Antique culture, primarily of Ancient Greece and Rome, is the founder of Western European culture and its system of values. Moreover, it is necessary to keep in mind the following important circumstance.

The Neolithic revolution and the formation of early civilizations on the territory of Europe followed approximately the same scenario as the development of Eastern civilizations, up to the archaic period (from the 8th century BC). But then the development of ancient Greece took a fundamentally different path than in the East. It was then that the East-West dichotomy began to take shape.

The ancient version of development became an exception to the general rule, it is a kind of social mutation, and for reasons that are not entirely clear. In the entire history of mankind, this option was the only and unique in nature and results. The consequences of the “archaic revolution” that took place were truly world-historical, especially for the fate of Western European culture.

The transformation that took place was based on the promotion of private property relations, especially in combination with the dominance of private commodity production, oriented mainly to the market, with the exploitation of private slaves in the absence of a strong centralized authority and with the self-government of the community, the city-state (polis). After the reform of Solon (VI century BC), a structure emerged in ancient Greece based on

156 private property, which was not the case anywhere else in the world. The domination of private property brought to life the political, legal and other institutions inherent in it and serving its needs: a system of democratic self-government with the right and duty of every full-fledged citizen, member of the policy, to take part in public affairs, in the management of the policy; a system of private law guarantees with the protection of the interests of every citizen, with the recognition of his personal dignity, rights and freedoms; as well as a system of socio-cultural principles that contributed to the flourishing of the individual, the development of the creative potential of the individual, his energy, initiative, and enterprise. In the ancient world, the foundations of civil society were laid, which served as the ideological and institutional foundation for the rapid development of the ancient market-private property structure. With all this, ancient society began to differ fundamentally from all other societies, especially the eastern ones. The ancient structure took a different path of development than all the others, moreover, faster, more dynamic and more productive. Subsequently, these principles formed the basis for the flourishing of the cities of medieval Europe, the Renaissance arose on a similar structure and the bourgeois society of the New Age strengthened. It was on this basis that capitalism rapidly developed, becoming the most powerful force influencing the development of the whole world.

The following features are characteristic of ancient culture: 1) anthropocentrism: faith in the strength and destiny of man, the Greek philosopher Protagoras formulated the most important principle of antiquity that "man is the measure of all things"; 2) rationalism: recognition of the special role of reason and knowledge; 3) aestheticism: the desire for harmony and admiration for beauty, and the person himself was the standard of beauty; 4) democracy: culture is not elitist, it is the result and property of the entire society of free citizens; 5) admiration for education, the authority of knowledge; 6) the desire to make culture a way of life worthy and desired by the people; 7) low religiosity: attitude towards religion rather as a civil ceremony, an external ritual, rather than an internal conviction; 8) appeal to art and philosophy as the most important dominants of life, the transition from mythology to an attempt at a philosophical explanation of the world. Philosophy and science are the unconditional conquests of ancient culture. The cultural, ideological upheaval manifested itself most clearly in the history of Ancient Greece during the classical period (5th - 4th centuries BC). the concept of the value of the individual was entrenched; 9) glorification of human activity, encouragement of competitiveness (sports, politics, rhetoric, art); 10) the organic connection of the citizen and the policy on the basis of the formed civil society with the principle of the primacy of the citizen over the state; 11) understanding of freedom as the highest moral category; 12) completeness, diversity, completeness with a humanistic orientation, the creation of masterpieces that have enriched world culture and become a reference.

The culture of antiquity received special development due to a number of factors: 1.

Culture was created on the basis of advanced economic relations, on slavery of the classical type, on private property, on commodity-money relations. The economy has created sufficient material opportunities for cultural progress, for rapid social and economic development, and opportunities for professional mental activity have appeared. Moreover, sharp social stratification was limited, the middle strata dominated. 2.

A vibrant urban culture has developed. The city is the center of ancient culture, where a variety of leisure activities appeared. 3.

The ruling class of slave owners and the numerous middle strata adjoining them, which made up civil society, were active in the socio-political sense and were a favorable environment for the creation and perception of cultural values. four.

Democratic forms of government favored the development of culture in breadth and depth. There was no closed layer of the ruling elite and a developed bureaucracy, there was no mercenary army, concentration of power was not allowed, the rule was the turnover and controllability of the administrative apparatus, citizens were close to state institutions, actively participated in public affairs. Democracy has created a need for a cultured, broad-minded person. 5.

There was no powerful priestly organization, which in the countries of the Ancient East monopolized, to a large extent, the process of spiritual production and directed it into the mainstream of religious ideology. The nature of the Greek religion, the simplicity of cult rites, and the holding of the main religious ceremonies by elected representatives of citizens ruled out the possibility of forming an extensive and influential priestly corporation, its monopoly in cultural creativity. This predetermined the freer nature of education, the system of upbringing, worldview and the whole culture, its faster and more intensive development. 6.

The widespread use of alphabet-based literacy, which made it possible to access the wonderful works of historians, philosophers, playwrights, writers, orators. It was the possibility of reading and competent judgment about what was read that became an important stimulus for the creativity of ancient thinkers. 7.

Intensive information links with other countries and cultures, accumulation of knowledge of Ancient Eastern civilizations, openness of ancient culture. eight.

Development of strict forms of thinking, rules of proof, that is, the formation of a new culture of thinking. Science demonstrates a new attitude towards the result of cognition, when truth is recognized as the most important value that arises on the basis of rational operations, objectivity, and verifiability. Although, of course, scientific knowledge has not yet played a decisive role next to the mythological-religious, traditional consciousness.

The system of education of antiquity put forward the ideal of kalokagatiya - as a harmonious, comprehensive development of the individual, and civic virtues, the social qualities of a person, where physical prowess was manifested in war, mental development - in state affairs, and moral qualities - in the rules of the hostel, were brought to the fore. Thus, a new personality was born. 6.3.2.

Antiquity underlies all European civilization. Antiquity began to be studied in the Renaissance. But it was perceived not as a real ancient civilization, but as a kind of timeless ideal, which should be strived for, antiquity was idealized at that time. This continued into the 18th century. and in the 19th century until the end of the 19th century. did not appear a new direction - hypercretinism - a refutation of some ancient facts, they called them fairy tales. But in any case, antiquity was perceived through modern concepts.

In the 19th century scientists saw antiquity as now (the bourgeoisie, the proletariat, the parliament is watered by the party). Marxism appears with a primitive class approach and the reduction of all this into economics. It greatly influenced the interpretation of antiquity.

In our time, a more object view of antiquity prevails. Ancient civilization is a special civilization, different from ours. Ancient civilization - Mediterranean civilization. The whole life of the then people was determined by the sea and the climate (SUBTROPIC), the air temperature is determined by the climate - the winter is not very cold, the summer is not hot, thanks to the blowing winds. Residential buildings of an open type prevailed in the main. The world grows in antiquity was very rich, there were many forests, but by the beginning of our era. people cut down a lot of forests and the climate changed.

The ruggedness of the coastline combined with the mountainous terrain (80% - mountains, 2/3). In the Balkans, only 20% of lands suitable for cultivation explain the impossibility of forming a centralized state in the Balkans: in each small valley there is a separate state, which, at the same time, has a connection with the entire ecumene through the sea

Most of the rivers are not navigable. SMALL, they moved over in the summer. The rivers had no effect on human life.

Inland "harmless" sea, coastal navigation (in summer), maritime civilization in general. Fish is the basis of a healthy diet.

Initially, agriculture played a huge role in human life: the Mediterranean triad: cereals (drought-resistant) - legumes, barley; grapes (wine); olives, olives (used as soap, in lamps, olive oil is the main source of fats). There was not enough land for everyone - frequent hunger strikes - communication.

Mountains held back land communications. Land routes were not developed. By the beginning of our era, the Romans had built their great roads, but still the transportation of products was not economically profitable.

The horse was not used in the household. For transportation, use oxen or transport products on pack animals (donkeys and mules)

7. Convenient harbors in Attica and their absence in the Peloponnese, as well as the abundance of fertile land in the Peloponnese and its shortage in Attica, explain the different vectors of development of Athens and Sparta. The special isolation of Messenia: on three sides - the mountains of Parnon and Taygetos, on the fourth - the Isthmian Isthmus. There are, of course, fertile regions - Thessaly, Arcadia, Boeotia; there is less trade, less social life, so the society is more traditional. Hillbilly.

4. The mild climate will not let you die of hunger / cold => the people have free time and the opportunity to invent philosophy, a water-lifting propeller, etc.

5. The soil is rocky, wheat does not grow, but grapes and olives do. Bread is cheaper to buy than to grow locally, and there is also a product for exchange. Hence - the prerequisites for maritime trade (Egypt, Italy, after Colonization - Pontus and more remote areas). The struggle for trade routes is a frequent cause of wars.

6. There are minerals (clay, marble, iron, copper, silver, wood) =>

craft (storerooms - Asia Minor and the Iberian Peninsula). Tin was brought from Britain.

The specifics of ancient civilizations in comparison with the East:

Frame chronology: east at the turn of 4 thousand BC, the first European civilization - 3 thousand BC, and antique in 1 thousand BC;

Differences in natural conditions;

Economic difference

Tools - in the east - copper and bronze, antiquity - metals (greater power over nature);

In the east, there was a rural community, and in antiquity, an urban civil community (polis). Having developed the craft due to the lack of land - trade (concentration in cities) - the appearance of the first coins in Asia Minor) 8 c. BC.);

The difference in the social structure: there were no classes, there was a division into estates (mushkenum, avilum and slaves)

Mushkenum is directly dependent on the king - service people, state serfs.

In the west, especially in Greece, due to lack of land. THERE WAS NO STATE FARMS -> there were no muskenums, but there were meteks (re-eks in Sparta) - citizens, but not full-fledged citizens, dependent on the community of citizens, on the community as a whole.

In contrast to the East, slavery plays a much larger role in the West. In the east - patriarchal slavery (primitive, slave labor was used in the pulp economy and the role of slaves could be played by younger family members, they work together with the owner, the rate of exploitation is not high, slaves still have at least some rights). In the West - classical slavery (the fuss in a commodity economy, and not in kind, a change in the composition of slaves - these are no longer "poor relatives", in antiquity they managed to prohibit debt bondage and from now on foreign slaves began to prevail, they were completely deprived of any rights, operating rate is increasing).

Despotism - absolute monarchy - prevails in the east. On primitive monarchies, but later there were (democrat, aristocrat, oligarch).

Antiquity has a special place in world history, since it was the starting point, the first experience, the foundation and spiritual support of European culture. The term "antiquity" (from Latin antiquus - ancient) denotes Greco-Roman antiquity. Antique culture is the largest civilization of the ancient world, occupying a geographical location close to each other. Common to ancient states were the ways of social development and a special form of ownership - ancient slavery, as well as the form of production based on it. Common was their civilization with a single historical and cultural complex. This does not, of course, deny the presence of peculiarities and differences in the life of ancient societies. Ancient Greek civilization is usually divided into 5 periods, which are also cultural epochs: Crete-Mycenaean or Aegean (III - II millennium BC); Homeric or "dark ages" (XI - IX centuries BC); archaic (VIII - VI centuries BC); classical (V - IV centuries BC); Hellenistic (second half of the 4th - the middle of the 1st centuries BC)

The civilization that arose on the islands of the Aegean Sea, on Crete, as well as on the territory of mainland Greece and Anatolia, received the general name of the Aegean civilization, which, in turn, is divided into the Crete-Mycenaean period (late III-II millennium BC) , which includes the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. In III-II millennia BC. e. the first states emerge. These were states of a monarchical type, similar to ancient Eastern despotisms, with an extensive bureaucracy and strong communities. The disappearance of the Mycenaean culture in the XII century. BC e. is associated with the invasion of the Dorian tribes from the north of the Balkan Peninsula, among which the tribal system still dominated. The history of Greece after the Dorian invasion begins almost anew. Again there is a decomposition of primitive communal relations, the formation of statehood, the revival of material culture. This period lasted approximately from the 11th to the 9th centuries. and is called the "dark ages", as well as the Homeric period, since it is known primarily from Homer's poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey".

"Dark Ages" - the era of subsistence farming. In the archaic period, crafts were separated from agriculture, which marked the transition to exchange, production not only for their own needs, but also for the market, as a result of which cities were actively developing. During the period of the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. there is a formation of policies - scattered small sovereign city-states, united only by a common language, religion, cultural traditions, political and trade ties. It becomes economically necessary to create new colonies and increase the number of slaves as the main labor force. At the end of the archaic period, slavery spread in many policies, regardless of the form of organization of the policy, including democratic Athens.

The classical period is the time of the highest flowering of ancient Greek society and culture, which fell on the 5th-4th centuries BC. e. Ancient Athens became the most influential political and cultural center after the victory in the Greco-Persian wars. Athens reached its maximum power and cultural flourishing when the outstanding political figure Pericles, who was elected strategist 15 times, became the head of state. This period is known in historiography as the "Golden Age of Pericles", although it was relatively short-lived. During the period of weakness of the Greek policies, Macedonia begins its rise.

A new stage in the history of the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean - Hellenism - begins with the campaigns of Alexander the Great (4th century BC) and ends with the conquest of the Hellenistic states by Ancient Rome in the 1st century. BC e. Macedonia, having conquered Greece, fully adopted its culture, therefore, after the victorious campaigns of Alexander the Great, ancient Greek culture spreads in the conquered eastern countries.

The formation in Greece of city-states - policies, as a special type of community, brought to life a new, polis morality - collectivist in its basis, since the existence of an individual outside the framework of the policy was impossible. The Greek world has always consisted of many independent policies, sometimes entering into military, religious or some other unions, but usually independent and self-sufficient in administrative, economic and cultural terms. The process of gradual development of the policy, the early separation of craft from agriculture and trade, the rapid growth of commodity-money relations contributed to the transformation of the central settlement of a Greek tribe into a city. The citizens of the policy had the right to own land; were obliged to take part in public affairs, and in the event of war - to participate in the civil militia; had the right to publicly express their opinion on any issue, to file complaints about illegal actions. The supreme legislative body in the policy was the people's assembly; executive power was represented by elected (for a certain period of time) bodies and positions: the “Council of Five Hundred”, a jury trial, etc. Above the citizen in the policy was the collective of the policy (the idea of ​​the sovereignty of the people). Ancient democracy was limited: women did not have civil rights, personally free foreigners who lived on the territory of the policy, slaves. There were, in addition to democratic (Athens), and oligarchic policies (Sparta), where the remnants of the tribal system were strong, and the power belonged to the hereditary aristocracy. Nevertheless, the ancient Greek civilization as a whole most fully expressed the idea of ​​the sovereignty of the people and the ideal of a democratic form of government; and the polis organization of society became a unique phenomenon, previously unknown in the world of ancient civilizations, which made it possible to effectively solve economic, military and political problems, to achieve a high level of cultural development.

Ancient Roman civilization is interesting for its own system of spiritual values. The main spiritual guidelines of Roman society were: 1) patriotism; 2) the "special chosenness of God" of the Roman people; 3) the idea of ​​Rome as the highest value. Not only crafts were considered unworthy for a Roman citizen, but also artistic creativity (sculpture, painting, acting on stage, dramaturgy), and pedagogy. The originality of the Roman civilization was that it is represented by a variety of forms of socio-political structure known in antiquity. From an early class society headed by a “king” (seven legendary Roman kings were most likely the supreme leaders of tribal unions), to an early republic, then a developed republic, and finally to the emergence of a huge and stable state - the Roman Empire (a new type of monarchy , different from the eastern despotism), which swallowed up almost all other civilizations of antiquity. Roman civilization lasted 12 centuries, which are divided into three periods: the royal VIII-VI centuries. BC.; period of the Roman Republic VI-I centuries. BC.; period of the Roman Empire in the 1st century. BC - V century. n. e.

During the tsarist period, the primary social organization in ancient Rome takes shape. The population lived in clans ruled by elders. In 509 BC. e. The Romans expelled the last king, Tarvinius the Proud, and proclaimed a republic. The period of the Roman Republic is characterized by the beginning of the territorial expansion of Rome and the struggle with Carthage for dominance in the Mediterranean. As a result of wars and the growth of slavery, republican Rome is experiencing an internal crisis: slave uprisings and civil wars take place. As a result, in 82 BC. the commander Sulla establishes sole power, which meant the beginning of the decline of the republican system in Rome. The foundations of the empire that replaced the republic were laid by Gaius Julius Caesar, who was elected in 59 BC. consul, who became dictator for life and received the title of emperor. After the assassination of Caesar, his great-nephew Octavian Augustus, who became emperor, left behind a huge Roman Empire.

Only those who belonged to ancient families were considered full members of the Roman community. From them, a privileged part of Roman society was formed - the patricians, initially only they were considered the Roman people. In a different position was another large stratum of society - the plebeians. The plebeians were personally free, but did not belong to the clans, and therefore were not members of the community. Plebeians are settlers and residents of conquered areas. Initially, the plebeians had no rights: they were not allowed to attend public meetings, did not participate in religious rites, and could not marry patricians. Their struggle for the right to citizenship began. In the VI century. BC. plebeians were admitted to military service and to popular assemblies. And yet the plebeians remained incomplete, and in the future this will become the source of prolonged social battles in Rome.

Popular assemblies played an important role in the social life of Rome. The resolutions of the people's assemblies had the force of law. In addition, the tribunes had high powers: they had the right to impose a ban on the decisions of the court, the senate and senior officials if these decisions infringed upon the interests of the plebeians. The most important governing body was the senate, which consisted of patricians and the top of the plebs. He was in charge of domestic policy and determined foreign policy. Under the control of the Senate were finances and a religious cult. The Senate was an aristocratic body. In fact, he led the state. In this respect Roman democracy differed from Athenian democracy. Having become a huge power, Rome could no longer remain a community. The first signs of the destruction of its traditional structure, the norms of communal life appeared in the 2nd century. BC e.

In general, in the ancient world, the foundations of a civil society were laid, providing for the right of every citizen to participate in government, recognition of his personal dignity, rights and freedoms. Roman law contained a system of rules governing private property relations. However, democracy in the ancient world was limited.

Literature

1. World history in dates and events. - M: Rainbow, 2002. - S. 34-101.

2. Samygin, P.S., Samygin, S.I., Shevelev, V.N., Sheveleva E.V. History for bachelors / P.S. Samygin, S.I. Samygin, V.N. Shevelev, E.V. Sheveleva.- Rostov-on-D.: Phoenix, 2012. - S. 56-66.

3. Chubaryan, A.O. The World History. In 6 volumes / A.O. Chubaryan. - M: Nauka, 2011.- V.1. - S. 439-479, 575-602.

II semester

Historical Geography of Ancient Greece.

Written sources on the history of Ancient Greece.

Minoan civilization in Crete.

Mycenaean Greece.

Trojan War.

Dark Ages" in the history of Greece.

Greek mythology: the main plots.

Poems of Homer.

Great Greek colonization.

Sparta as a type of polis.

Formation of the policy in Athens (VIII-VI centuries BC).

Solon's reforms.

Tyranny of Pisistratus.

Reforms of Cleisthenes.

Greco-Persian Wars.

Athenian democracy in the 5th century. BC.

Athenian maritime power in the 5th century. BC.

Peloponnesian War.

The Crisis of the Polis in Greece, 4th c. BC.

Greek culture of the archaic period.

Greek culture of classical times.

Rise of Macedonia.

Campaigns of Alexander.

Hellenism and its manifestations in economics, politics, culture.

Major Hellenistic States.

Northern Black Sea region in the classical and Hellenistic era.

Periodization of the history of Rome.

Historical Geography of Rome, Italy and the Empire.

Written sources on Roman history.

Etruscans and their culture.

The royal period of the history of Rome.

Early Republic: the struggle of patricians and plebeians.

Roman conquest of Italy.

Second Punic War.

Roman conquest of the Mediterranean in the 2nd century BC. BC.

Reforms of the Gracchi brothers.

Struggle between the optimates and the popular. Marius and Sulla.

Political struggle in Rome in the 1st half. 1st century BC.

Caesar's conquest of Gaul.

Rise of Spartacus.

The struggle for power and the dictatorship of Caesar.

Struggle between Antony and Octavian.

Principate of Augustus.

Emperors from the dynasty of Tiberius-Juliev.

Roman provinces in the I-II centuries. AD and their romanization.

Golden Age" of the Roman Empire in the II century. AD

Roman culture during the civil wars.

Roman culture of the era of the principate.

The era of "soldier emperors".

Reforms of Diocletian-Constantine.

Ancient Christian church. The adoption of Christianity in the IV century.

The onslaught of the Germanic tribes on the borders of the empire in the IV-V centuries.

Eastern provinces in the IV-VI centuries. Birth of Byzantium.

Fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Culture of the Late Empire.

Antique traditions in the culture of subsequent eras.

The main features of ancient civilization, its differences from the civilizations of the Ancient East.

Ancient civilization is an exemplary, normative civilization. Events took place here, which then only repeated, there is not a single event and reality, which were not meaningful, did not occur in Other Greece and Other. Rome.

Antiquity is clear to us today, because: 1. in antiquity they lived according to the principle of "here and now"; 2. religion was superficial; 3 the Greeks had no morals, conscience, they maneuvered through life; 4 private life was a person's private life, if not affect public morality.

Not similar: 1. There was no concept of ethics (good, bad). Religion was reduced to rituals. And not to assess good and bad.

1. In ancient civilization, man is the main subject of the historical process (more important than the state or religion), in contrast to the civilization of the ancient East.

2. Culture in Western civilization is a personal creative expression, in contrast to the Eastern, where the state and religion are glorified.

3. The ancient Greek hoped only for himself, not for God, nor for the state.

4. The pagan religion for antiquity did not have a moral standard.

5. Unlike the ancient Eastern religion, the Greeks believed that life on earth is better than in the other world.

6. For the Ancient civilization, the important criteria of life were: creativity, personality, culture, i.e. self-expression.

7. In ancient civilization there was basically a democracy (people's assemblies, a council of elders), in the Other East - monarchies.

Periodization of the history of Ancient Greece.

Period

1. Civilization of Minoan Crete - 2 thousand BC - XX - XII century BC

Old palaces 2000-1700 BC - appearance of several potential centers (Knossos, Festa, Mallia, Zagross)

The period of new palaces 1700-1400 BC - the palace at Knossos (Mitaur's Palace)

Earthquake XV - the conquest of Fr. Crete from the mainland by the Achaeans.

2. Mycenaean (Achaean) civilization - XVII-XII centuries BC (Greeks, but not yet ancient)

3. The Homeric period, or the Dark Ages, or the prepolis period (XI-IX centuries BC), - tribal relations in Greece.

Period. Antique civilization

1. Archaic period (archaic) (VIII-VI centuries BC) - the formation of a polis society and state. Settlement of the Greeks along the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas (Great Greek colonization).

2. The classical period (classics) (V-IV centuries BC) - the heyday of ancient Greek civilization, a rational economy, a polis system, Greek culture.

3. Hellenistic period (Helinism, postclassical period) - end. IV - I in BC (expansion of the Greek world, dwindling kul-ra, lightened historical period):

Eastern campaigns of Alexander the Great and the formation of a system of Hellenistic states (30s of the 4th century, BC - 80s of the 3rd century BC);

The functioning of Hellenistic societies and states (80s of the 3rd century BC, - the middle of the 2nd century BC);

The crisis of the Hellenistic system and the conquest of the Hellenistic states by Rome in the West and Parthia in the East (mid-2nd century - 1st century BC).

3. Historical geography of Ancient Greece.

The geographical boundaries of ancient Greek history were not constant, but changed and expanded as historical development progressed. The main territory of the ancient Greek civilization was the Aegean region, i.e. Balkan, Asia Minor, Thracian coast and numerous islands of the Aegean Sea. From the 8th-9th centuries. BC, after a powerful colonization movement from the Aeneid region, known as the Great Greek colonization, the Greeks mastered the territories of Sicily and South. Italy, which received the name Magna Graecia, as well as the Black Sea coast. After the campaigns of A. Macedon at the end of the 4th century. BC. and the conquest of the Persian state on its ruins in the Near and Middle East up to India, Hellenistic states were formed and these territories became part of the ancient Greek world. In the Hellenistic era, the Greek world covered a vast territory from Sicily in the west to India in the East, from the Northern Black Sea region in the north, to the first rapids of the Nile in the south. However, in all periods of ancient Greek history, the Aegean region was considered its central part, where Greek statehood and culture were born and reached their dawn.

The climate is Eastern Mediterranean, subtropical with mild winters (+10) and hot summers.

The relief is mountainous, the valleys are isolated from each other, which prevented the construction of communications and assumed the maintenance of nat-go agriculture in each valley.

There is an indented coastline. There was communication by sea. The Greeks, although they were afraid of the sea, mastered the Aegean Sea, did not go out to the Black Sea for a long time.

Greece is rich in minerals: marble, iron ore, copper, silver, wood, pottery clay of good quality, which provided the Greek craft with a sufficient amount of raw materials.

The soils of Greece are stony, moderately fertile and difficult to cultivate. However, the abundance of sun and the mild subtropical climate made them favorable for agricultural activities. There were also spacious valleys (in Boeotia, Laconica, Thessaly), suitable for agriculture. In agriculture, there was a triad: cereals (barley, wheat), olives (olives), from which oil was produced, and its pomace was the basis of lighting, and grapes (a universal drink that did not spoil in this climate, wine 4 -5%). Cheese was made from milk.

Cattle breeding: small cattle (sheep, bulls), poultry, because there was nowhere to turn around.

4. Written sources on the history of Ancient Greece.

In ancient Greece, history is born - special historical writings.

In the 6th century BC, logographs appeared - word writings, the first prose, and a description of memorable events. The most famous are the logographs of Hecatea (540-478 BC) and Hellanicus (480-400 BC).

The first historical study was the work "History" by Herodotus (485-425 BC), who was called "the father of history" by Cicero in ancient times. "History" - the main type of prose, has public and private significance, explains the whole history as a whole, broadcasts, transmits information to descendants. The work of Herodotus differs from the chronicles, chronicles in that there are causes of events. The purpose of the work is to present all the information brought to the author. The work of Herodotus is devoted to the history of the Greco-Persian wars and consists of 9 books, which in the III century. BC e. were named after 9 muses.

Another outstanding work of Greek historical thought was the work of the Athenian historian Thucydides (about 460-396 BC), dedicated to the events of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC). The work of Thucydides consists of 8 books, they outline the events of the Peloponnesian War from 431 to 411 BC. e. (The work was left unfinished.) However, Thucydides does not confine himself to a thorough and detailed description of military operations. He also gives a description of the internal life of the warring parties, including the relationship between different groups of the population and their clashes, changes in the political system, while partially selecting information.

A diverse literary legacy was left by Thucydides' younger contemporary, historian and publicist Xenophon of Athens (430-355 BC). He left behind many different works: "Greek History", "Education of Cyrus", "Anabasis", "Domostroy".

The first Greek literary monuments - Homer's epic poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey" - are practically the only sources of information on the history of the dark ages of the XII - VI centuries. BC e., i.e.

Among the writings of Plato (427-347 BC), his extensive treatises "State" and "Laws", written in the last period of his life, are of the greatest importance. In them, Plato, starting from an analysis of the socio-political relations of the middle of the 6th century. BC e., offers his version of the reorganization of Greek society on new, fair, in his opinion, principles.

Aristotle owns treatises on logic and ethics, rhetoric and poetics, meteorology and astronomy, zoology and physics, which are informative sources. However, the most valuable works on the history of Greek society in the 4th c. BC e. are his writings on the essence and forms of the state - "Politics" and "The Athenian Poured".

Of the historical writings that give a coherent presentation of the events of Hellenistic history, the most important are the works of Polybius (the work details the history of the Greek and Roman world from 280 to 146 BC) and Diodorus' Historical Library.

A great contribution to the study of history Dr. Greece also has the works of Strabo, Plutarch, Pausanias, and others.

Mycenaean (Achaean) Greece.

Mycenaean civilization or Achaean Greece- a cultural period in the history of prehistoric Greece from the 18th to the 12th centuries BC. e., Bronze Age. It got its name from the city of Mycenae on the Peloponnese peninsula.

Internal sources are Linear B tablets deciphered after World War 2 by Michael Ventris. They contain documents on economic reporting: taxes, on the lease of land. Some information about the history of the Archean kings is contained in Homer's poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey", the works of Herodotus, Thucydides, Aristotle, which is confirmed by archeological data.

The creators of the Mycenaean culture were the Greeks - the Achaeans, who invaded the Balkan Peninsula at the turn of III-II millennium BC. e. from the north, from the region of the Danube lowland or from the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region, where they originally lived. The aliens partially destroyed and devastated the settlements of the conquered tribes. The remnants of the pre-Greek population gradually assimilated with the Achaeans.

In the early stages of its development, Mycenaean culture was strongly influenced by the more advanced Minoan civilization, for example, some cults and religious rites, fresco painting, plumbing and sewage, styles of men's and women's clothing, some types of weapons, and finally, a linear syllabary.

The heyday of the Mycenaean civilization can be considered the XV-XIII centuries. BC e. The most significant centers of the early class society were Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos in the Peloponnese, in Central Greece Athens, Thebes, Orchomenos, in the northern part of Iolk - Thessaly, which never united into one state. All states were at war. Male warlike civilization.

Almost all Mycenaean palaces-fortresses were fortified with Cyclopean stone walls, which were built by free people, and were citadels (for example, the Tiryns citadel).

The bulk of the working population in the Mycenaean states, as in Crete, were free or semi-free peasants and artisans, who were economically dependent on the palace and were subject to labor and natural duties in its favor. Among the artisans who worked for the palace, blacksmiths occupied a special position. Usually they received from the palace the so-called talasiya, that is, a task or lesson. Craftsmen who were involved in public service were not deprived of personal freedom. They could own land and even slaves like all other members of the community.

At the head of the palace state was a "vanaka" (king), who occupied a special privileged position among the ruling nobility. The duties of Lavagete (commander) included the command of the armed forces of the Pylos kingdom. C ar and military leader concentrated in their hands the most important functions of both economic and political nature. Directly subordinate to the ruling elite of society were numerous officials who acted locally and in the center and together constituted a powerful apparatus for the oppression and exploitation of the working population of the Pylos kingdom: carters (governors), basilei (supervised production).

All land in the kingdom of Pylos was divided into two main categories: 1) land of the palace, or state, and 2) land belonging to individual territorial communities.

Mycenaean civilization survived two invasions from the north with an interval of 50 years. In the period between the invasions, the population of the Mycenaean civilization united with the goal of dying with glory in the Trojan War (not a single Trojan hero returned home alive).

Internal reasons for the death of the Mycenaean civilization: a fragile economy, an undeveloped simple society, which led to destruction after the loss of the top. The external cause of death is the invasion of the Dorians.

Civilizations of the Eastern type are not suitable for Europe. Crete and Mycenae are the parents of antiquity.

7. Trojan War.

The Trojan War, according to the ancient Greeks, was one of the most significant events in their history. Ancient historians believed that it occurred around the turn of the XIII-XII centuries. BC e., and began with it a new - "Trojan" era: the ascent of the tribes inhabiting Balkan Greece to a higher level of culture associated with life in cities. Numerous Greek myths were told about the campaign of the Greek Achaeans against the city of Troy, located in the northwestern part of the peninsula of Asia Minor - Troad, later combined into a cycle of legends - cyclic poems, among them the poem "Iliad", attributed to the Greek poet Homer. It tells about one of the episodes of the final, tenth year of the siege of Troy-Ilion.

The Trojan War, according to the myths, began at the will and fault of the gods. All the gods were invited to the wedding of the Thessalian hero Peleus and the sea goddess Thetis, except for Eris, the goddess of discord. The angry goddess decided to take revenge and threw a golden apple with the inscription "To the most beautiful" to the feasting gods. Three Olympian goddesses, Hera, Athena and Aphrodite, argued which of them it was meant for. Zeus ordered the young Paris, the son of the Trojan king Priam, to judge the goddesses. The goddesses appeared to Paris on Mount Ida, near Troy, where the prince was tending herds, and each tried to seduce him with gifts. Paris preferred the love offered to him by Aphrodite to Helen, the most beautiful of mortal women, and handed the golden apple to the goddess of love. Helena, daughter of Zeus and Leda, was the wife of the Spartan king Menelaus. Paris, who was a guest in the house of Menelaus, took advantage of his absence and, with the help of Aphrodite, convinced Helen to leave her husband and go with him to Troy.

Offended, Menelaus, with the help of his brother, the powerful king of Mycenae Agamemnon, gathered a large army to return his unfaithful wife and stolen treasures. All the suitors who once wooed Elena and swore an oath to defend her honor came to the call of the brothers: Odysseus, Diomedes, Protesilaus, Ajax Telamonides and Ajax Oilid, Philoctetes, the wise old man Nestor and others. Achilles, the son of Peleus and Thetis. Agamemnon was chosen as the leader of the entire army, as the ruler of the most powerful of the Achaean states.

The Greek fleet, numbering a thousand ships, assembled at Aulis, a harbor in Boeotia. To ensure the fleet's safe navigation to the shores of Asia Minor, Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia to the goddess Artemis. Having reached Troas, the Greeks tried to return Helen and the treasures by peaceful means. Odysseus and Menelaus went as messengers to Troy. The Trojans refused them, and a long and tragic war began for both sides. The gods also took part in it. Hera and Athena helped the Achaeans, Aphrodite and Apollo helped the Trojans.

The Greeks could not immediately take Troy, surrounded by powerful fortifications. They built a fortified camp on the seashore near their ships, began to devastate the outskirts of the city and attack the allies of the Trojans. In the tenth year, Agamemnon insulted Achilles by taking away the captive Briseis from him, and he, angry, refused to enter the battlefield. The Trojans took advantage of the inaction of the bravest and strongest of their enemies and went on the offensive, led by Hector. The Trojans were also helped by the general fatigue of the Achaean army, which had been unsuccessfully besieging Troy for ten years.

The Trojans broke into the Achaean camp and almost burned their ships. The closest friend of Achilles, Patroclus, stopped the onslaught of the Trojans, but he himself died at the hands of Hector. The death of a friend makes Achilles forget about the offense. Trojan hero Hector dies in a duel with Achilles. The Amazons come to the aid of the Trojans. Achilles kills their leader Penthesilea, but soon dies himself, as predicted, from the arrow of Paris, directed by the god Apollo.

A decisive turning point in the war occurs after the arrival of the hero Philoctetes from the island of Lemnos and the son of Achilles Neoptolemus to the camp of the Achaeans. Philoctetes kills Paris, and Neoptolemus kills an ally of the Trojans, the Mysian Eurynil. Left without leaders, the Trojans no longer dare to go out to battle in the open field. But the powerful walls of Troy reliably protect its inhabitants. Then, at the suggestion of Odysseus, the Achaeans decided to take the city by cunning. A huge wooden horse was built, inside which a select detachment of warriors hid. The rest of the army took refuge not far from the coast, near the island of Tenedos.

Surprised by the abandoned wooden monster, the Trojans gathered around him. Some began to offer to bring the horse into the city. Priest Laocoön, warning about the treachery of the enemy, exclaimed: "Beware of the Danaans (Greeks), who bring gifts!" But the speech of the priest did not convince his compatriots, and they brought a wooden horse into the city as a gift to the goddess Athena. At night, the warriors hidden in the belly of the horse come out and open the gate. The secretly returned Achaeans break into the city, and the beating of the inhabitants taken by surprise begins. Menelaus with a sword in his hands is looking for an unfaithful wife, but when he sees the beautiful Elena, he is unable to kill her. The entire male population of Troy perishes, with the exception of Aeneas, the son of Anchises and Aphrodite, who received an order from the gods to flee the captured city and revive its glory elsewhere. The women of Troy became captives and slaves of the victors. The city perished in a fire.

After the death of Troy, strife begins in the Achaean camp. Ajax Oilid incurs the wrath of the goddess Athena on the Greek fleet, and she sends a terrible storm, during which many ships sink. Menelaus and Odysseus are carried by a storm to distant lands (described in Homer's poem "The Odyssey"). The leader of the Achaeans, Agamemnon, after returning home, was killed along with his companions by his wife Clytemnestra, who did not forgive her husband for the death of her daughter Iphigenia. So, not at all triumphant, the campaign against Troy ended for the Achaeans.

The ancient Greeks did not doubt the historical reality of the Trojan War. Thucydides was convinced that the ten-year siege of Troy described in the poem was a historical fact, only embellished by the poet. Separate parts of the poem, such as the "catalog of ships" or the list of the Achaean army under the walls of Troy, are written as a real chronicle.

Historians of the XVIII-XIX centuries. were convinced that there was no Greek campaign against Troy and that the heroes of the poem are mythical, not historical figures.

In 1871, Heinrich Schliemann began excavations of the Hissarlik hill in the northwestern part of Asia Minor, identifying it as the location of ancient Troy. Then, following the instructions of the poem, Heinrich Schliemann conducted archaeological excavations in the "gold-abundant" Mycenae. In one of the royal graves discovered there, there were - for Schliemann there was no doubt about this - the remains of Agamemnon and his companions, strewn with gold ornaments; Agamemnon's face was covered with a golden mask.

The discoveries of Heinrich Schliemann shocked the world community. There was no doubt that Homer's poem contains information about real events and their real heroes.

Later, A. Evans discovered the palace of the Minotaur on the island of Crete. In 1939, the American archaeologist Carl Blegen discovered the "sandy" Pylos, the habitat of the wise old man Nestor on the western coast of the Peloponnese. However, archeology has established that the city that Schliemann took for Troy existed for a thousand years before the Trojan War.

But it is impossible to deny the existence of the city of Troy somewhere in the northwestern region of Asia Minor. Documents from the archives of the Hittite kings testify that the Hittites knew both the city of Troy and the city of Ilion (in the Hittite version of "Truis" and "Vilus"), but, apparently, as two different cities located in the neighborhood, and not one under a double title, like in a poem.

Poems of Homer.

Homer is considered the author of two poems - the Iliad and the Odyssey, although the question of whether Homer actually lived or whether he is a legendary person has not yet been resolved in modern science. The totality of the problems associated with the authorship of the Iliad and the Odyssey, their origin and fate until the moment of recording, was called the "Homeric question".

In Italy, G. Vico (17th century) and in Germany, fr. Wolf (18) recognized the folk origin of the poems. In the 19th century, the “theory of small songs” was proposed, from which both poems subsequently arose mechanically. The Grain Theory assumes that the basis of the Iliad and the Odyssey is a small poem, which over time has acquired details and new episodes as a result of the work of new generations of poets. Unitarians denied the participation of folk art in the creation of Homeric poems, they considered them as a work of art created by one author. At the end of the 19th century, a theory of the folk origin of poems was proposed as a result of the gradual natural development of collective epic creativity. Synthetic theories arose in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, according to which the Iliad and the Odyssey appear to be an epic edited by one or two poets.

The plots of both poems date back to the Mycenaean time, which is confirmed by numerous archaeological materials. The poems reflect the Cretan-Mycenaean (the end of the 12th century - information about the Trojan War), Homeric (XI-IX - most of the information, because the information about the Mycenaean time did not reach oral form), early archaic (VIII-VII) era.

The content of the Iliad and the Odyssey was based on legends from the cycle myths about the Trojan War, that took place in the 13th-12th centuries. BC uh. The plot of the Iliad is the anger of the Thessalian hero Achilles at the leader of the Greek troops besieging Troy, Agamemnon, because he took away his beautiful captive. The oldest part of the Iliad is the 2nd song about the "Lists of ships". The plot of the Odyssey is the return of the island of Ithaca by Odysseus to his homeland after the Greeks destroyed Troy.

The poems were written down in Athens under the tyrant Peisistratus, who wanted to show that there was a sole power in Greece. The poems acquired their modern form in the 2nd century BC during the Alexandrian monsoon (the Hellenistic era).

Meaning of the poems: a book for learning to read and write, the "handbook" of the Greeks.

One of the most important compositional features of the Iliad is the "law of chronological incompatibility" formulated by Thaddeus Frantsevich Zelinsky. It consists in the fact that “In Homer the story never returns to the point of its departure. It follows from this that Homer's parallel actions cannot be depicted; Homer's poetic technique knows only a simple, linear dimension. Thus, sometimes parallel events are depicted as sequential, sometimes one of them is only mentioned or even hushed up. This explains some imaginary contradictions in the text of the poem.

A complete translation of the Iliad into Russian in the size of the original was made by N. I. Gnedich (1829), the Odyssey by V. A. Zhukovsky (1849).

Sparta as a type of polis.

The Spartan state was located in the south of the Peloponnese. The capital of this state was called Sparta, and the state itself was called Laconia. Polis could not be conquered, but only destroyed. All policies developed, but only Sparta in the 6th century. mothballed.

The main sources on the history of the Spartan state are the works of Thucydides, Xenophon, Aristotle and Plutarch, the poems of the Spartan poet Tyrtaeus. Archaeological materials acquire significance.

During the IX-VIII centuries BC, the Spartans waged a stubborn struggle with neighboring tribes for dominance over Laconia. As a result, they managed to subdue the area from the southern borders of the Arcadian Highlands to the Capes Tenar and Malea on the southern coast of the Peloponnese.

In the 7th century BC, an acute land hunger began to be felt in Sparta, and the Spartans undertook an aggressive campaign in Messenia, also inhabited by the Dorians. As a result of two Messenian warriors, the territory of Messenia was annexed to Sparta, and the bulk of the population, with the exception of the inhabitants of some coastal cities, was turned into helots.

The fertile lands in Laconia and Messenia were divided into 9,000 allotments and were distributed to the Spartans. Each allotment was processed by several families of helots, who were obliged to support the Spartan and his family with their labor. The Spartan could not dispose of his allotment, sell it or leave it as an inheritance to his son. Nor was he the master of the helots. He had no right to sell or release them. Both the land and the helots belonged to the state.

Three population groups formed in Sparta: the Spartans (the conquerors themselves were Dorians), the perieks (the inhabitants of small towns scattered at some distance from Sparta, along the borders, called periekami ("living around"). They were free, but did not have civil rights) and helots (dependent population).

ephors - in the highest control and administrative body of Sparta. Elected for a year in the number of 5 people. They monitor the behavior of citizens, being overseers in relation to the enslaved and dependent population. They declare war on the helots.

The constant threat of a helot rebellion, looming under the ruling class of Sparta, demanded from him maximum unity and organization. Therefore, simultaneously with the redistribution of land, the Spartan legislator Lycurgus carried out a whole series of important social reforms:

Only a strong and healthy person could become a real warrior. When a boy was born, his father brought him to the elders. The baby was examined. A weak child was thrown into the abyss. The law obliged each Spartiate to send their sons to special camps - agels (lit. Herd). Boys were taught to read and write only for practical purposes. Education was subordinated to three goals: to be able to obey, courageously endure suffering, win or die in battles. . The boys were engaged in gymnastic and military exercises, learned to wield weapons, live in a Spartan way. They walked all year round in one cloak (himation). They slept on hard cane, plucked with bare hands. They fed them starving. To be dexterous and cunning in war, teenagers learned to steal. The boys even competed to see which of them would endure the beatings longer and more worthily. The winner was praised, his name became known to everyone. But some died under the rods. The Spartans were excellent warriors - strong, skillful, brave. The laconic saying of one Spartan woman who accompanied her son to war was famous. She gave him a shield and said: "With a shield or on a shield!"

Sparta also paid great attention to the education of women, who were highly respected. To give birth to healthy children, you need to be healthy. Therefore, the girls did not do household chores, but gymnastics and sports, they knew how to read, write, and count.

According to the law of Lycurgus, special joint meals were introduced - sisstia.

The principle of equality was put at the heart of the "Lykurgov system", they tried to stop the growth of property inequality among the Spartans. In order to withdraw gold and silver from circulation, iron obols were put into circulation.

The Spartan state forbade all foreign trade. It was only internal and took place in local markets. The craft was poorly developed, it was carried out by the perieks, who made only the most necessary utensils for equipping the Spartan army.

All transformations contributed to the consolidation of society.

The most important elements of the political system of Sparta are the dual royal power, the council of elders (gerousia) and the popular assembly.

The people's assembly (apella), in which all full-fledged citizens of Sparta took part, approved the decisions taken by the kings and elders at their joint meeting.

Council of Elders - Gerousia consisted of 30 members: 28 geronts (elders) and two kings. Gerontes were elected from Spartans no younger than 60 years old. The kings received power by inheritance, but their rights in everyday life were very small: military leaders during military operations, judicial and religious functions in peacetime. Decisions were made at a joint meeting of the council of elders and kings.

The city of Sparta itself had a modest appearance. There were not even defensive walls. The Spartans said that the best defense of a city was not the walls, but the courage of its citizens.

By the middle of the 6th c. BC. Corinth, Sicyon and Megara were subordinated, as a result of which the Peloponnesian Union was formed, which became the most significant political association of Greece at that time.

Solon's reforms

Solon went down in history as an outstanding reformer, who largely changed the political face of Athens and thus made it possible for this policy to outstrip other Greek cities in its development.

The socio-economic and political situation in Attica continued to deteriorate for almost the entire 7th century. BC e. The social differentiation of the population led to the fact that already a significant part of all Athenians eked out a miserable existence. The poor peasants lived in debt, paid huge interest, mortgaged the land, gave their rich fellow citizens up to 5/6 of the harvest.

The failure in the war for the island of Salamis with Megara at the end of the 7th century added fuel to the fire.

Solon. descended from an ancient but impoverished noble family, was engaged in maritime trade and was thus connected both with the aristocracy and with the demos, whose members respected Solon for honesty. Pretending to be crazy, he publicly called on the Athenians for revenge in verse. His poems caused a great public outcry, which saved the poet from punishment. He was instructed to assemble and lead the fleet and army. In a new war, Athens defeated Megara, and Solon became the most popular man in the city. In 594 BC. e. he was elected the first archon (eponym) and was also instructed to perform the functions of aisimnet, that is, he was supposed to become an intermediary in settling social issues.

Solon resolutely undertook reforms. To begin with, he conducted the so-called sisachfia (literally "shaking off the burden"), according to which all debts were canceled. Mortgage debt stones were removed from the mortgaged land plots, for the future it was forbidden to borrow money against the mortgage of people. Many peasants got their plots back. The Athenians sold abroad were redeemed at public expense. These events in themselves improved the social situation, although the poor were unhappy that Solon did not carry out the promised redistribution of the land. On the other hand, the archon established the maximum maximum rate of land ownership and introduced freedom of will - from now on, if there were no direct heirs, it was possible to transfer property by will to any citizen, allowing land to be given to non-members of the clan. This undermined the power of the tribal nobility, and also gave a powerful impetus to the development of small and medium landownership.

Solon carried out a monetary reform, making the Athenian coin lighter (reducing the weight) and thereby increasing the monetary circulation in the country. He allowed olive oil to be exported abroad and wine was forbidden to export grain, thus contributing to the development of the most profitable sector of Athenian agriculture for foreign trade and preserving scarce bread for fellow citizens. A curious law was adopted to develop yet another progressive branch of the national economy. According to the law of Solon, sons could not provide for their parents in old age if they had not taught the children some trade in their time.

The most important changes took place in the political and social structure of the Athenian state. Instead of the former estates, Solon introduced new ones based on the property qualification he had carried out (census and income records). From now on, the Athenians, whose annual income was at least 500 medimns (about 52 liters) of bulk or liquid products, were called pentakosiamedimns and belonged to the first category, at least 300 medimns - horsemen (second rank), at least 200 medimns - zeugites (third rank) , less than 200 medimns - feta (fourth category).

From now on, the Areopagus, the bule and the People's Assembly were the highest state bodies. The bule was a new organ. It was the Council of Four Hundred, where each of the four Athenian phyla elected 100 people. All issues and laws were to be discussed in the bule before they were subject to consideration in the National Assembly. The National Assembly itself (ekklesia) under Solon began to gather much more often and acquired greater importance. The archon decreed that during the period of civil strife, every citizen should take an active political position under the threat of deprivation of civil rights.

With the light hand of A. Toynbee, the concept of "civilization" has become familiar in the historian's toolkit. However, as often happens, it is easier to put a word into circulation than to give an intelligible explanation of its meaning. Russian science, especially prone to theorizing, is now experiencing the peak of enthusiasm for this concept. Unfortunately, this love is just as blind as the hostility that feeds it to the recently popular Marxism.

They say that they do not argue about terms, but agree. However, an agreement that implies a tendency to compromise is not a tool for discovering something new. Whereas the terms are iconic symbols of the movement of knowledge along the path of its complication. The use of the new term is determined not by the agreement of authoritative researchers, but by the intuition of gifted individuals who managed to catch the beginning of an as yet unknown knowledge and take a step towards it before others.

They say that peoples, classes, politicians create history... Of course, they all "create" something. The irony is probably inappropriate when judging the greats of this world from the point of view of an ordinary person. There is a suspicion of inflated conceit. But if you look at the world, approaching God with the labor of your mind and soul, it is not easy to distinguish the powerful of the world from us sinners. This is where Socrates comes to mind: "but I just know that I don't know anything ..."

But history remains only in the writings of historians. Everything else passes, transforming into completely new forms. Only a few traces of the past remain. Ars longa, vita brevis ... Historians are those who have made it their profession to read the traces of once former people, states, civilizations. There is no modern history, there is a life that has not yet become history. For most of our readers, the civilizing mission of, say, the British colonialists somewhere in Africa or India is quite imaginable. However, few will agree with the statement that the soldiers of Napoleon or the army of Nazi Germany acted on the territory of Russia as the same instrument of European civilization as the conquistadors of Cortes or the pioneers of the Wild West. Is it just the fact that some completed their work successfully, while others did not?

The articles on the development of ancient civilization offered here are not completed works. Already now I see the need to correct some of their statements. However, any theory is nothing more than a working tool of knowledge, the possibilities of which are as limited as the limits of human knowledge itself. Therefore, I wish you to perceive what is written here with the same degree of irony with which I wrote this. Many people take science too seriously, getting carried away by formal logic and "statistics" that, in fact, do not prove anything by themselves. It is appropriate to recall here a small poem by the great A.S. Pushkin about the alleged dispute between the concepts of Heraclitus and Parmenides, which goes far beyond the ancient theme:

"There is no movement," said the bearded sage.

The other was silent and began to walk before him.

"Stronger and he could not object," -

everyone praised the convoluted answer.

However, gentlemen, this funny case

Here's another example to remind me:

After all, every day the sun walks before us,

However, the stubborn Galileo is right.

DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM OF ANCIENT CIVILIZATION

The emergence of ancient civilization.

Ancient civilization can be defined as a child of the civilizations of Western Asia and as secondary to the Mycenaean civilization. It arose on the periphery of the Middle Eastern cultural complex in the zone of influence of the Syrian-Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations. Therefore, her birth can be considered as a consequence of social mutation that occurred in the Eastern Mediterranean under a special set of circumstances.

Among them, first of all, should be attributed the extreme proximity of the two parent civilizations - Ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian - whose zones of influence inevitably had to intersect. Their centuries-old parallel development had a cross-effect on neighboring peoples. As a result, a zone of powerful socio-cultural tension was formed, which included the Middle East, Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean (Aegeis, the Balkans, Crete). Egypt and Mesopotamia gradually acquired a cultural periphery that developed under their direct influence and often control: Libya, Kush, Canaan, Phoenicia, Anatolia, Urartu, Media, Persis. The convergence of the zones of influence of the two civilizations led to the possibility of their unification, which, with the transition to iron age became real. Attempts to create "world" powers by Assyria, Urartu, Babylonia, Media were a way to give this process a certain form. It was completed by the Persian state of the Achaemenids. It has become the political form of a unified Middle Eastern civilization. Babylonia became its logical center, so Egypt forever retained a separate position, which it periodically tried to formalize politically, and a special culture.

Civilizations of the more distant periphery of Mesopotamia, such as Bactria, Sogdiana, Crete, Hellas, were under the weakened influence of the mother culture and therefore were able to create their own, different from the original, value systems. In the East, such a system was embodied in Zoroastrianism. However, the absence of natural boundaries capable of stopping the expansion of the Middle Eastern civilization led to the inclusion of the daughter civilizations of Bactria, Margiana, Sogdiana into the Persian state, and therefore into the zone of distribution of the Middle Eastern culture. Zoroastrianism became the dominant religion of the Achaemenid empire.

A different situation developed in the zone of western influence of the Mesopotamian culture, where it intersected with the Egyptian. Two factors had a deforming effect on the spread of Middle Eastern culture in the Eastern Mediterranean - a different landscape zone in Anatolia and the Balkans and the pressure of ethnic groups of Indo-European origin. Already in the Bronze Age on the territory of Anatolia and the Balkans, completely different natural and economic complexes were formed than in Mesopotamia. The proximity of the sea had a particularly great influence, which left its mark on the culture of Crete and the Aegean islands. However, in this era, the introduction of the ancient Mediterraneans and their northern neighbors - the Indo-Europeans to the achievements of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian cultures only developed. Therefore, the culture of the Minoan civilization of Crete and the Mycenaean civilization of the Balkans look at first glance so peculiar in relation to the parent civilizations. The local ethnic component still prevailed in their culture, but the social organization was based on similar principles.

Qualitative changes were introduced by the third factor - the transition of the Middle East and the Mediterranean to the Iron Age. The spread of iron was, although on a smaller scale than the transition to a productive economy or industrial production, but a noticeable technological revolution in the history of mankind.. It led to the final separation of handicrafts from agriculture, and consequently to the development of a division of social labor, specialization and a qualitative change in human relations, which only since that time began to take the form of economic ones.

The change in the economic basis stirred up the entire society of the Middle Eastern civilization, which was forced to undergo restructuring to one degree or another in order to adapt social forms to the needs of new production relations. At the same time, if the changes in the traditional centers of concentration of the civilizational field were relatively small, the periphery found itself in a different position. The relative weakness of the population field on the periphery led in many places to its complete destruction during perestroika, which was expressed in the elimination of urban and palace centers that acted as socio-cultural cells of the civilizational field. At the same time, a buffer zone between civilization and the primitive world began to move, which was expressed in the movements of the Aramaeans, the peoples of the sea, Dorians, Italics, Pelasgians, Tyrrhenes, etc. The reason for these movements was the intensification of the socio-cultural impact of civilization on its ethnic periphery, which had the objective goal of further expansion of the civilizational field. Thus, a historical phenomenon arose in the Eastern Mediterranean, called by modern historians the dark ages or a temporary return to primitiveness.

However, everyone agrees that the disappearance of the Minoan and Mycenaean palaces could not completely erase the social memory of the people. Perhaps the orientation of the population towards the proto-urban or protopolis centers of the Homeric era was a consequence of the preserved orientation of social ties of the Bronze Age towards palace centers. Demographic growth, spurred on by the Dorian migration and the economic development of iron, only strengthened this orientation, thus laying the foundation for the formation of a new type of civilizational cells. Their small size and nature of organization were largely due to the dominant landscape of the geographical environment, represented by relatively small flat or plateau areas separated by mountain ranges, sea spaces, or a combination of both.

With the transition to the Iron Age, communal organizations came to the fore as cells of the organization of the social field instead of the palaces of the Mycenaean era. The increased population density and lack of land made the struggle for land the main organizing principle of social development. The territorial proximity of the opponents to each other and the focus on the same landscape zones did not contribute to the formation of a hierarchy of subordinate communities. Instead, simpler forms of community organization arose: the complete subjugation of some communities by others (Lakonika), the union of equals around a single center (Boeotia), synoikism - merging into a single collective (Attica). The new organization led either to the conservation of the primitive the principle of opposing one's own to others'(Lakonika), or to transfer it to a larger association of representatives of different tribes. Thus, taking shape in the VIII-VI centuries. BC. state formations in the territory inhabited by the Hellenes were formed in close dependence on the conditions of the natural and geographical environment and maintained a strong connection with the primitive category of community. It is no coincidence, therefore, that a characteristic feature of ancient civilization, which determined the socio-normative principles and orientation of social culture, was an autonomous urban civil community (polis).

The rise of civilization.

The formation of autonomous urban civil communities took place in parallel with the expansion of the population of the Hellenic city-states in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The transformation of associations of rural and tribal communities into the same type of civil collectives was a complex and lengthy process, stretching for the 8th-6th centuries. BC. In accordance with the traditions of the Bronze Age, archaic kings initially claimed the role of the unifier of tribal communities ( basilei). However, their claims were not backed up either by their role as organizers of handicraft production, or by their significance as a religious symbol of collective unity. In addition, the nature of the military organization has changed, in which the cavalry has replaced the chariot army. Therefore, with the beginning of the Iron Age, the role of the tribal aristocracy, which controlled the life of commoners - their younger relatives, sharply increased in society. The associations of communities around the palace centers of the Bronze Age were replaced by tribal collectives, in which the role of the guardian of traditions and the unifying principle for the collective was played by the aristocracy. Tribal property was the economic lever of her power, and the labor of her relatives was her economic support, which allowed her to have leisure for improvement in military affairs and education. The power of the aristocratic cavalry was also based on the work of the entire clan collective that contained it.

Therefore, the claims of the basilei to the role of real rulers of the emerging policies turned out to be untenable: they lost hopelessly and everywhere in the competition with the aristocracy based on tribal collectives. Around the 8th century BC. the power of the Basileans was abolished in almost all the policies of Greece, and the collective rule of the aristocracy was established everywhere. In all other social structures of the transitional system between primitiveness and class society, the struggle between the tribal aristocracy and the royal (princely, royal) power ended in victory for the latter. The large size of the proto-state associations of other regions and eras compared with Greece allowed the archaic rulers to rely on the people and subjugate the tribal aristocracy. In large areas, a hierarchy of communities has always developed, the contradictions between which allowed the tsarist government to act as an arbitrator. In the small Greek city-states at an early stage of their development, there were practically no free people who were not part of the tribal groups and were not subordinate to the tribal rulers. The conditions of existence in an environment of constant threat from the outside world (“war is a common work,” in the words of K. Marx) formed the equality of the rights of individual clans and the aristocrats representing them. This was the beginning of the social mutation that led to the establishment of a special social system in the Hellenic policies.

The next three centuries of Greek history were filled with the struggle between the aristocratic clans associated with the concentration of landed property, demographic growth and economic development. The results of these processes turned out to be significant both for the internal development of individual policies and for the development of the polis civilization as a whole. The struggle of aristocratic groups and the shortage of land, which became aggravated due to the concentration of land ownership, caused periodic evictions of polis residents in the colony. They carried with them the forms of polis hostel that were becoming habitual. In addition, in the new territory, the Hellenes often found themselves surrounded by people who were alien in culture, so they involuntarily had to cling to the principles of the communal order. Therefore, their settlements along the entire coast of the Mediterranean and Black Seas took the form of policies, the communal features of which in the new lands manifested themselves even more clearly due to greater freedom from tribal traditions. Great Greek colonization of the VIII-VI centuries. BC. was a form of expansion of the polis civilization, the initial center of which was on the Ionian and Aeolian coasts of Asia Minor, along with adjacent islands.

The culture of this region, in which most of the Hellenic metropolises were located, was closely connected with the culture of the peoples of Anatolia, in fact being peripheral in relation to the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt. However, in the new policies on the colonized lands, their influence was significantly weakened. The most active population of the metropolises, who did not adapt to the conditions of clan subordination of life in their homeland, were evicted there. On the one hand, this made him more adaptable to changes (mutations) in social culture. Hence, apparently, there is a flourishing of philosophy, science, lawmaking and political ideas in the West in Magna Graecia. On the other hand, this contributed to the active adaptation of the Hellenes to new living conditions, the development of crafts, trade, and navigation. The newly founded Greek cities were seaports, and this put forward navigation and trade as institutions that supported the population field. This distinguished the polis civilization from the traditional "land" civilizations, where political institutions and ideology served as tools for maintaining the population field.

The presence of colonies stimulated the development of metropolises and accelerated the development of Greek policies in general. The variety of conditions in the areas inhabited by the Greeks led to the development of trade, specialization and monetary relations. As a result, it becomes possible, having accumulated money, to secure an existence without the clan support of the clan. Among the Greek demos, rich people appear who are weighed down by the obligation to support the tribal aristocracy. They themselves can act as exploiters of a considerable number of people, but these people are not free, but slaves. Wealth and nobility lose their original connection. Some of the wealthy Demotes live in their native city-states, whose communal mutual assistance is recognized by them as an important life value. Others, mostly artisans and merchants, flee from their aristocrats to other policies, becoming meteks there. The quantitative growth of the mass of these people created the prerequisite for a social revolution that overthrew the power of the tribal aristocracy. But it was only possible to defeat it when the demos was able to take over from the aristocracy the leading role in military affairs, when the aristocratic cavalry was replaced by a phalanx of heavily armed hoplite infantrymen.

The rise of the polis.

By the end of the VI century. BC. the ancient socio-normative culture has finally matured and the Greek policies from communal associations of clans and clans are turning into autonomous states. At the same time, ancient civilization itself approached the natural boundaries of its distribution. This is probably why the moment has come for her to realize her essence and her separation from the original maternal civilizational complex of the Middle East.

Politically united by the Persians, the Middle Eastern world viewed the Eastern Mediterranean periphery as its natural extension. The Scythian campaign of Darius was a manifestation of the expansion of the Middle Eastern civilization, equally expressed in the Central Asian campaign of Cyrus, and in the Nubian and Libyan campaigns of the armies of Cambyses. The most active role in the colonization movement was played by the Greeks of Asia Minor, whose policies were under the rule of the Persians. But their relations with the Persians were built on a different basis than the relations of the latter with the Phoenicians, the natural competitors of the Greeks in trade, navigation and colonization of new lands. Realized by the end of the VI century. BC. the Greek world perceived the Persians as barbarians and did not want to put up with their domination. The Greco-Persian wars became the first frontier in the development of ancient civilization, on which the Hellenes defended their right to its independence and uniqueness.

However, by and large, the confrontation between the Greeks and Persians continued until the end of the 4th century. BC, when it resulted in the eastern campaign of Alexander the Great. Already in the 5th century BC. this confrontation was perceived as a confrontation between Europe and Asia, in which the Persians only personified the Asian Middle Eastern civilization, seeking to absorb the European civilization of the polis world of the Hellenes. The formation of political instruments for maintaining the population field began among the Greeks under the direct influence of the Persian expansion and was expressed in the creation of the Delian Maritime Union. Protecting the common interests of a population (civilization) was the objective task of its constituent social organisms. Therefore, the political associations of the Greek policies were a natural way for them to adapt to the conditions of the external environment. In the West, the pressure of the Italian barbarian world and especially Carthage led to the formation of the Syracusan state, in the Black Sea region, communication with the Scythian world - the Bosporan kingdom, in the Aegean competition with the Phoenicians and the struggle against the Persians - the Athenian Maritime Union. In fact, within the framework of a single polis civilization, there is an isolation of several populations of polis with their own private interests and some specifics of development - Great Greece, Cyrenaica, the Balkan coast and the Aegean Islands, the Northern Black Sea region.

But this isolation was not a divergence of cultures of various parts of ancient civilization. It only contributed to an even greater deepening of the specialization of the regions and, as a result, to a more active development of navigation, trade and money circulation. Commodity-money relations not only remain a tool for maintaining civilizational socionormatics, but are increasingly increasing their importance in this capacity. This leads to an increase in the density of the population field, which in practice means the activation of interpolis relations (economic, political, military, cultural). It should be emphasized that, unlike other (traditional) civilizations, in which the density of the population field decreases from the center to the periphery, in the polis civilization of the Greeks it was almost uniform both in the center and on the periphery. This was due to the fact that it was created by one ethnic group and ethnic socionormatics did not conflict with civilizational ones anywhere.

The specifics of the social field of the Hellenic civilization was different. It was woven from formally homogeneous cells, which actually had different internal content. Greek policies are conditionally divided by modern researchers into those that developed according to the conservative (Sparta) and progressive (Athens) models. This difference actually provided that necessary element of the struggle of opposites, which allowed the development of the unity of a homogeneous social field. Conflicts between polises of different models, which personified (to some extent, absolutized) two opposite sides - communality and class - of polis statehood, go back to the very beginning of their formation and fade only as a result of the subordination of the polis world by Macedonia. We can say that these conflicts were immanently inherent in the polis system, based on the autonomy of policies. But with a more rigorous view, it is obvious that this conflict acquires a purposeful character from the end of the 6th century. BC, when the formation of polis statehood is completed and the initial socio-economic difference between polises acquires outlined political forms.

In this regard, a different view of the problem of the crisis of the polis system in the 4th century becomes justified. BC. Intrapolis conflicts and changes in the archaic forms of community life acted as a form of adaptation of the policy to the increasingly dense social field of civilization, that is, to new historical conditions. The more actively the polis participated in the general Hellenic economic and political life, the more noticeable its modification took place. Only the peripheral policies of the backward regions remained faithful to the traditional archaic ways of life. The crisis of the policy was a crisis of its internal growth and improvement.

The crisis of the polis system.

Simultaneously with the crisis of the polis, the literature draws attention to the parallel development of the crisis of the polis system as a whole. Its decline is assessed through the prism of the inability of the polis world to create a new type of political association on its own and the subjugation of Hellas by Macedonia. Indeed, the struggle for hegemony in Greece had the objective goal of uniting as many policies as possible. This goal was recognized by the Greeks themselves and promoted, in particular, by Isocrates and Xenophon. In the role of the unifiers of Hellas, these thinkers saw mainly the leaders of the peripheral states - Agesilaus, Hieron, Alexander of Fersky, Philip. It was no accident. As noted, the periphery of civilization is more capable of mutation, that is, the creation of a new one, than a center with an increased density of population traits. In the case of the Hellenic civilization, the homogeneity of its social field did not allow the leader to move out of the polis proper. At the same time, this homogeneity created a much denser zone of cultural influence on the periphery than in other civilizations, where the social field thins evenly from the center to the periphery. Therefore, the rise of Macedonia should not be considered in isolation from the evolution of the polis world, as a process of exclusively Macedonian self-development. It was that part of the buffer zone between civilization and the primitive world, which gives rise to a barbarian tribal system, which eventually becomes the basis of its own statehood. Many historical examples (the policy of Archelaus, the life of Euripides in Pella, Philip in Thebes, the upbringing of Alexander by Aristotle) ​​point to the close connection between Macedonia and Greece, which stimulated the ruling dynasty to encourage the tradition of ethno-linguistic kinship between Greeks and Macedonians.

The autonomy of policies for a long time prevented the development of a political instrument for solving two main problems of the development of civilization - expansion problems outside the natural boundaries and problems of population field unification. Conflicts and wars between policies were a natural form of developing such an instrument, which was the Pan-Hellenic Union that arose under the auspices of Macedonia. The social peace and order established by Philip of Macedon in Greece was to become a prerequisite for a new stage in the unification of polis orders. Another task - the task of expansion was indicated in the campaign prepared by Philip against the Persians. However, despite the brilliant political and military successes of Philip and his son, the rise of Macedon was an unsuccessful attempt to solve the stated problems.

The aggressive activity of Macedonia turned out to be one-sidedly programmed by the too protracted struggle of the Hellenes with the Middle Eastern civilization for independence. The challenge of Asia turned out to be so strong that the response of the Macedonians went far beyond the interests of ancient civilization. The need for a political unification of the entire Hellenic world, apparently, was implicitly realized, which was reflected in the tradition of the plans for the western campaign of Alexander (as well as the unsuccessful campaign of Zopyrion in the Black Sea region and later Alexander of Molos and Pyrrhus to South Italy and Sicily). The eastern campaign was also originally conceived only with the aim of conquering (Minor) Asia in order to liberate the Greek cities located there. At the same time, the problem of economic ties was solved in the Eastern Mediterranean region, in which the zones of interests of the Greeks associated with Macedonia and the Phoenicians associated with Persia intersected. Therefore, Parmenion's advice to accept the proposals of Darius, received after the battle of Issus, reflected the real conscious tasks of the eastern campaign. Egypt, which gravitated economically and culturally more towards the Eastern Mediterranean world than towards the Near Eastern Mesopotamian world, ended up in the hands of the Macedonians almost without a fight. However, Alexander's campaign overcame the limits of a purely functional solution to the problem of population expansion. The territories that were culturally alien to the ancient civilization, the development of which was determined by other socio-normative principles, fell into the orbit of the Greek-Macedonian expansion. The power of Alexander the Great, despite the greatness of his historical adventure, was obviously not viable.

Concerned by the desire to get rid of the guardianship of the Parmenion clan that made him king, Alexander was unable to solve his main personal problem - to equal his father in political genius. Awareness of his inferiority even before the shadow of the murdered Philip pushed Alexander to extravagant, bright, but completely unpromising actions. To some extent, his personality expressed the needs of extreme individualism that met the spiritual quest of the time, which is why it became the focus of attention of writers and historians, acquiring, so to speak, "historiographical value."

Without solving the problems of ancient civilization, Alexander's campaign was of considerable importance for the Middle Eastern civilization. The political form of the Persian state turned out to be inadequate to it not at all because of the weakness and amorphousness of the latter. The military-administrative system of the Persian state was by no means primitive and undeveloped. The state organization created by the Achaemenids was regenerated for many centuries by subsequent regimes, having gone beyond the boundaries of the ancient world within the framework of Islamic civilization. But at that historical moment, the Persian state united at least two cultural complexes, which gradually diverged from each other over the course of several centuries. It was noted above that initially the Persians included two maternal civilizations - Mesopotamian and Egyptian - into one political whole. The military defeat of the Persians freed the central core of the Middle Eastern civilization from the too strongly mutated western periphery. Within the framework of the new political systems (Parthian, New Persian kingdoms, etc.), the sociocultural norms of civilization acquired greater homogeneity and stability.

Egypt has always remained an alien body within the Persian state, weakening and shaking its unity. Not without his influence, in the immediate vicinity of the Persian state, ancient civilization grew and took shape. Its impact during the V-IV centuries. BC. formed a kind of cultural zone bordering on Mesopotamian influence, which included Asia Minor, Syria, and, to a certain extent, Phoenicia and Egypt. It was this cultural zone that became the territory on which the most typical Hellenistic states developed. Thus, despite the fact that Alexander the Great was unable to realize the historical task facing him, history itself solved the problem of separating these territories from the Middle Eastern world in a different way, spending a little more time on it.

Ancient civilization in a Roman shell.

Over time, the Western Hellenic world found a political tool for solving the problems of ancient civilization, freer from the all-consuming focus on confronting Middle Eastern influence. The life of Great Greece, of course, was burdened with its own problems. Therefore, initially, the search for solutions to common civilizational problems looked like a desire to solve their own Western Mediterranean problems. The Greeks of the Western Mediterranean fought hard to expand their sphere of influence with Carthage and Etruria. The unstable balance of forces required constant tension from each side. In their struggle, the Western Greeks actively enjoyed the support of their Eastern relatives, inviting generals and mercenaries from the Peloponnese or Epirus. But at the same time, the Hellenic civilization had a fertilizing cultural impact on the surrounding barbarian periphery of Italy.

The "taming" of barbarian Rome took place gradually. It is no coincidence that the reliability of early Roman history raises doubts among researchers. It is likely that before the 5th or even 4th c. BC. Roman society developed by no means along the polis path. Perhaps the structure of the civil community, established in Rome during the conquest of Italy in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC, was perceived by him under the influence of contacts with the Italian Greeks. The structure of the civilian collective proved to be a suitable form to extinguish the ethno-social conflicts that had undermined the military strength of the initially amorphous Roman chiefdom for too long. A set of measures that marked an important milestone in the formation of the Roman civil collective is associated in ancient tradition with the name of the famous censor of 312 BC. Appius Claudius Caeca, who was also famous for strengthening ties with the Greek Campania ( appian way) and intransigence towards Pyrrhus. In IV-III centuries. BC. the Romans were guided by the Campanian and South Italic Greeks, while the Balkans were regarded as strangers with alien interests. The orientation towards Greek support allowed Rome to withstand the onslaught of the Etruscans and Gauls. For this, they in turn supported the Campanian Greeks in the fight against the Samnites. The relationship thus established contributed to the spread of Greek influence in Rome. The completion of the formation of the Roman civil community probably took place already in contact with the South Italian Hellenes. Thus, Rome was included in the orbit of ancient civilization. Despite the patriotic emphasis of the Roman traditional version of events, the conflict between Rome and Pyrrhus can in a certain sense be viewed as a struggle for the right to play the role of a military-political instrument of Greek civilization.

After the subjugation of Etruria by Rome, the natural balance of power in the Western Mediterranean, determined by the spheres of influence of the Carthaginians, Etruscans and Greeks, was disturbed. A new round of conflicts began between Carthage and Great Greece to restore the disturbed balance. Each side sought to enlist the support of Rome, which was not yet able to spread its own commercial and cultural influence, but had military power. Treaty with Carthage 279 BC stimulated war with Pyrrhus. But, having won, the Romans figured out the strategic position of the parties and reoriented themselves to the Greek world. In fact, in the first Punic War, Rome fought not for its own interests, but for the interests of the Greek cities of southern Italy and Sicily. But, having embarked on this path, the Romans could no longer leave it: the Western Mediterranean world was divided into zones of influence of two worlds - Greek and Carthaginian. However, the Greeks acquired a strong rear in time in the form of the Roman-Italian Confederation. Therefore, the Barkids tried to create exactly the same strike force for Carthage from the barbarians in Spain. Fighting the Roman troops in Italy, Hannibal, however, did not seek to control Rome at all, but the Greek cities of Sicily, Southern Italy and Campania. As you know, the decisive battle ended with the victory of Rome.

After the Hannibal War, Rome was able to claim the role of political leader of the entire Mediterranean. But representing only itself or the allied Italian communities, Rome until the middle of the 2nd century. BC. did not have a strong interest in claims of this nature. However, the situation looks different if we consider it in the context of the development of the civilization of the Greek city-states. By joining the Eastern Mediterranean policy on the side of the Greeks, Rome thereby claimed the role of a population center in the world of ancient civil communities. The proclamation of the "freedom of Greece" by Titus Flaminin meant something more than a calculated move in a political game (although it might not have been fully realized by the authors themselves). However, as the center of civilization, Rome's claims were fueled only by its military and political successes. The hasty creation of the Roman historical tradition by the hands of Fabius Pictor and other Annalists under the control of the Senate was supposed to ideologically substantiate the antiquity of the Roman society and its culture no less than that of the Greeks of the Balkans and Asia Minor. It is quite probable that the early Roman history, the main stages of which are suspiciously reminiscent of the stages of the history of Athens, was modeled on the history of the "cultural capital" of the Hellenic world.

The image of archaic Rome as a "typical polis" among the communities of Latium was the justification for claims to be the second, if not the first, of the two centers of ancient civilization. Unlike Macedonia, whose young king recklessly rushed to the banks of the Indus, the non-Italic conquests of Rome were united into a single socio-political system ( empire) primarily the entire ancient world. The suppression of the economic potential of Carthage, Corinth, Rhodes and other trading centers within the ancient world (Alexandria and Tire were not touched) in the middle of the 2nd century. BC. reoriented the instrument of maintaining the population field from navigation and trade to political and ideological institutions.

Ancient civilization began to develop as a population with a displaced or, perhaps, more precisely, with two centers - Italian and Balkan-Asia Minor. The former had political and military dominance, gradually developing forms of socio-normative control over the social life of civilization. The second had a greater density and traditions of the original ancient (polis) socio-normative principles and a more developed culture of the civilizational taxonomic level. Italy was the military-political, and Greece - the socio-cultural center of ancient civilization.

The Roman state can be represented as a population of ancient urban civil communities of the Roman-Hellenic type with different densities of social and cultural characteristics. The civilization that took the form of an empire differed from the original Hellenic one in that it included many peoples with different sociocultural traditions. To organize these culturally alien peoples, the form of provinces was developed. The leveling of the social field was expressed in the Romanization of the provinces, which was the spread of ancient urban civil communities there in the form of municipalities and colonies of Roman and Latin citizens. Together with them, ancient social culture and Roman forms of organizing social life spread from the Roman center. In the III century, the process of Romanization reached such a qualitative milestone when it became possible to equalize all the inhabitants of the Empire as Roman citizens.

Thus, the main content of Roman history as the history of civilization is the spread of Roman civil social norms to ever wider circles of Roman subjects. In contrast to the polis citizenship of the Greeks, closely associated with the ethnic homogeneity of the environment organized in polis, Roman citizenship acted as a social and legal form that could equally well spread both in the Italian and in the non-Italic environment. It was the Roman concept of citizenship (civilis - civil) that gave rise to the idea of civilization as a cultural urban society that opposed barbarism associated with tribal, rural life. Such a general meaning of citizenship, based on such an opposition, was impossible in Greek society, which, as barbarians, was opposed primarily by the inhabitants of the Middle Eastern cities. Roman citizenship, having parted ways with the ethnic certainty of its essence, acquired the status of a stable taxonomic indicator (determinant) of belonging to civilization in general. Even when Byzantium separated into an independent civilization, the former designation of its inhabitants, the Romans (Romans), was preserved.

Over time, the Romans increasingly distributed the rights of their citizenship to representatives of other ethnic groups. With the help of citizenship, the social field of the empire increasingly acquired an ancient-Roman character, and Rome was promoted to the role of not only a military-political, but also a socio-cultural leader, taking this meaning away from Greece. At the same time, its influence spread especially strongly in the West, as if naturally taking root in an environment where Rome acted as the initial bearer of the principles of ancient civilization. Whereas in the East, which had already assimilated ancient socionormatics in the polis-Hellenistic form, Roman influence caused quite pronounced rejection, bordering on rejection. Having the same initial structure, but deeper roots (including ethnic ones), the ancient Greek system was, in a certain sense, immune to the rights of Roman citizenship.

The desire of Rome to usurp a function that was originally alien to it objectively should have caused opposition and struggle between the two centers of civilization. Deprived of political power and oppressed from the middle of the II century. BC. in the field of commodity-money relations, the eastern population center had to embark on the path of developing an oppositional ideological doctrine. This was the only way to have a weapon in the fight against the political domination of the Romans. After a period of searches and trials, Christianity was accepted as an opposition ideology. Reformed by Paul, it turned out, on the one hand, closer to life than traditional philosophical teachings, and on the other hand, more abstract than traditional religions, that is, more capable of ancient rationalized civilizational norms. Christianity became a kind of competitor to the rights of Roman citizenship in terms of uniting and subordinating the population of the empire to its socio-normative principles. At the same time, it should be taken into account that, being formed as a doctrine opposed to the ideology of ancient civil society, Christianity was based on the same socio-cultural values, giving them only a different form. Therefore, Christianity was a natural product of ancient civilization and could not arise outside its social context.

Stages of development of ancient civilization within the framework of the Roman Empire.

In Roman history, two important milestones can be distinguished related to the evolution of Roman citizenship and the ancient civil collective.

The first turning point is connected with the events 1st century BC, the content of which was determined by the struggle of the Italians for Roman civil rights. The allied war did not solve this problem, but only made it an internal problem in relation to the collective of Roman citizens. All the main events of the era of the crisis of the republican system - from the dictatorship of Sulla and the uprising of Spartacus to the "conspiracy" of Catiline and the dictatorship of Caesar - were determined by this problem. The emergence of the principate was only a political form that managed to provide the most complete solution to this social problem.

The result of the empowerment of the Italics with the rights of Roman citizenship was the compaction of the ancient social field in Italy. Caesar's municipal law was intended to unify the civil structure of Italian urban communities. As a consequence, this process received a resonance in the western provinces. This prompted Caesar's seemingly unmotivated conquests in Gaul. A little later, the process of municipalization began to develop in southern Gaul and especially in Spain. The Western center of civilization strengthened its social potential in the face of the socioculturally leading Eastern one.

At the same time, the eastern center demanded attention from the political system that was adequate to its potential. Figure princeps turned out to be convenient at the head of the republic because, as leader (leader) of Roman citizens he met the interests of the Italian center, but how ruler (emperor) of subjects he was obliged to take care of the interests of the eastern center of civilization. The duality of the social structure gave rise to the dual nature of its tools. The Eastern question, as is known, occupied the most famous persons of the beginning of the imperial era: Pompey, Caesar, Mark Antony, Germanicus, perhaps Caligula, Nero. Although each of them left his mark in historiography, they are all united by a sad personal fate, which does not at all seem to be an accident. The Italian nobility closely followed Eastern politics. Only Vespasian managed to find the right form of dealing with Eastern problems, while remaining faithful to the Roman community. But by this time, the balance of power between civilizational centers had shifted towards a more or less stable balance.

The romanization of the western provinces, purposefully carried out over the course of a century, gave its results. The Roman municipal system turned out to be no less common than the Greek polis. The West, which was introduced to civilization by the Romans, obviously followed in the wake of their social and cultural policy. In the II century. the Roman nobility was no longer afraid to let their emperors go to the East. Secret Hellenophobia was replaced by a more calm and balanced attitude. By this time, the East itself had come to terms with its political dependence on Rome, realizing for generations the secondary nature of its social life in comparison with the Roman one. The established division of the population of the empire into Roman citizens and Peregrines gave rise to two trends. Conformists sought to acquire Roman citizenship and thus feel like first-class people. This required not only services to the Roman state, but also familiarization with the standards of Roman life. Those to whom this was inaccessible or disgusted embarked on the path of passive confrontation. The unifying principle of such a naturally developing ideology of non-conformity to Roman domination and the spread of Italian traditions in the East was Christianity. As a kind of state within a state, it united around its ideas all those who found themselves on the sidelines of official public life.

Two forces slowly but surely spread their influence towards each other - Roman citizenship, the unifying principle of which was the state, and Christian ideology, represented by the church as a unifying principle. The presence of adherents of the Christian religion among the Roman citizens and those eager to become Roman citizens among the Peregrines, including Christians, sometimes obscures the essence of the ongoing processes. But theoretically, their initial fundamental confrontation is obvious. Both forces objectively strove for the same goal - to unite in their ranks the entire population of the empire. Each of them was formed in an opposition to another environment: Roman citizenship in politically dominant Italy, Christianity in the subordinate areas of the once Hellenistic world populated by peregrines. Two centers of ancient civilization fought each other for leadership, using different tools. Therefore, this struggle seems imperceptible to modern researchers.

The second turning point in the development of Roman civilization falls on III century, the beginning of which was marked by a new expansion of the circle of Roman citizens. With the transformation of the provincials into Roman citizens, the buffer layer that separated the civilian collective from the barbarian periphery almost disappeared. The public life of the citizens came into direct contact with the barbarian. The social field generated by ancient citizenship, which previously wasted its potential on the provincials, now began to influence the barbarians more powerfully. Therefore, the tribal system of the barbarians became especially noticeable in Roman politics and in sources from the second half of the 2nd - early 3rd centuries. His pressure was felt on the empire itself, stimulating in it the processes of consolidating subjects with citizens. This shift in emphasis in relations with the barbarian periphery, usually expressed by the formula "transition of the empire to the defensive", was already manifested in the reign of Marcus Aurelius.

During the III century. there was a leveling of the social field in the empire, expressed in the spread of Roman forms of public life and Roman law to the provincials who received citizenship. This process was actively unfolding in the territories where Rome was the bearer of civilization, that is, mainly in the western provinces. The social forms of the Hellenistic East worked out by previous centuries did not allow Roman influence to penetrate deep into the thickness of the social life of this part of the empire. Therefore, the opposition of both centers of the empire continued to persist. In the III century. their fields of socio-cultural influence came into direct contact, and thus the prerequisite for a decisive battle for leadership in the population (empire) was formed. During the III century. the confrontation between two ideological systems was actively developing: the official imperial cult and the increasingly persecuted Christianity. Both main forces of the empire gradually managed to transfer their struggle to a single field suitable for a fight. Ideology has become such a field. The imperial cult, which gradually took the form of the Hellenistic cult of the monarch from the Roman civil cult of the genius of the emperor, was called upon to rally citizens and subjects of the empire on the basis of official ideology. His perception by the masses filled him with features close to the archaic ideas about the sacred royal power, according to which the kings were seen as mediators between the worlds of gods and people and givers of cosmic blessings for the latter. In the III century. The imperial cult began to actively merge with the cult of the Sun, which accumulated the veneration of the heavenly body in various local forms from Spain and Italy to Egypt and Syria. The sun in the imperial ideology symbolized power over the cosmos, and the emperor was seen as his representative (messenger) in the human world. Similar attitudes, but in other forms, were developed by Christianity with its One God and the God-man Christ born to him.

The outcome of the struggle between the two centers of ancient civilization for leadership was predetermined from the outset by the greater strength of the ancient Hellenic socio-cultural forms. The organic nature of the ancient society of the Eastern Mediterranean was determined by the fusion of both taxonomic levels of its culture (ethnic and civilizational). The long-term dominance of Italy was determined by the military-political dominance of Rome, which made it possible to consider only Roman civil norms as socially significant. After the equalization of the civil rights of the entire population of the empire in 212 and the restoration on this basis of ancient social forms by Diocletian, the social field of the empire acquired formal homogeneity. As soon as this happened, both centers of civilization found themselves on an equal footing, and the eastern center began to rapidly increase its advantage, clothing it in a political and ideological form. Historically, as is known, this process was expressed in the policy of Emperor Constantine and his successors. The capital of the empire, that is, the formal center of the population, was moved.