburg and moved to Moscow, which attracted the emperor by the presence of richer hunting grounds. The sister of the tsar's favorite, Catherine Dolgorukaya, was betrothed to Peter II, but while preparing for the wedding, he died of smallpox. And again the question of the heir to the throne arose, because. with the death of Peter II, the male line of the Romanovs ended, and he did not have time to appoint a successor.

Prerequisites for palace coups

The main reason that formed the basis of the palace coups was the contradictions between various noble groups in relation to the Peter's heritage. It would be a simplification to consider that the split occurred along the lines of acceptance and rejection of reforms. Both the so-called “new nobility”, which had come to the fore in the years of Peter the Great thanks to their service zeal, and the aristocratic party tried to soften the course of reforms, hoping in one form or another to give a respite to society, and first of all, to themselves. But each of these groups defended its narrow class interests and privileges, which created a fertile ground for internal political struggle.
Palace coups were generated by a sharp struggle of various factions for power. As a rule, it came down most often to the nomination and support of one or another candidate for the throne.
At that time, the guards began to play an active role in the political life of the country, which Peter brought up as a privileged “support” of the autocracy, who, moreover, assumed the right to control the conformity of the personality and policy of the monarch to the legacy that her “beloved emperor” left.
The alienation of the masses from politics and their passivity served as fertile ground for palace intrigues and coups.
To a large extent, palace coups were provoked by the unresolved problem of succession to the throne in connection with the adoption of the Decree of 1722, which broke the traditional mechanism for the transfer of power.

Background of the palace coup

Causes of palace coups

1) Contradictions between various noble groups in relation to the Petrine heritage. 2) The sharp struggle of various groups for power, which most often boiled down to the nomination and support of one or another candidate for the throne. 3) The active position of the guard, which Peter brought up as a privileged support of autocracy, which, moreover, took upon itself the right to control the conformity of the personality and policy of the monarch to the legacy that her beloved emperor left. 4) The passivity of the masses, absolutely far from the political life of the capital. 5) Aggravation of the problem of succession to the throne in connection with the adoption of the Decree of 1722, which broke the traditional mechanism for the transfer of power.

1) Moving away from the national political tradition, according to which the throne is only for the direct heirs of the king, Peter himself prepared a crisis of power. 2) A large number of direct and indirect heirs claimed the Russian throne after the death of Peter; 3) The existing corporate interests of the nobility and tribal nobility manifested themselves in their entirety. When analyzing the era of palace coups, it is important to pay attention to the following points. Firstly, the initiators of the coups were various palace groups that sought to elevate their protege to the throne. Secondly, the most important consequence of the coups was the strengthening of the economic and political positions of the nobility. Thirdly, the guards were the driving force behind the coups. Indeed, it was the Guard during the period under review that decided the question of who should be on the throne.

Supreme Privy Council

SUPREME PRIVATE COUNCIL - the highest body of state power in the Russian Empire (1726-1730); It was created by decree of Catherine I Alekseevna on February 8, 1726, formally as an advisory body to the Empress, in fact, it decided all the most important state affairs. During the accession of Empress Anna Ivanovna, the Supreme Privy Council tried to limit the autocracy in its favor, but was dissolved.

After the death of Emperor Peter I the Great (1725), his wife Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne. She was not able to independently govern the state and created from among the most prominent associates of the late emperor the Supreme Privy Council, which was supposed to advise the empress what to do in this or that case. Gradually, the solution of all the most important domestic and foreign policy issues was included in the sphere of competence of the Supreme Privy Council. Collegiums were subordinated to him, and the role of the Senate was reduced, which was reflected, in particular, in the renaming from the "Governing Senate" to the "High Senate".

Initially, the Supreme Privy Council consisted of A.D. Menshikov, P.A. Tolstoy, A.I. Osterman, F.M. Apraksina, G.I. Golovkina, D.M. Golitsyn and Duke Karl Friedrich Holstein-Gottorp (son-in-law of the Empress, husband of Tsarina Anna Petrovna). A struggle for influence unfolded between them, in which A.D. won. Menshikov. Ekaterina Alekseevna agreed to the marriage of the heir to Tsarevich Peter with Menshikov's daughter. In April 1727 A.D. Menshikov achieved the disgrace of P.A. Tolstoy, Duke Karl-Friedrich was sent home. However, after the accession to the throne of Peter II Alekseevich (May 1727), A.D. Menshikov and the Supreme Privy Council included A.G. and V.L. Dolgorukovs, and in 1730 after the death of F.M. Apraksina - M.M. Golitsyn and V.V. Dolgorukov.

The internal policy of the Supreme Privy Council was aimed mainly at solving the problems associated with the socio-economic crisis that the country was going through after the long Northern War and the reforms of Peter I, primarily in the financial sector. The members of the council ("supervisors") critically assessed the results of Peter's transformations, recognized the need to correct them in accordance with the real possibilities of the country. The focus of the Supreme Privy Council was the financial issue, which the leaders tried to solve in two directions: by streamlining the system of accounting and control of state revenues and expenditures and by saving money. The leaders discussed the issues of improving the systems of taxation and public administration created by Peter, reducing the army and navy, and other measures aimed at replenishing the state budget. The collection of the poll tax and recruits was shifted from the army to the civil authorities, military units were withdrawn from the countryside to the cities, some of the officers from the nobility were sent on long vacations without payment of monetary salaries. The capital of the state was again moved to Moscow.

In order to save money, the leaders liquidated a number of local institutions (court courts, offices of zemstvo commissars, waldmeister offices), and reduced the number of local employees. Some of the petty officials who did not have a class rank were deprived of their salaries, and they were asked to "feed from their work." Along with this, the positions of governor were restored. The leaders tried to revive domestic and foreign trade, allowed previously prohibited trade through the port of Arkhangelsk, lifted restrictions on trade in a number of goods, canceled many restrictive duties, created favorable conditions for foreign merchants, revised the protectionist customs tariff of 1724. In 1726, an alliance treaty was concluded with Austria, which for several decades determined Russia's behavior in the international arena.

In January 1730, after the death of Peter II, the leaders invited the Dowager Duchess of Courland Anna Ivanovna to the Russian throne. At the same time, on the initiative of D.M.

Golitsyn, it was decided to reform the political system of Russia through the virtual elimination of the autocracy and the introduction of a limited Swedish-style monarchy. To this end, the leaders suggested that the future empress sign special conditions - “conditions”, according to which she was deprived of the opportunity to independently make political decisions: make peace and declare war, appoint to government posts, change the taxation system. Real power passed to the Supreme Privy Council, whose composition was to be expanded by representatives of the highest officials, the generals and the aristocracy. The nobility as a whole supported the idea of ​​limiting the absolute power of the autocrat. However, the negotiations between the leaders and Anna Ivanovna were conducted in secret, which aroused suspicion among the mass of nobles of a conspiracy to usurp power in the hands of aristocratic families represented in the Supreme Privy Council (Golitsyn, Dolgoruky). The lack of unity among the supporters of the leaders allowed Anna Ivanovna, who arrived in Moscow, relying on the guards and part of the court officials, to carry out a coup: on February 25, 1730, the empress broke the “conditions”, and on March 4, the Supreme Privy Council was abolished. Later, most of the members of the Supreme Privy Council (with the exception of Osterman and Golovkin, who did not support the Golitsyns and Dolgorukovs) were subjected to repression.

Causes of palace coups

It is believed that the era of palace coups in Russia was prepared by Peter I, who issued a decree on succession to the throne in 1722. This decree allowed any relative of the emperor, regardless of gender and age, to claim the royal throne. Because families in the 18th century were large, then, as a rule, there were many candidates for the imperial crown: wives and children, cousins, grandchildren and nephews ... The absence of a single legitimate heir led to increased palace intrigues, the struggle for power.

Features of palace coups

The role of the guard

In the struggle for power, the one who was supported by the guard, who was called to protect the capital and the imperial palace, won. It was the guards regiments that became the main force behind the palace coups. Therefore, every pretender to the throne, seeking to enlist the support of the guardsmen, promised them money, estates and new privileges.

In 1714, Peter I issued a decree banning nobles who did not serve as privates in the guards as officers.

Therefore, by 1725, in the guards regiments, not only officers, but also most of the privates were from the nobility. Due to their social homogeneity, the guard was able to become the main force in palace coups.

Guards units during this period were the most privileged in the Russian army. The guardsmen did not participate in hostilities, they carried out exclusively ceremonial and palace service in the capital. The salary of the privates of the guard was much higher than that of the officers of the army and navy.

Favoritism

Often, as a result of a palace coup, people who were not prepared to govern the state turned out to be on the throne. Therefore, the consequence of the coups was favoritism, that is, the rise of one or more favorites of the monarch, who concentrated enormous power and wealth in their hands.

The social system of Russia

It should be noted an important feature of the palace revolutions: they did not lead to significant changes in the social system of Russia. Emperors and favorites changed, accents in domestic and foreign policy, but the following always remained unchanged: a) the absolute power of the monarch; b) serfdom; c) the political lack of rights of the people; d) a course towards expanding the privileges of the nobility at the expense of other estates. The stability of power was ensured by the growing and strengthening bureaucracy.

History of palace coups

On this page, material on the topics:

• Video palace coups after the death of Peter 1: sequence and reasons

• The role of the guard in palace coups

• The era of palace coups table way of coming to power

• The fourth palace coup in Russia

• Explain why the palace coup d'état domestic politics was ruled by a monarchy

Questions for this article:

• Why was Peter I forced to issue a decree on succession to the throne?

• What major events took place in 1740, 1741, 1741-1743, 1756-1763, 1761, 1762?

• What is a palace coup?

• What are the causes and features of palace coups in Russia?

• What role did the guards play in palace coups?

• What is favoritism?

• Make a table "The era of palace coups."

• How did the strengthening of the positions of the Russian nobility take place in 1725-1761?

Material from the site http://WikiWhat.ru

Palace coups: causes and main events

The death of Emperor Peter I in 1725 led to a long crisis of power. According to the figurative expression of V. O. Klyuchevsky, this period of our history was called "palace coups". For 37 years from the death of Peter I to the accession of Catherine II (1725-1762), the throne was occupied by six reigning persons who received the throne as a result of complex palace intrigues or coups.

Causes of palace coups:

1. moving away from the national political tradition, according to which the throne passed only to the direct heirs of the king, Peter himself prepared a “crisis of power” (by not implementing the Decree of 1722 on the succession to the throne, without appointing himself an heir);

2. after the death of Peter, a large number of direct and indirect heirs claimed the Russian throne;

3. the existing corporate interests of the nobility and noble nobility manifested themselves in their entirety.

Palace coups that they were not state coups, that is, they did not pursue the goal of radical changes in political power and state structure

When analyzing the era of palace coups, it is important to pay attention to the following points.

1. The initiators of the coups were various palace groups that sought to elevate their protege to the throne.

2. The most important consequence of the palace coups was the strengthening of the economic and political positions of the nobility.

3. The guard was the driving force behind the coups.

Catherine's reign I (1725-1727). The guards took the side of Catherine.

In 1726, under Catherine I, the Supreme Privy Council was established, which, according to the historian S. F. Platonov, replaced the Petrine Senate. The Supreme Privy Council included A.D. Menshikov, F.M. Apraksin, G.I. Golovkin, D.M. Golitsyn, A.I. Osterman and P.A. Tolstoy. The Council was not an oligarchic body limiting the autocracy. It remained a bureaucratic, albeit highly influential, institution in the system of absolutism, placed under the control of the empress.

During this period, the following happened:

Reduction of bureaucratic structures;

Revision of the customs tariff;

Changing the location of the army and its content;

Liquidation of the system of self-government;

Restoring the significance of the county as the main territorial-administrative unit;

Changing the taxation system, reducing the poll tax.

On the whole, the activities of Catherine I and her "supreme leaders" were characterized by the rejection of the broad reform program of Peter I, and the decline in the role of the Senate. Trade and industry, having lost the financial and administrative support of the state in the post-Petrine era, were placed in unfavorable conditions. The beginning of the revision of the results of Peter's reforms.

Peter II (1727-1730). Shortly before her death in 1727, Catherine I signed a will that determined the sequence of succession to the throne. The closest heir was determined by Peter II.

The throne was occupied by 12-year-old Peter II under the regency of the Supreme Privy Council.

The Supreme Privy Council under Peter II underwent significant changes. In it, all the affairs were managed by the four princes Dolgoruky and two Golitsyns, as well as A. I. Osterman. Dolgoruky came to the fore. Peter II died on his wedding day (to Ivan Dolgoruky's sister Ekaterina). The Romanov dynasty ended in the male line. The issue of the emperor was to be decided by the Supreme Privy Council.

The short stay in power of the young Peter II did not introduce significant changes in the state and public life of Russian society. The transfer of the royal court from St. Petersburg to Moscow at the end of 1727, the abolition of the Chief Magistrate in 1728.

Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740). After long consultations, the leaders chose the senior line of the dynasty associated with the brother of Peter I - Ivan V.

Golitsyn and V. L. Dolgoruky developed the so-called conditions - the conditions under which Anna Ioannovna could accept the Russian crown from the hands of the leaders:

Do not issue new laws;

Do not start wars with anyone and do not conclude peace;

Loyal subjects should not be burdened with any taxes;

Do not dispose of the treasury income;

Noble ranks above the colonel's rank are not favored;

Do not take away the belly, estate and honor from the nobility;

Estates and villages do not favor.

Already two weeks after her arrival in Moscow, Anna broke the conditions in front of the leaders and announced "her perception of autocracy." The Supreme Privy Council in 1731 was replaced by a Cabinet of three ministers headed by A. I. Osterman. Four years later, Anna Ioannovna equated the signatures of three cabinet ministers with one of her own.

The main directions of domestic policy:

The abolition of the Supreme Privy Council and the return to the Senate of its former significance;

The return of the Petrovsky system of deployment of regiments in the provinces and the responsibility of the landowners for the payments of their peasants;

Continuation of the punitive policy towards the Old Believers;

Creation of a new body - the Cabinet of Ministers (1731);

Resumption of the activities of the Secret Chancellery;

Establishment of the Corps of Cadets (1732), after which noble children received officer ranks;

Cancellation of the indefinite service of the nobles (1736). In addition, one of the sons of a noble family was released from service to manage the estate.

During the reign of Anna Ioannovna, the autocracy was strengthened, the duties of the nobles were reduced, and their rights over the peasants were expanded.

Ivan VI Antonovich. After the death of Anna Ioannovna in 1740, according to her will, the Russian throne was inherited by her great-grandson, Ivan Antonovich. Anna's favorite, E. I. Biron, was appointed regent until he came of age, and less than a month later he was arrested by the guards on the orders of Field Marshal B. K. Minich. His mother, Anna Leopoldovna, was proclaimed regent for the royal child.

Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761). Another coup d'état was carried out with the direct participation of the guardsmen of the Preobrazhensky Regiment.

The reign of Elizabeth was marked by the flourishing of favoritism. On the one hand, it was an indicator of the dependence of the nobility on royal generosity, and on the other hand, it was a kind of, albeit rather timid, attempt to adapt the state to the needs of the nobility.

During the reign of Elizabeth, certain transformations were carried out:

1. there was a significant expansion of noble benefits, the socio-economic and legal position of the Russian nobility was strengthened;

2. an attempt was made to restore some of the orders and state institutions created by Peter I. To this end, the Cabinet of Ministers was abolished, the functions of the Senate were significantly expanded, the Berg and Manufacture Colleges, the chief and city magistrates were restored;

3. eliminated many foreigners from the spheres of public administration and the education system;

4. a new supreme body was created - the Conference at the Imperial Court (1756) to resolve important state issues, which largely duplicated the functions of the Senate;

5. The Empress also tried to develop new legislation;

6. there was a tightening of religious policy.

On the whole, the reign of Elizabeth did not become the "second edition" of Petrovsky's policy. Elizabeth's policy was distinguished by caution, and in some aspects - and unusual gentleness. By refusing to sanction the death penalty, it was in fact the first in Europe to abolish the death penalty.

Peter III (December 25, 1761 - June 28, 1762). After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1761, the 33-year-old Peter III became Emperor of Russia.

Peter III announced to Frederick II about Russia's intention to make peace with Prussia separately, without the allies of France and Austria (1762). Russia returned to Prussia all the lands occupied during the Seven Years' War, refused contributions to compensate for the losses incurred, and entered into an alliance with the former enemy. In addition, Peter began to prepare for an absolutely unnecessary Russian war with Denmark. In society, this was perceived as a betrayal of Russian national interests.

During the six-month reign of Peter III, 192 decrees were adopted.

The secularization of church lands in favor of the state was announced, which strengthened the state treasury (the decree was finally implemented by Catherine II in 1764);

He stopped the persecution of the Old Believers and wanted to equalize the rights of all religions.

Liquidation of the Secret Chancellery and return from exile and people convicted under Elizabeth Petrovna;

Trade monopolies that hampered the development of entrepreneurship were abolished;

Freedom of foreign trade was proclaimed, etc.

Politically wise and economically expedient, these internal transformations did not add to the emperor's popularity. His denial of everything Russian as "archaic", the break with traditions, the redrawing of many orders according to the Western model offended the national feelings of the Russian people. The fall of Emperor Peter III was a foregone conclusion, and it happened as a result of a palace coup on June 28, 1762. Peter was forced to abdicate, and a few days later he was killed.

Socio-economic development. A distinctive feature of the social development of Russia was a significant expansion of the privileges of the nobility, the receipt of which was facilitated by the relative instability of state power.

the era of "palace coups" in 1725-1762, when in the Russian Empire the change of power took place mainly through coups carried out by noble groups with the assistance of guards regiments. In 1725, A. D. Menshikov enthroned Catherine I, in 1727 the Dolgorukovs succeeded in exiling Menshikov from Peter II, in 1740 the Guard overthrew E. I. Biron, in 1741 Elizaveta Petrovna overthrew her husband Peter III . In a figurative sense, the term denotes a “quiet” coup, a change of power, usually carried out by the closest associates of the ruler or leader of the party or group.

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Palace coups

change of power as a result of the struggle of groupings within the ruling class while relying on the army (its privileged part). In modern usage - a "quiet" change of power.

The period (epoch) of palace coups in Russian history is usually called 1725 - 1762, when in the Russian Empire the supreme power passed from hand to hand mainly through coups that were carried out by noble groups with the support and assistance of the guard. During 1725 - 1761. There were six monarchs on the Russian throne.

Background and features of palace coups. In the second quarter of the 18th century, a period began in the history of Russia, which, according to the figurative expression of the historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, the name of the "epoch of palace coups". During this period, the struggle of court factions for power began, which was facilitated by the fact that after the death of Emperor Peter I in January 1725, there were no direct heirs to the Russian throne in the male line (See the scheme “The Romanov Dynasty”). In accordance with the law on succession to the throne, caused by the case of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, the emperor himself had to appoint a successor to himself, but did not have time. The struggle for the throne between noble groups brought to power mainly women from the royal family, or children. Their change was in the nature of palace coups. This was explained by the narrowly selfish interests mainly of two noble groups: titled, but not well-born nobility (A.D. Menshikov, P. Tolstoy, G.I. Golovkin, F.M. Apraksin, P.I. Yaguzhinsky, I.I. Buturlin ), who owed their elevation to Peter I and the “Table of Ranks” (See the article “Table of Ranks” in the anthology) and the well-born hereditary nobility (D.M. Golitsyn, Dolgorukov, N.V. Repnin), who believed that to govern is their original right. Between them there was a struggle for power and the new advantages and privileges associated with it.

At first, while the bureaucratic bureaucratic apparatus of government was still taking shape, the guards played a huge role in the country. The guards regiments were replenished mainly at the expense of the children of the nobles and were a kind of officer schools. At the same time, the guard was used both for the personal protection of the emperor and for organizing control over the activities of various institutions. It largely depended on the position of the guards regiments who would occupy the throne in St. Petersburg (See the diagram “Prerequisites for palace coups”). The class interests of the court groups influenced the position of the guard. A struggle for the throne began between the "insignificant heirs of the northern giant" (A.S. Pushkin).

The palace coup of 1725 and the reign of Catherine I. On January 28, 1725, at a meeting of the Senate, the issue of the successor of Peter I was decided. into account. The main candidates were Catherine I Alekseevna herself and the son of Tsarevich Alexei, who died in the casemates of the Peter and Paul Fortress, nine-year-old Peter (See the diagram “The Romanov Dynasty”).

Representatives of the new nobility were satisfied with the candidacy of Catherine I, they referred to her coronation in 1724.

The old well-born aristocracy, whose leader was D.M. Golitsyn, wanted to proclaim Peter II as Tsar, and Catherine I as regent.

At a meeting of the Senate, His Serene Highness Prince A.D. Menshikov sent guards to support Catherine I, as a result of which she became a full-fledged empress. So, on the day of the death of Emperor Peter I, the first palace coup of the 18th century took place.

Being a protégé of the guards and the new nobility, Catherine I Alekseevna played the role of a puppet in their hands (See the diagram "The reign of Catherine I"). After gaining power, the A.D. Menshikova sought to strengthen her position, therefore, the principle of length of service was further developed, because. the principle of the noble birth of the unborn Menshikov did not suit the guards either.

On February 8, 1726, Catherine I signed a decree on a new supreme state body - the Supreme Privy Council. It arose as a result of a compromise between A.D. Menshikov and D.M. Golitsyn (See the article “Decree on the establishment of the Supreme Privy Council” in the anthology).

It consisted of six people: from the unborn nobility - N.I. Panin, S.F. Apraksin, A.I. Osterman, G.I. Golovkin, P. Tolstoy and from the well-born aristocracy - D.M. Golitsyn.

Representatives of the new noble nobility hoped to calm the well-born aristocracy by giving it the appearance of power.

The old aristocracy sought to limit the power and influence of Menshikov.

Members of the Supreme Privy Council submitted to Catherine I "Opinion on the Supreme Privy Council", which noted that all state decisions are made by this new authority, the army and navy, and collegiums are under its jurisdiction. This move can be seen as an attempt to limit autocracy and introduce an aristocratic form of government. But soon, on May 6, 1727, Catherine I died.

Palace coup of 1727 Accession of Peter II. Catherine I, at the insistence of A.D. Menshikov, appointed Tsarevich Peter II Alekseevich, who was twelve years old, as her successor. He got engaged to his daughter A.D. Menshikov, therefore, the Most Serene Prince claimed the regency and full power. But the new nobility did not support Peter II Alekseevich and nominated Elizabeth Petrovna. Elizabeth's supporters succeeded in carrying out the coup. As a result, power went over to the side of the old nobility. HELL. Menshikov was arrested, deprived of all ranks and ranks, his property was confiscated and exiled with his family to Berezov, where he died two years later.

After the coup, the princes Dolgorukovs announced the sister of Prince Ivan Dolgorukov as the bride of Peter II. At this time, the old well-born aristocracy managed all the affairs in the country, but did not think to continue Peter's reforms and solve national problems. All her activities were expressed in the move of the court to Moscow, in an underlined disregard for the fleet, Peter's institutions and St. Petersburg. The leaders, in the person of the Dolgorukovs, wanted to restore the patriarchate, changed their trade and industrial policy, but failed to defend the interests of Russian trade abroad. Many commercial consulates in France and Spain were liquidated, foreign merchants traded duty-free in Russia, and the role of the St. Petersburg port fell. The leaders wanted to "fire" the industry, but they did not succeed, because Peter II died.

The palace coup of 1730 and the reign of Anna Ioannovna. On January 19, 1730, at the age of 15, Peter II died and again the question arose of replacing the throne.

The princes Dolgorukov wanted to enthrone the bride of Peter II, their relative. But this did not happen, since Catherine I, in the event of the death of Peter II, transferred the throne to Anna and Elizabeth (See the diagram “The Romanov Dynasty”).

The descendants of Tsar Ivan V Alekseevich (1682 - 1696), brother and co-ruler of Tsar Peter I, were two daughters - Catherine and Anna. The choice fell on Anna Ioanovna (Ivanovna) (1730 - 1740) - the Duchess of Courland. She was a widow and lived like an average landowner. This choice was due to the fact that the princes Dolgorukovs and Golitsyns, who had a majority in the Supreme Privy Council, decided that a favorable environment had been created for changing the political system of the country and turning it into an aristocratic oligarchy (the power of the few), and Anna Ivanovna, who did not have formal rights to throne, will depend entirely on them.

The Supreme Privy Council presented Anna with conditions - the conditions on which she was invited to the throne. Under these conditions, the future empress was forbidden to declare war and make peace, spend state money, distribute treasury revenues, choose a successor to the throne, bring a favorite E.I. Biron, to deprive the gentry (nobility) of life without trial. The command of the troops passed to the Supreme Privy Council.

On February 15, 1730, Anna signed the terms and arrived in Moscow. During the solemn reception in the Kremlin Palace on the occasion of Anna's coronation, the nobility presented two petitions demanding the elimination of conditions. Anna signed the petitions with the demands of the nobles, broke the conditions and took the title of autocrat. She canceled the decree on single inheritance, reduced the term of service for the nobles, abolished the Supreme Privy Council, and sent the leaders to Siberia, to prisons or executed.

Traditionally, the reign of Anna Ioannovna is estimated as a period of German dominance. “They fell down like rubbish from a holey bag, stuck around the courtyard, sat down on the throne, climbed to all profitable places in management” (V.O. Klyuchevsky). Anna brought her favorite E.I. to Moscow. Biron, a semi-literate groom, whom she granted the title of Duke of Courland. Without occupying any posts at the court, he managed all the affairs in the state. Appointment to government posts, spending public funds, awards and privileges depended on him. Embezzlement and denunciations flourished in the country. There was no stable system in the structure of the governing bodies. The Supreme Privy Council was replaced by the Senate, but a year later the Senate was pushed aside by Her Majesty's Cabinet with advisory and executive functions.

These actions aroused the discontent of the nobility. At the same time, the decisions she made were typical for Russia at that time. In her policy, Anna Ioannovna relied on the nobles. She resumed the distribution of land to them, created two new guard regiments, and opened educational institutions for the children of nobles. She limited the term of service of the nobles to 25 years, etc. She also increased the rights of landowners over peasants. Dying, in 1740 Anna Ioanovna appointed Ivan Antonovich, the newly born grandson of her sister Ekaterina, as her successor, and E.I. Biron. This legitimized his power.

Palace coup of 1740 Emperor Ivan VI Antonovich. October 23, 1740 E.I. Biron issued two manifestos on the regency, but his situation was complicated by the struggle in the camp of his own supporters. Field Marshal B.K. rushed to power. Minich, head of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs A.I. Osterman and the mother of the newborn emperor Anna Leopoldovna.

Ivan VI Antonovich (1740-1741) remained emperor, and Anna Leopoldovna (1740-1741) became regent. Anna Leopoldovna did not have any social support inside the country, she was afraid of the guard, strengthened police supervision and tried to stay in power with the help of new and new repressions.

In the meantime, in the summer and autumn of 1741, a circle of friends and helpers formed around Elizaveta Petrovna. Elizabeth was supported by the foreign embassies of Sweden and France. Sweden offered military assistance, France - monetary.

After threats from Anna Leopoldovna, Elizaveta Petrovna stood at the head of the conspiracy.

The palace coup of 1741 and the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna. On November 25, 1741, a coup took place, and Elizaveta Petrovna turned out to be the head of state. She was enthroned by the guards and relied on her during her entire reign until 1761.

Elizabeth removed foreigners from all posts in the state apparatus. Representatives of the new nobility took their places, supporting the new empress. These are Trubetskoy, Razumovsky, Shuvalov, Bestuzhev-Ryumin and others. The role of the Senate was restored, poll taxes were reduced, and recruiting norms were changed in the interests of the landowners.

The Russian nobility became the master of the country by right of origin and position. The reign of Elizabeth Petrovna prepared the flourishing of the rights and liberties of the nobility. In 1754, the Noble Bank was established, in 1761 the New Genealogical Book was created. The nobles even demanded release from service, but this did not happen.

Elizaveta Petrovna did not sign death sentences, she patronized the sciences and arts.

Elizabeth's foreign policy was also successful. Russia defeated Prussia in the Seven Years' War (1756-1762) (See the historical map "The Seven Years' War 1756-1763"). At the first stage of the war, Prussia won, but in 1757 the Prussians were dealt a serious blow, and in the fall of 1760, Russian troops entered Berlin (See the Seven Years' War diagram), but at that time Elizaveta Petrovna died.

The palace coup of 1762. The son of the Duke of Holstein, Karl Peter Ulrich, became the successor of Elizabeth Petrovna. He was both the paternal grandson of Charles XII and the maternal grandson of Emperor Peter I. Karl Peter Ulrich, having ascended the throne, took the name of Peter III Fedorovich (1761 - 1762). He was an ardent admirer of the Prussian king Frederick II, so he made peace with Prussia and gave her all the lands conquered by Russia in the Seven Years' War. (See historical map "Seven Years' War")

The result of such a policy was that he turned the whole society against him. Being a fan of the Prussian drill, he tried to rely on the Holstein guard, and this threatened with a new Bironism. Therefore, after six months of his reign, on June 28, 1762, the guards carried out a conspiracy against Peter III and carried out the last palace coup in the 18th century, elevating his wife Catherine II Alekseevna to the Russian throne.

Emperor Peter III was going on June 29 to celebrate his name day in Peterhof. Taking advantage of the absence of the emperor in the capital and fearing that the plot would be discovered, on June 28, 1762, guards officers led by the Orlov brothers and the wife of the emperor, Ekaterina Alekseevna, carried out a palace coup. Guards regiments enthusiastically supported the new ruler, who was proclaimed autocratic empress in the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. The Manifesto on the accession of Catherine II to the throne was read in the Winter Palace. She was sworn in by the Senate and the Synod. The next day, Peter III signed the abdication. A few days later he died (apparently, he was killed by Alexei Orlov and the guards). It was announced in the capital that the emperor had died of hemorrhoidal colic. He was buried in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra without royal honors.

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Essay on the history of Russia

"The era of palace coups in XVIII century"

2010

1. Introduction

2.1 Causes of palace coups

2.2. The era of palace coups

3.Conclusion

4. List of references

Introduction

It was Peter I who was responsible for the instability of the supreme power in Russia in the 18th century.

Thus, the circle of possible contenders for the throne expanded.

After the death of Peter I, the struggle for the Russian throne between the pretenders, who expressed the interests of various groups of the nobility, intensified. The replacement of the throne was most often carried out with the help of palace coups, in which the noble guards participated. They were carried out relatively easily, because they did not aim to radically change the policy of the state. Everyone who came to the supreme power in Russia, invariably, in one way or another, contributed to strengthening the position of the nobility by expanding its class privileges and strengthening power over the serfs. Not without reason, therefore, the era of palace coups in Russia is called the time of the formation of the noble empire.

Causes of palace coups

Ironically, Peter I was unable to use his own decree on succession to the throne due to his sudden death. In the autumn of 1724, the tsar caught a cold while helping to rescue soldiers from a shipwrecked boat on the seashore near St. Petersburg. In January, when his position became hopeless, Peter began to draw up a will on the eve of his death, January 27, and did not have time to carry out his plan. From what he wrote, only the words remained: “give everything ...”

Among his heirs are:

grandson Peter, son of the executed Tsarevich Alexei;

second wife Ekaterina Alekseevna

a captive from Livonia, who bore the name of Marta Skavronskaya,

pupil of Pastor Gluck, with whom Peter met in 1704, married in 1712 and whom he crowned with the imperial crown in 1724. They had two sons, Peter and Pavel, who died in infancy, and two daughters: Anna, who was married to Duke of Holstein, and Elizabeth, who remained unmarried and childless.

In addition to this dynastic line, there was another - the descendants of Tsar Ivan Alekseevich, the half-brother of Peter I, who had two daughters - Anna and Catherine. Peter married the first in 1711 to the Duke of Courland, the second to the Duke of Mecklenburg.

When analyzing the era of palace coups, it is important to pay attention to the following points.

Firstly, the initiators of the coups were various palace groups that sought to elevate their protege to the throne.

The main reason that formed the basis of the palace coups was the contradictions between various noble groups in relation to the Peter's heritage. It would be a simplification to consider that the split occurred along the lines of acceptance and rejection of reforms. Both the so-called “new nobility”, which came to the fore in the years of Peter the Great thanks to its service zeal, and the aristocratic party tried to soften the course of reforms, hoping in one form or another to give a respite to society, and first of all, to themselves. But each of these groups defended its narrow class interests and privileges, which created a fertile ground for internal political struggle.

Secondly, the most important consequence of the coups was the strengthening of the economic and political positions of the nobility.

The alienation of the masses from politics and their passivity served as fertile ground for palace intrigues and coups.

Thirdly, the guards were the driving force behind the coups. Indeed, it was the guards who, during the period under review, decided the question of who should be on the throne.

At that time, the guards began to play an active role in the political life of the country, which Peter brought up as a privileged "support" of the autocracy, which, moreover, assumed the right to control the conformity of the personality and policy of the monarch to the legacy that her "beloved emperor" left.

In general, it would be most correct to assess the time of palace coups as a period of development of the noble empire from the formations of Peter the Great to a new major modernization of the country under Catherine 2. In the second quarter - the middle of the 18th century, there were no major reforms the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna is estimated as a period of counter-reforms).

The era of palace coups

Coup in favor of Ekaterina Alekseevna

The accession of Catherine 1 (1725-1727) led to a sharp strengthening of the position of Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the country. Attempts to somewhat curb his lust for power and greed with the help of the Supreme Privy Council (VTS) created under the Empress, to which the first three colleges, as well as the Senate, were subordinate, did not lead to anything. Moreover, the temporary worker decided to strengthen his position by marrying his daughter to Peter's young grandson.

In May 1727, Catherine I died and, according to her will, 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730) became emperor under the regency of the military-technical cooperation. Menshikov's influence at court increased, and he even received the coveted rank of generalissimo.

But, pushing away old allies and not acquiring new ones among the noble nobility, he soon lost influence on the young emperor and in September 1727 was arrested and exiled with his whole family to Berezovo, where he soon died.

A significant role in discrediting the personality of Menshikov in the eyes of the young emperor was played by the Dolgoruky, as well as a member of the military-technical cooperation, the tutor of the tsar, nominated for this position by Menshikov himself - A.I. Osterman is a clever diplomat who, depending on the alignment of forces and the political situation, was able to change his views, allies and patrons.

The overthrow of Menshikov was, in essence, an actual palace coup, because the composition of the military-technical cooperation has changed. In which aristocratic families began to prevail (Dolgoruky and Golitsyn), and A.I. began to play a key role. Osterman; the regency of the MTC was put an end to, Peter II declared himself a full-fledged ruler, who was surrounded by new favorites; a course was outlined aimed at revising the reforms of Peter I.

Soon the court left St. Petersburg and moved to Moscow, which attracted the emperor by the presence of richer hunting grounds. The sister of the tsar's favorite, Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, was betrothed to Peter II, but while preparing for the wedding, he died of smallpox. And again the question arose about the heir to the throne, because with the death of Peter II, the male line of the Romanovs was cut short, and he did not have time to appoint a successor.

In the conditions of a political crisis and timelessness, the military-technical cooperation, which by that time consisted of 8 people (5 seats belonged to the Dolgoruky and Golitsyns), decided to invite the niece of Peter I, the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to the throne. It was also extremely important that she had no supporters and no connections in Russia. As a result, this made it possible, beckoning with an invitation to the brilliant St. Petersburg throne, to impose their own conditions and get her consent to limit the power of the monarch.

Anna Ioannovna and her "conditions"

After the death of Peter II, the question of succession to the throne arose again. Dolgoruky's attempt to enthrone the former tsar's bride, Catherine Dolgoruky, was unsuccessful. The Golitsyn family, traditionally competing with the Dolgoruky, nominated Anna of Kurlyandskaya, the niece of Peter I, as the heir. Anna Ioannovna received the crown at the cost of signing the Conditions, limiting her power in favor of the Supreme Privy Council. In Russia, instead of an absolute monarchy, a limited monarchy was established.

However, the majority of aristocrats (and representatives of other segments of the population) did not like this idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe "supreme leaders". They considered the Conditions an attempt to establish a regime in Russia in which all power would belong to two families - Golitsyn and Dolgoruky. After Anna Ioannovna publicly tore up the Conditions, the Dolgoruky clan was subjected to repression. ". She liquidated the military-technical cooperation, creating instead the Cabinet of Ministers headed by Osterman.

Gradually, Anna went to meet the most urgent requirements of the Russian nobility: their service life was limited to 25 years; that part of the Decree on Uniform Succession, which limited the right of the nobles to dispose of the estate when it was inherited, was canceled; easier to get an officer's rank. An accurate description of the personality of the new empress was given by V.O. Klyuchevsky: “Tall and obese, with a face more masculine than feminine, callous by nature and even more calloused by early widowhood ... among court adventures in Courland, where she was pushed around like a Russian-Prussian-Polish toy, she, having already 37 years , brought to Moscow an evil and poorly educated mind with a fierce thirst for belated pleasures and gross entertainment.

The reign of Anna Ioannovna was a time of fierce struggle around the throne. Her all-powerful favorite Biron, Field Marshal B. Kh. Minich, the same Osterman and the new face of court politics, Artemy Petrovich Volynsky, took part in the struggle.

As a result, Volynsky was executed on charges of treason and an attempted palace coup against Anna.

Already in 1730, Anna Ioannovna took care of the issue of an heir. Since she did not have her own children, she placed all her hopes on her niece, Elizabeth Christina of Mecklenburg. Having received the name of Anna Leopoldovna at baptism, she was declared the successor. Rather, the future child of Anna Leopoldovna was declared the heir.

By decree of December 17, 1731, the autocrat restored Peter's "Heritage Charter" of 1722 into force. And then the population of Russia took an oath of allegiance to the unborn son of the royal niece.

In 1732, Prince Anton Ulrich of Braunschweig Bevern Blackenburg of Lüneburg arrived in Russia, the offspring of one of the most ancient royal families in Europe - the Welfs. He came to Russia under the guise of entering the Russian service, but his main mission was to become the husband of Anna Leopoldovna. In 1739, his engagement and marriage to Anna Leopoldovna took place, and in 1740 the long-awaited heir was born.

Thus, the threat from possible applicants - Elizabeth Petrovna and Karl Peter Ulrich of Holstein (the future Peter III) was eliminated. Anna Ioannovna dies in 1740. In Russia, despite the fact that an heir has been proclaimed - John VI (some authors call him John III), another palace coup is brewing ... Biron is proclaimed regent.

Biron's regency - Minich's coup

The short period of the regency of Ernst-Johann Biron in historical works is covered and evaluated quite unambiguously. The regency of Biron, which became possible with the active support of the same Munnich, Osterman, Cherkassky, lasted no more than three weeks. This speaks solely of the inability of E. I. Biron to independently manage the state, of his inability (or rather, unwillingness) to consolidate with those who could be useful to him.

Even having received the right to regency, Biron continues to fight Minich. This time is also characterized by the confrontation between the regent and Anna Leopoldovna. In addition, Biron finally restores against himself and the wife of the princess - Anton Ulrich.

Dissatisfaction with the regent was ripening in the country. On November 8, 1740, another palace coup took place, only Field Marshal B. Kh. Minich was the “soul” of the conspiracy. By the way, it is believed that the first "classic" palace coup was carried out by Field Marshal B. Kh. Minich. The extremely ambitious Minich counted on one of the first places in the state, but he did not receive any new posts or the expected title of generalissimo from the regent. Adjutant G. Kh. Manstein describes in detail the arrest of Biron and his family in his Notes on Russia. In other words, the Germans made a coup against the Germans. In addition to the Germans, of course, Russian supporters of the regent also suffered. For example, A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin - later a well-known politician of the Elizabethan reign.

A Manifesto was also published on behalf of the baby emperor, from which it followed that the former regent violated the legal rights of him, the emperor, his parents and, in general, had the audacity to do all sorts of "... nasty things to repair." Thus, the palace coup received an official justification! Historians have always unequivocally assessed this coup. Here is how S. M. Solovyov writes: “Russia was presented to an immoral and mediocre foreigner as the price of a shameful connection! It was unbearable."

"Patriotic" coup by Elizabeth Petrovna

On November 25, 1741, another (and not the last in the 18th century) palace coup took place, and it was initiated by Elizabeth Petrovna, the youngest daughter of Peter I.

A lot has been written about this coup, and almost all historical (and even more so, fiction) literature interprets this event as a “triumph of the Russian spirit”, as the end of foreign domination, as the only possible and even completely legal act.

V. O. Klyuchevsky calls Elizabeth as follows: "The most legitimate of all the successors and successors of Peter I." The name of Tsarina Elizabeth was called at each change of rulers since 1725, but each time the crown went to someone else. Elizabeth has always been very calm about advice and calls to act for the sake of accession to the throne. I must say that in 1741, "Petrov's daughter" succumbed to the persuasion of her entourage only under the influence of fear of an unknown future.

In public opinion, by the will of political circumstances, Elizabeth earned a reputation as the head of a certain “Russian” party that opposed the dominance of foreigners at the courts of Anna Ioannovna and Anna Leopoldovna. In this respect, Elizabeth of 1741 was the exact opposite of Elizabeth of 1725.

After the death of Peter, it was his daughters who, along with Catherine, were considered the main patrons of foreigners. Elizabeth in alliance with Anna Petrovna were symbols of Holstein influence on the Russian court. (Moreover, at that moment, Elizabeth was considered the bride of the Lübeck prince-bishop Karl-August, who later died of a transient illness).

It should be noted that Elizabeth was not some kind of special Russian patriot, she simply became the center of attraction for that court group, which at the moment was removed from power. The patriotic feelings of Elizabeth's supporters were caused not so much by the rejection of foreigners as by their own interests.

In addition, there are inexorable facts indicating that Elizabeth collaborated with French and Swedish agents of influence - Chétardie and Nolken, and that it was foreign courts that played an important role in the anti-government (essentially) adventure of the princess.

The night of the coup was included not only in the history books, but also in the legends. The phrase with which the princess led the guards to storm is known: “Do you know whose daughter I am?” This was quite enough - the authority of Peter was too great in all sectors of society.

Elizabeth's victory brought to power a new generation of courtiers and prominent politicians - the Shuvalov family, M. I. Vorontsov.

Of course, German influence at the Russian court practically disappeared.

However, having established herself on the throne, Elizabeth declared her heir to Holstein-Gottorp Prince Karl-Peter-Ulrich, the son of Anna Petrovna, whose wife Sophia-Augusta-Frederick Anhalt-Zerbstskaya (Fike) some time later became. The young princess has learned well the lessons that the Russian history of coups has taught her - she will successfully bring them to life.

186 days of Peter III

The coup of June 28, 1762 (July 9, according to a new style) in Russian and Soviet historical literature has always been interpreted unequivocally - smart, decisive, patriotic Catherine overthrows her insignificant spouse (marginal and traitor to Russian interests).

V. O. Klyuchevsky spoke of this event in the following way: “To the indignant national feeling was mixed in her (Ekaterina) a self-satisfied consciousness that she creates and gives the Fatherland her own government, although illegal, but which will understand and observe its interests better than the legal one.”

... Catherine already in 1756 was planning her future seizure of power. During a serious and prolonged illness of Elizabeth Petrovna, the Grand Duchess made it clear to her "English comrade" H. Williams that one should only wait for the death of the Empress. (England at that moment was very profitable change of political course in Russia).

However, Elizabeth died only in 1761 and her rightful heir Peter III ascended the throne.

During his short reign, Peter brought to life a number of measures that were supposed to strengthen his position and make his figure popular among the people. So, he abolished the Secret Investigative Office and gave the nobles the opportunity to choose between service and a carefree life on his estate. ("Manifesto on the granting of freedom and liberties to the Russian nobility").

It is believed, however, that the cause of the coup was precisely the extreme unpopularity of Peter III among the people. He was blamed for: disrespect for Russian shrines and the conclusion of a "shameful peace" with Prussia.

In fact, Peter led Russia out of the war, which was draining the country's human and economic resources, and in which Russia was fulfilling its allied duty to Austria (that is, there was no "Russian interest" in the Seven Years' War).

However, Peter made an unforgivable mistake by declaring his intention to move to recapture Schleswig from Denmark. The guards were especially worried, which, in fact, supported Catherine in the upcoming coup.

In addition, Peter was in no hurry to be crowned, and, in fact, he did not have time to comply with all the formalities that he was obliged to comply with as emperor. Frederick II in his letters persistently advised Peter to put on the crown as soon as possible, but the emperor did not heed the advice of his idol. Thus, in the eyes of the Russian people, he was like a "fake tsar."

As for Catherine, then, as the same Frederick II said: “She was a foreigner, on the eve of a divorce” and the coup was her only chance (Peter emphasized more than once that he was going to divorce his wife and marry Elizabeth Vorontsova).

The signal for the beginning of the coup was the arrest of an officer - the Transfiguration Passek. Alexei Orlov (brother of the favorite) brought Ekaterina to St. Petersburg early in the morning, where she turned to the soldiers of the Izmailovsky regiment, and then to the Semyonovites. This was followed by a prayer service in the Kazan Cathedral and the oath of the Senate and the Synod.

On the evening of June 28, a “campaign to Peterhof” was made, where Peter III was supposed to come to celebrate his name day and the name day of the heir Pavel. The emperor's indecisiveness and some kind of childish obedience did their job - no advice and actions of those close to him could bring Peter out of a state of fear and stupor.

He rather quickly abandoned the struggle for power and, in essence, for his life. The deposed autocrat was taken to Ropsha, where, according to most historians, he was killed by his jailers.

Frederick II commented on this event: "He allowed himself to be overthrown like a child who is sent to sleep."

Coup and coming to power of Catherine II

A new coup was carried out, like the previous ones, by the guards noble regiments; it was directed against the emperor, who declared very sharply his national sympathies and personal oddities of a childishly capricious nature.

The coup of 1762 put on the throne a woman not only smart and tactful, but also extremely talented, extremely educated, developed and active. The empress wanted law and order in government; acquaintance with affairs showed her that disorder prevails not only in the particulars of government, but also in laws; her predecessors continuously took care of bringing into a systematic code the entire bulk of individual legal provisions that had accumulated since the Code of 1649, and could not cope with this matter.

The first years of Catherine's reign were a difficult time for her. She herself did not know the current state affairs and had no assistants: the main businessman of Elizabeth's time, P.I. Shuvalov, died; she had little confidence in the abilities of other old nobles.

One Count N.I. Panin enjoyed her confidence. Under Catherine, Panin became in charge of Russia's foreign affairs. Working hard, Catherine spent the first years of her reign in getting acquainted with Russia and the state of affairs, selecting advisers and strengthening her personal position in power.

grounds. She not only wanted to streamline the legislative material, but sought to create new legislative norms that would help establish order and legality in the state. She wanted to create new legislation, and not bring the old into a system. As early as 1765, Ekaterina diligently began to set forth legislative principles and worked without telling anyone about the content of her work. The articles prepared by Catherine were her famous Order in his

original edition. Catherine established her principles of the new Russian legislation on the basis of the philosophical and journalistic thinking of contemporary European literature. So, according to Catherine, ancient Russia lived with alien

morals that should have been remade in a European way, because Russia is a European country. Peter began this alteration by introducing European customs, and he succeeded. Now Catherine continues this work and introduces pan-European laws into Russian laws.

start. Precisely because they are European, they cannot be alien to Russia, although they may seem so because of their novelty. Catherine gave the Order to the officials, and they reduced everything that they considered unnecessary. In 1775, "Institutions for the administration of provinces" were published. Instead of the previous 20 provinces that existed in 1766, by 1795 fifty-one provinces had already appeared according to these "institutions about provinces". Previously, the provinces were divided into provinces, and the provinces into counties; now the provinces are divided directly into counties. Previously, regional division was carried out by chance, which is why it turned out that, for example, Moscow province had 2,230,000 inhabitants, and Arkhangelsk only 438,000, but meanwhile

the numerical staff of the administration was approximately the same in both provinces. Now, under the new administrative division, it was adopted as a rule that in each province there were from 300 to 400 thousand inhabitants, and in the district from 20 to 30

thousand. Catherine sought to increase the strength of the administration,

separate departments and involve them in management

earth elements. The legislation on the peasants of Catherine's time continued to further restrict peasant rights and strengthen the landowner's power over him. During the peasant unrest in 1765-1766, the landowners received the right

to exile their peasants not only to a settlement in Siberia (this has already happened before), but also to hard labor, "for insolence" to the landowner. The landowner at any time could give the peasant to the soldiers, without waiting for the recruitment time. Decree of 1767 to the peasants

It was forbidden to file any complaints against the landowners. During the reign of Catherine, the secularization of church lands, the development of legislation on estates, judicial reform, the legislative consolidation of private property, measures to expand trade and entrepreneurship, and the introduction of paper money were carried out.

The historical significance of the Catherine’s era is extremely great precisely because in this era the results of the previous history were summed up, the historical processes that had developed earlier were completed. historical figure, regardless of her personal mistakes and weaknesses.

Conclusion

Palace coups did not entail changes in the political, and even more so the social system of society and boiled down to the struggle for power of various noble groups pursuing their own, most often selfish interests. At the same time, the specific policy of each of the monarchs had its own characteristics, sometimes important for the country. In general, socio-economic stabilization and foreign policy successes achieved during the reign of Elizabeth created the conditions for more accelerated development and new breakthroughs in foreign policy that would occur under Catherine II.

Bibliography

Minikh I.E.» Russia and the Russian Court in the First Half of the 18th Century

S.F. Platonov "Lectures on Russian history".

Magazine "Motherland"

http://wale-life.ru/2010/01/05/jepokha-dvorcovykh-perevorotov.html

http://storytime.ru/

Attachment 1

Chronological table

Years of reign
1725 - 1762	the era of "palace coups"
1725 - 1727	the reign of Peter's wife, Catherine (the country is actually ruled by Menshikov)
1727 - 1730	on the throne, the grandson of Peter, Peter II Alekseevich (victory of the nobility, arrest and exile of Menshikov)
	Peter's niece, Anna Ioannovna, was invited to the throne
1730 - 1740	Anna Ioannovna rules, the actual power belongs to her favorite Biron. The dominance of foreigners and repression. After the death of Anna Ioannovna, the grandson of her sister, the infant Ivan Antonovich, ascended the throne.
	coup by the forces of the Preobrazhensky Regiment Palace coups 1725-1762 Test work >> History Portrait of one of the historical figures era palace coups: F. Lefort, F. Prokopovich, F. ... features of the period " palace coups" Palace coups as a social phenomenon XVIII century « era palace coups" the next one was named... Epoch palace coups (6) Abstract >> History Department: Patriotic history ABSTRACT " EPOCH PALACE COUPLES"(RUSSIA FROM PETER i ... power XVIII century. In my opinion the main reason palace coups served ... the diversity of events and faces era palace coups characterized by a stable line... Epoch palace coups (3) Abstract >> History ... era palace coups from 1725 to 1762 1. Causes palace coups in Russia Responsible for the instability of the supreme power in XVIII century ... Epoch palace coups (7) Abstract >> History And aptly called " era palace coups". The reasons for this era coups and temporary workers, rooted, ... Anna - sad era Russian life XVIII century, the time of temporary workers, ... and before. In the middle XVIII in. the first symptoms of decomposition appear ...

He died on January 28, 1725, without appointing a successor to the throne. A long struggle of various noble groups for power began.

In 1725 A.D. Menshikov - a representative of the new tribal nobility - enthroned the widow of Peter the 1st - Catherine the 1st. To strengthen her power in 1726, the Empress established the Supreme Privy Council. It included associates of Peter the 1st: A.D. Menshikov, Count P.A. Tolstoy, F.M. Apraksin, M.M. Golitsyn. From 1726 to 1730, the council, limiting the power of the senate, actually decided all state affairs.

Supported by the guards, with the help of France and Sweden, she arrested and imprisoned the baby emperor, exiled I. Minich, A.I. Osterman and other foreigners who claimed power. During her reign, there was a return to the Petrine orders and their strengthening.

Elizabeth pursued a policy of strengthening the rights and privileges of the nobility. The landowners were given the right to sell peasants as recruits. Customs fees have been abolished.

The aggressive policy of Prussia forced Russia to conclude an alliance with Austria, France and Sweden. The 100,000th Russian army was sent to the territory of Austria against Prussia.

In the summer of 1757, Russian troops, having entered Prussia, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Prussians near the village of Gross-Egersdorf. In 1758 Koenigsberg was taken. In the same year, the main battle took place with the main forces of King Frederick II near Zorndorf. The Russian army under the command of General P.S. Saltykov, with the support of the allied Austrian troops, as a result of a bloody battle, practically destroyed the Prussian army. The capture of Berlin in 1760 brought Prussia to the brink of disaster. She was saved from this by the death of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, which occurred on December 25, 1761.

After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, her nephew Peter 3rd (1761-1762) ascended the throne, who ended the war and returned all previously conquered lands to the Prussian king Frederick 2nd. He made peace with Prussia and entered into a military alliance with Frederick II. Peter III did not understand the beliefs and customs of the Russian Orthodox Church and neglected them. The Prussian policy caused dissatisfaction with his reign and led to the growth of the popularity of his wife, Sophia Frederick Augusta of Zerbst. Unlike her husband, she, being a German, converted to Orthodoxy, observed fasts, and attended divine services. According to Orthodox traditions, she became.

On June 29, 1762, with the help of the guardsmen of the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky regiments, Catherine seized power. Peter the 3rd signed the act of renunciation, after which he died at the hands of security officers.