According to their origin, languages are natural and artificial. Natural languages are the languages people speak. Natural languages develop and evolve. Artificial languages are created synthetically to convey some specific information. Artificial languages include Esperanto, programming languages, musical notation, Morse code, encryption systems, jargon, and others. It would seem that everything is obvious: if the language was created by people, then it is artificial; if it originated and developed independently, and people only fixed this development and formalized it in writing, then it is natural.
But not everything is so clear. Some languages are at the intersection of artificiality and naturalness. An example is one of the four official languages of Switzerland, Retro Romansh. Today it is spoken by about fifty thousand Swiss. The subtlety here lies in the fact that as early as the middle of the twentieth century, the Retro Romansh language did not exist. Instead, five disparate dialects of a related but not unified language of the Romance language family were spoken in various regions of Switzerland. And only in the 1980s, a group of scientists united in order to create a single language based on the most common dialects. Words in this language were selected according to the principle of similarity, that is, a word was taken into the language if it sounded the same in all dialects, or at least close.
For about twenty years now, documents and books have been published in a new, unified retro-Romance language, it is taught in Swiss schools, it is spoken by the inhabitants of the country.
Such examples are known from the more distant past. To a large extent, the Czech language can also be called artificial. Until the end of the 18th century, everyone in the Czech Republic spoke German, and the Czech language existed in the form of scattered dialects, which were owned only by uneducated rural residents.
During the period of the Czech National Revival, Czech patriots literally pieced together the Czech language from rural dialects. Many concepts in the common language did not exist and they simply had to be invented.
The same revived language is Hebrew. When, at the end of the 19th century, Ben-Yehuda, the man who is called the father of modern Hebrew, began a movement for its revival, books and magazines were published in Hebrew, it was the language of international communication between Jews from different countries, but no one spoke Hebrew in everyday life. In a way, it was a dead language. Ben Yehuda's transformation began with his family. He decided that the first language of his children would certainly be Hebrew. At first, he even had to limit the communication of babies with a mother who did not speak Hebrew, and hire a nanny who knew Hebrew to a sufficient extent for the children. Fifteen years later, Hebrew was spoken in every tenth house in Jerusalem. At the same time, the ancient language was so archaic that it had to be actively adapted to the realities of modern life, literally inventing new concepts. Now Hebrew is the spoken and official language of Israel.
Natural languages are sound (speech) and then graphic (writing) information sign systems that have historically developed in society. They arose to consolidate and transfer the accumulated information in the process of communication between people. Natural languages are carriers of centuries-old culture and are inseparable from the history of the people who speak them.
Everyday reasoning is usually conducted in natural language. But such a language was developed in the interests of ease of communication, the exchange of thoughts, at the expense of accuracy and clarity. Natural languages have rich expressive possibilities: they can be used to express any knowledge (both ordinary and scientific), emotions, feelings.
Natural language performs two main functions - representative and communicative. The representative function lies in the fact that the language is a means of symbolic expression or representation of abstract content (knowledge, concepts, thoughts, etc.), accessible through thinking to specific intellectual subjects. The communicative function is expressed in the fact that language is a means of transferring or communicating this abstract content from one intellectual subject to another. By themselves, letters, words, sentences (or other symbols, such as hieroglyphs) and their combinations form a material basis in which the material superstructure of the language is realized - a set of rules for constructing letters, words, sentences and other linguistic symbols, and only together with the corresponding superstructure that or some other material basis forms a concrete natural language.
Based on the semantic status of natural language, the following can be noted:
1. Since a language is a set of certain rules that are implemented on certain symbols, it is clear that there is not one language, but many natural languages. The material basis of any natural language is multidimensional, i.e. is divided into verbal, visual, tactile and other varieties of symbols. All these varieties are independent of each other, but in most real-life languages they are closely related, and verbal symbols are dominant. Usually, the material basis of a natural language is studied only in its two dimensions - verbal and visual (written). At the same time, visual symbols are considered as a kind of equivalent of the corresponding verbal symbols (the only exceptions are languages with hieroglyphic writing). From this point of view, it is permissible to speak of the same natural language having different varieties of visual symbols.
2. Due to differences in the basis and superstructure, any specific natural language represents the same abstract content in a unique, inimitable way. On the other hand, in any particular language, such abstract content is also represented, which is not represented in other languages (in one or another specific period of their development). However, this does not mean that each particular language has its own special sphere of abstract content and that this sphere is part of the language itself. The sphere of abstract content is unified and universal for any natural languages. That is why translation from one natural language to any other natural language is possible, despite the fact that all languages have different expressive capabilities and are at different stages of their development. For logic, natural languages are of interest not in themselves, but only as a means of representing the sphere of abstract content that is common to all languages, as a means of “seeing” this content and its structure. Those. the object of logical analysis is the abstract content itself as such, while natural languages are only a necessary condition for such an analysis.
The sphere of abstract content is a structured area of clearly distinguishable objects of a special kind. These objects form a kind of rigid universal abstract structure. Natural languages represent not only certain elements of this structure, but also certain integral fragments of it. Any natural language to some extent really reflects the structure of objective reality. But this mapping is superficial, imprecise and contradictory. Natural language is formed in the process of spontaneous social experience. Its superstructure meets the requirements not of purely theoretical, but of practical (mainly everyday) human activity and therefore is a conglomerate of limited and often contradictory rules.
Question 11. An information model that has a tabular structure is:
Answer 2. flight schedule;
Answer 3. family tree of the family;
Answer 4. functional diagram of a computer.
Question 12. An information model that has a network structure is:
Answer 1. computer file system;
Answer 2. family tree of the family;
Answer 3. model of the computer network Internet;
Answer 4. train schedule.
Question 13. Full-scale modeling is:
Answer 1. creation of mathematical formulas that describe the shape or behavior of the original object;
Answer 2. modeling, in which a separate feature of the original object is recognized in the model;
Answer 3. a set of data containing textual information about the original object;
Answer 4. modeling, in which the model has a visual similarity with the original object
Question 14. An information model of an object cannot be considered:
Answer 1. description of the original object using mathematical formulas;
Answer 2. description of the original object in natural or formal language;
Answer 3. another object that does not reflect the essential features and properties of the original object;
Answer 4. A set of formulas written in the language of mathematics that describe the behavior of the original object.
Question 15. The mathematical model of an object is:
Answer 1. a set of formulas written in the language of mathematics that reflect the properties of an object;
Answer 2. description in the form of a diagram of the internal structure of the object under study;
Answer 3. a set of data containing information on quantitative characteristics;
Answer 4. A model created from some material that accurately reflects the external features of the object.
Question 16. In the "object-model" relationship are
Answer 1. country - its capital;
Answer 2. bolt - bolt drawing;
Answer 3. chicken - chickens;
Answer 4. spacecraft - the law of universal gravitation.
Question 17
Answer 1. The Constitution of the Russian Federation;
Answer 2. a geographical map of Russia;
Answer 3. Russian dictionary of political terms;
Answer 4. List of deputies of the State Duma.
Question 18. Information models that describe the organization of the educational process at school include:
Answer 1. cool magazine;
Answer 2. a list of visual teaching aids;
Answer 3. list of school students;
Answer 4. lesson schedule.
Question 19. Mark the true statement:
Answer 1. direct observation is the storage of information;
Answer 2. A request to information systems is the protection of information;
Answer 3. building a graphical model of a phenomenon is the transfer of information;
Answer 4. Reading reference literature is a search for information.
Question 20. Drawings, maps, drawings, diagrams, diagrams, graphs are:
Answer 1. tabular information models;
Answer 2. mathematical models;
Answer 3. graphic information models;
Answer 4. hierarchical information models
How to determine the information volume of a message represented by the symbols of some natural or formal language?
An information message of 650 bits consists of 130 characters. What is the informational weight of each character of this message?
HELP PLEASE PLAN THIS PARAGRAPH! § 2.2. Information models The original object can be replaced by a set of its properties: names (values)
and values. A set of properties containing all the necessary information about the objects and processes under study is called an information model.
In table. 2.1 shows an example of an information model of a country house - a card from the catalog, according to which the customer of a construction company can choose a suitable project. Each card in the catalog contains the names (values) of the properties of the house (on the left) and the values of these properties (on the right).
Table 2.1
Appearance
Length 10 m
Width 8 m
Number of floors 1
Wall material Brick
Wall thickness 0.6 m
Interior wall decoration Board
Roof material Slate
All property names in information models are always symbolic elements, because the name can only be expressed in symbols. But the values of quantities can carry both sign and figurative information. For example, in table. 2.1 the value of the quantity "appearance" is expressed by a figurative element (drawing), and the values of the remaining quantities are expressed using signs (numbers, words, commas).
A figurative element of an information model can be not only a drawing or a photograph, but also a three-dimensional layout or a video recording. However, at the same time, it must be possible to associate this element with the characteristic of a particular object. For example, in the line "Appearance" in the catalog of houses, a layout code may be indicated. And in order for the layouts themselves to be elements of the information model, and not decoration, they need to be provided with labels with ciphers.
Information models represent objects and processes in figurative or symbolic form. According to the method of presentation, the following types of information models are distinguished - fig. 2.1.
Types of information models
Figurative Mixed Iconic
model model model
Maps Graphs Flowcharts
Figurative models (drawings, photographs, etc.) are visual images of objects fixed on any information carrier (paper, photographic and film, etc.).
A lot of information is given to specialists by satellite photographs of the Earth's surface (Fig. 2.2)
Rice. 2.2 Satellite photograph of the territory in the Black Sea region<
Figurative information models are widely used in education (illustrations in textbooks (Fig. 2.3), educational posters in various subjects) and sciences, where classification of objects according to their external signs is required (in botany, biology, paleontology, etc.).
Rice. 2.3 Construction of the Roman legion in three lines
Signed information models are built using different languages (sign systems). A sign information model can be represented in the form of a text in a natural language or a program in a programming language, a formula (for example, the area of a rectangle S = ab), etc.
Many models combine figurative and iconic elements. On fig. 2.4 shows an example of a model of a single-celled chlamydomonas algae. The drawn parts of the seaweed are figurative elements of this model, and the inscriptions below and to the right of the drawing are iconic elements. Rice. 2.4
Examples of mixed information models are geographical maps, graphs, diagrams, etc. All these models use both graphic elements and symbolic language at the same time.
i Briefly about the main
The original object can be replaced by a set of its properties: their names and values. A set of properties containing all the necessary information about the objects and processes under study is called an information model.
Information models represent objects and processes in figurative or symbolic form. According to the method of presentation, figurative, symbolic and mixed information models are distinguished.
The languages used for human communication are called natural languages. There are several thousand of them. The most widely spoken natural language is Chinese. English is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. Natural languages are characterized by:
Wide scope - natural language is known to the entire national community;
The presence of a large number of rules, some of which are formulated explicitly (rules of grammar), others implicitly (rules of meaning and use);
Flexibility - natural language is applicable to describe any, including new, situations;
Openness - natural language allows the speaker to generate new signs (words) that are understandable to the interlocutor, as well as use existing signs in new meanings;
Dynamism - natural language quickly adapts to the diverse needs of interpersonal interaction between people.
In connection with the development of science and technology, formal languages have arisen that are used by specialists in their professional activities. However, many formal languages have international use.
A formal language is one in which the same combinations of characters always have the same meaning. Formal languages include systems of mathematical and chemical symbols, musical notation, Morse code, and many others. The formal language is the commonly used decimal number system, which allows you to name and write numbers, as well as perform arithmetic operations on them. Formal languages are programming languages, which we will get acquainted with in computer science lessons.
A feature of formal languages is that all the rules in them are specified in an explicit form, which ensures the unambiguous recording and perception of messages in these languages.
1.2.4. Forms of presentation of information
The same information can be expressed in different ways. A person can present information in a symbolic or figurative form (Fig. 1.3).
The presentation of information in one form or another is otherwise called coding.
The representation of information with the help of some sign system is discrete (composed of individual values). The figurative representation of information is continuous.
THE MOST IMPORTANT
To save and transmit information to another person, a person fixes it with the help of signs. A sign (a set of signs) is a substitute for an object that allows the sender of information to evoke the image of the object in the mind of the recipient of the information.
Language is a sign system used by a person to express his thoughts, communicate with other people. There are natural and formal languages.
A person can present information in natural languages, in formal languages, in various figurative forms.
The presentation of information in any language or in a figurative form is called coding.
Questions and tasks
1. What is a sign? Give examples of signs used in human communication.
2. What do pictograms and symbols have in common? What is the difference between them?
Z. What is a sign system? Try to describe the Russian language as a sign system. Describe the decimal number system as a sign system.
4. What type of writing (letter-sound, syllabic, ideographic) does the writing of the English belong to; Germans; the French; Spaniards?
5. What languages are currently the most widely spoken in the world? (The answer can be found in encyclopedias or on the Internet.)
b. To what kind of languages (natural or formal) can the marine flag alphabet be attributed?
7. Compare natural and formal languages:
a) by scope;
b) according to the rules of operating with the signs of the language.
8. Why did people need formal languages?
9. In what cases can signs of formal languages be included in natural language texts? Where did you meet this?
Binary coding
Keywords:
Discretization alphabet
The power of the alphabet
Binary alphabet
Binary coding
Bit depth of binary code
| Binary coding | 5 1.3 |
one . Z. 1. Converting information from continuous
Shapes to discrete
To solve their problems, a person often has to convert the available information from one form of representation to another. For example, when reading aloud, information is converted from discrete (text) form to continuous (sound). During a dictation in a Russian language lesson, on the contrary, information is transformed from a continuous form (the teacher's voice) to a discrete one (students' notes).
Information presented in a discrete form is much easier to transfer, store or automatically process. Therefore, in computer technology, much attention is paid to methods for converting information from a continuous form to a discrete one.
Discretization of information is the process of converting information from a continuous form of representation to a discrete one,
Consider the essence of the process of discretization of information on an example.
Meteorological stations have self-recording devices for continuous recording of atmospheric pressure. The result of their work are curves showing how pressure has changed over long periods of time (barograms). One of such curves drawn by the instrument during seven hours of observation is shown in Fig. 1.4.
Based on the information received, it is possible to build a table in which the instrument readings at the beginning of measurements and at the end of each hour of observations will be entered (Fig. 1.5).
Rice. 1.5. Table built on a barogram
The resulting table does not provide a complete picture of how the pressure changed during the observation period: for example, the highest pressure value that occurred during the fourth hour of observation is not indicated. But if you enter in the table the pressure values observed every half hour or 15 minutes, then the new table will give a more complete picture of how the pressure has changed.
Thus, the information presented in a continuous form (barogram, curve), with some loss of accuracy, we converted into a discrete form (table).
In the future, you will get acquainted with the methods of discrete presentation of sound and graphic information.
Binary coding
In general, in order to represent information in a discrete form, it should be expressed using the symbols of some natural or formal language. There are thousands of such languages. Each language has its own alphabet.
An alphabet is a set of distinct symbols (signs) used to represent information. The power of the alphabet is the number of symbols (characters) included in it.
Rice. 1.7. Scheme for translating an arbitrary alphabet character into binary code
If the power of the original alphabet is more than two, then to encode a character of this alphabet, not one, but several binary characters will be required. In other words, the serial number of each character of the source alphabet will be assigned a chain (sequence) of several binary characters.
The rule for binary encoding of symbols of the alphabet of cardinality greater than two is represented by the diagram in fig. 1.8.
L L LL
Chains of three binary characters are obtained by complementing two-digit binary codes on the right with the symbol O or 1. As a result, there are 8 three-digit binary code combinations - twice as many as two-digit ones:
Accordingly, a four-digit binary code allows you to get 16 code combinations, a five-digit one - 32, She (DIFFERENT - 64, etc.
Note that 2 = 2 1 , 4 2 2 , 8= 23, 16 = 24, 32=25, etc. d.
If the number of code combinations is denoted by the letter N, and the bit depth of the binary code is denoted by the letter i, then the revealed pattern in general form will be written as follows:
A task. The leader of the Multi tribe instructed his minister to develop a binary code and translate all important information into it. What bit depth would be required for the binary code if the alphabet used by the Multi tribe has 16 characters? Write down all code combinations.
Solution. Since the alphabet of the Multi tribe consists of 16 characters, then they need 16 code combinations. In this case, the length (digit capacity) of the binary code is determined from the ratio: 16 2 i . From here
To write out all the code combinations of four O and 1, we use the diagram in Fig. 1.8: 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100, 0101,
The site http://school-collection.eduxu/ contains a virtual laboratory "Digital Scales". With its help, you can independently discover the difference method - one of the ways to obtain the binary code of integers
natural language- in linguistics and the philosophy of language, a language used for human communication (as opposed to formal languages and other types of sign systems, also called languages in semiotics) and not artificially created (as opposed to artificial languages).
The vocabulary and grammatical rules of a natural language are determined by the practice of application and are not always formally fixed.
Natural language features
Natural language as a system of signs
Currently, consistency is considered the most important characteristic of a language. The semiotic essence of a natural language is to establish a correspondence between the universe of meanings and the universe of sounds.
Based on the nature of the plan of expression in its oral form, human language refers to auditory sign systems, and in written form, to visual ones.
By type of genesis natural language is classified as a cultural system, thus it is opposed to both natural and artificial sign systems. The human language as a sign system is characterized by a combination of features of both natural and artificial sign systems.
The natural language system refers to multilevel systems, because consists of qualitatively different elements - phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences, the relationships between which are complex and multifaceted.
With regard to the structural complexity of natural language, the language is called the most complex of sign systems.
On a structural basis distinguish also deterministic and probabilistic semiotic systems. Natural language belongs to probabilistic systems in which the order of elements is not rigid, but is of a probabilistic nature.
Semiotic systems are also divided into dynamic, movable and static, fixed. Elements of dynamic systems change their position relative to each other, while the state of elements in static systems is motionless, stable. Natural language is classified as a dynamic system, although it also has static features.
Another structural characteristic of sign systems is their completeness. A complete system can be defined as a system with signs representing all theoretically possible combinations of a certain length from elements of a given set. Accordingly, an incomplete system can be characterized as a system with a certain degree of redundancy, in which not all of the possible combinations of given elements are used to express signs. Natural language is an incomplete system with a high degree of redundancy.
The differences between sign systems in their ability to change make it possible to classify them into open and closed systems. Open systems in the course of their functioning can include new signs and are characterized by higher adaptability compared to closed systems that are not capable of change. The ability to change is also inherent in human language.
According to V. V. Nalimov, natural language occupies a middle position between "soft" and "hard" systems. Soft systems include ambiguously coding and ambiguously interpreted sign systems, for example, the language of music, and hard systems include the language of scientific symbols.
The main function of the language - construction of judgments, the ability to determine the meaning of active reactions, the organization of concepts that are some symmetrical forms that organize the space of relations of "communicators": [source not specified 1041 days]
communicative:
ascertaining(for a neutral statement of fact),
interrogative(for a query about a fact),
appellative(to encourage action)
expressive(to express the mood and emotions of the speaker),
contact-setting(to create and maintain contact between interlocutors);
metalinguistic(for the interpretation of linguistic facts);
aesthetic(for aesthetic impact);
function of the indicator of belonging to a certain group of people(nations, nationalities, professions);
informational;
cognitive;
emotional.
Constructed languages- special languages, which, unlike natural ones, are purposefully constructed. There are already more than a thousand such languages, and more and more are constantly being created.
Classification
There are the following types of artificial languages:
Programming languages and computer languages- languages for automatic processing of information with the help of a computer.
Information languages- languages used in various information processing systems.
Formalized languages of science- languages intended for symbolic recording of scientific facts and theories of mathematics, logic, chemistry and other sciences.
Languages of non-existent peoples, created for fiction or entertainment purposes, for example: the Elvish language, invented by J. Tolkien, the Klingon language, invented by Mark Okrand for the fantasy series Star Trek (see Fictional Languages), the Na "vi language, created for the film Avatar.
International auxiliary languages- languages created from elements of natural languages and offered as an auxiliary means of interethnic communication.
The idea of creating a new language of international communication originated in the 17th-18th centuries as a result of the gradual decrease in the international role of Latin. Initially, these were mainly projects of a rational language, freed from the logical errors of living languages and based on a logical classification of concepts. Later, projects appear based on the model and materials of living languages. The first such project was the universalglot published in 1868 in Paris by Jean Pirro. Pirro's project, which anticipated many details of later projects, went unnoticed by the public.
Volapuk, created in 1880 by the German linguist I. Schleyer, became the next project for an international language. He caused a very big resonance in society.
The most famous artificial language was Esperanto (L. Zamenhof, 1887) - the only artificial language that has become widespread and has united quite a few supporters of the international language around itself.
Of the artificial languages, the most famous are:
basic english
Esperanto
interlingua
latin-blue-flexione
occidental
solresol
Klingon
elvish languages
There are also languages that were specifically designed to communicate with extraterrestrial intelligence. For example, Linkos.
According to the purpose of creation artificial languages can be divided into the following groups:
Philosophical and logical languages- languages that have a clear logical structure of word formation and syntax: Lojban, Tokipona, Ithkuil, Ilaksh.
Auxiliary languages- designed for practical communication: Esperanto, Interlingua, Slovio, Slovian.
Artistic or aesthetic languages- created for creative and aesthetic pleasure: Quenya.
Also, the language is created to set up an experiment, for example, to test the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (that the language spoken by a person limits consciousness, drives it into certain limits).
By its structure Artificial language projects can be divided into the following groups:
A priori languages- based on logical or empirical classifications of concepts: loglan, lojban, ro, solresol, ifkuil, ilaksh.
A posteriori languages- languages built mainly on the basis of international vocabulary: interlingua, occidental
mixed languages- words and word formation are partly borrowed from non-artificial languages, partly created on the basis of artificially invented words and word-formation elements: Volapuk, Ido, Esperanto, Neo.
The number of speakers of artificial languages can only be given approximately, due to the fact that there is no systematic record of speakers.
According to the degree of practical use artificial languages are divided into projects that have become widespread: Ido, Interlingua, Esperanto. Such languages, like national languages, are called "socialized", among artificial ones they are united under the term planned languages. An intermediate position is occupied by such artificial language projects that have a certain number of supporters, for example, Loglan (and its descendant Lojban), Slovio and others. Most artificial languages have a single speaker - the author of the language (for this reason, it is more correct to call them "linguo projects" rather than languages).
Hierarchy of communication goals
Language Features
Basic functions:
cognitive(cognitive) function consists in the accumulation of knowledge, its ordering, systematization.
Communicative the function is to ensure the interaction of the sender of a verbal message and its recipient.
Private language features
Contact-setting (phatic)
Impacts (voluntarily)
Reference- a function associated with the subject of thought, with which the given linguistic expression is correlated.
Estimated
Emotive (emotional-expressive)
accumulative- that property of the language to accumulate, to accumulate the knowledge of people. Subsequently, this knowledge is perceived by descendants.
Metalinguistic
aesthetic- The ability of language to be a means of research and description in terms of the language itself.
ritual and etc.
