The reforms carried out during the reign of Alexander II, in the 1860s-1870s, and covering many areas of Russian life.

Alexander II ascended the throne in 1856, being most impressed by the lost Crimean War of 1853-1856. The whole course of it and the results convinced the tsar: Russia lagged far behind in its industrial development and, in fact, militarily, from the advanced European states. No less clear was the realization that the main reason for the backwardness of the country was rooted in serfdom. With its abolition, Alexander II began his reign.

Peasant reform

One of the main and extremely difficult tasks facing the tsarist government was to achieve at least formal consent to the reform from those who owned serfs - from the noble landowners. To some extent, this task was solved at the end of 1857, when, under pressure from the supreme authorities in the localities, elected committees of the nobility began to be created, which were supposed to draw up projects for the liberation of the peasants for their provinces. This work dragged on for more than a year, and in the course of it, the landowners sought to observe, first of all, their property interests: to retain as much of the land as possible, while receiving the maximum monetary ransom. In 1859, all local drafts were placed at the disposal of the Editorial Commission, which, on their basis, was supposed to draw up a single draft Regulation on the abolition of serfdom for the whole country. This commission, chaired by Ya.I. Rostovtseva consisted mainly of liberal-minded officials, among whom N.A. Milyutin. The members of the Editorial Commission, who approached the development of the project from a nationwide position, were more inclined than the landowners to take into account the interests of the peasantry - if only because they feared mass unrest. However, in 1860, the draft prepared by the commission once again passed through a number of government instances, in which dignitaries dominated, serf-like, pro-nobility. As a result, in the final document - "Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom", - which was signed by the tsar on February 19, 1861, "benefits and advantages of the nobility" came to the fore.

According to the Regulations, the patrimonial power of the landowner was liquidated - that is, from February 19, he could no longer interfere in the personal and economic life of the peasant. However, complete liberation was still far away. Former serfs fell into a transitional state, having received the name of temporarily liable. It meant that during that time, until they made a ransom for the land due to them, the peasants were obliged to continue to work for their former landowner in corvée and pay him dues. But even then, having untied themselves with the landowner, they still did not become independent owners. The fact is that the peasants went free not personally, but as whole societies, that is, they remained in the grip of traditional communal orders, such as: collective ownership of land with constant redistribution, mutual responsibility, and the like.

It was quite obvious that the reform had doomed many peasants to lack of land. According to the Regulations, they had to receive a certain amount of land, different for different provinces - depending on the quality of the soil. Moreover, for 65% of the peasants this norm turned out to be less than the allotments that they had previously received for use from the landowners. It is obvious that those peasants did not indulge, providing them with only the bare minimum necessary for housekeeping; thus, the majority of Russian farmers went free, having received land less than necessary. The "extra" land in the form of segments was attached to that which remained in the ownership of the landowner.

The redemption operation became the hardest test for the peasantry. The amount of money that the peasant had to pay the landowner did not at all correspond to the price of the land he was buying. In fact, the peasant redeemed himself - his working hands, his earnings, from which he paid dues. When he was released, he had to pay the landowner such an amount of money that, being deposited in the bank, would annually bring the landowner an income equal to the previous annual dues of the peasant (in those days, annual interest in the bank was 6%; to these, 6% of the redemption amount and equated the annual peasant dues). For the majority of the peasants, paying such a ransom in full within any foreseeable period was an absolutely overwhelming undertaking. In an effort to speed up the redemption operation and to please the landowners as much as possible, the state paid them 80% of the ransom immediately, they received the rest from the peasants by agreement: immediately or in installments, in cash or by working off. In relation to the state, the peasants found themselves in debt bondage: for 49 years they had to pay the state 6% of the amount spent by him on this entire operation. These "redemption payments" became a heavy burden for the peasants and a source of additional income for the state (6% X49 = 294%, that is, the state, as a malicious usurer, was obviously going to receive from the peasants almost three times more than what was spent on their ransom).

In general, while recognizing the great importance of the peasant reform, which freed the bulk of the working population from serfdom, it must be borne in mind that in the course of this reform the state provided the peasants with too little land for an exorbitantly large ransom, thereby placing them in economic dependence on their former owners. landowners. Most of the peasants could not live without borrowing bread from the landowner, for use - this or that piece of land. The landowner, as a rule, went forward, but in return demanded to work on his land. Thus, the landlords had the opportunity to compensate for the loss of free labor, which he had under serfdom; the development of the serf economy was extremely difficult.

The peasant reform, which drastically changed the basic socio-economic relations in the country, predetermined a number of other transformations: in the sphere of administration, judiciary, army recruitment, etc.

Zemstvo reform

In 1864, Alexander II signed the Zemstvo Provisions, according to which a system of local self-government bodies was introduced in Russia. They were created at two levels: in counties and provinces. Uyezd zemstvo assemblies were elected by the population of the uyezd every three years; provincial ones were formed from representatives nominated at county assemblies. Elections to county zemstvo assemblies were organized in such a way as to ensure a noticeable advantage for the noble landowners. It is characteristic that in the provinces where the local nobility was absent, for example, in the Russian North or in Siberia, and also where it was, from the point of view of the government, unreliable, as in the western provinces - Polonized, Catholic - Zemstvo was not introduced at all.

The entire population of the county was divided into three groups (curia): 1) landowners; 2) city voters; 3) elected from rural societies (peasants). For the first and second curia, a property qualification was determined: people who had an annual income of more than 6 thousand rubles went to them. An equal qualification for these curias by no means meant equal opportunities, because the local nobility as a whole was incomparably richer than the urban population. As for the peasants, not direct, but multi-stage elections were organized for them: first, the village assembly elected representatives to the volost assembly, at which “electors” were elected, and then the district congress, already made up of them, elected deputies to the zemstvo assembly. As a result of all these tricks, the small local nobility elected to the county zemstvo assembly as many deputies-vowels (from the word "voice") as the two other curias combined. In provincial zemstvos, noble deputies, as a rule, made up more than 70% of the vowels.

Zemstvo assemblies were administrative bodies. They determined the general direction of the activities of the zemstvos and, meeting once a year, at the end of December at the session, controlled the activities of the zemstvo councils, which were created by the corresponding zemstvo assemblies from their members immediately after the elections. It was the zemstvo councils that carried out the real work of the zemstvos in counties and provinces.

The functions of the zemstvos were quite diverse: local economy, public education, medicine, and statistics. However, they could deal with all these matters only within their county or province. Zemstvo had no right not only to decide, but also to discuss any problems of a national nature. Moreover, different provincial zemstvos were not allowed to establish contacts and coordinate their activities with each other. However, field work also required large expenditures. The main part of the funds (up to 80%) came from the land tax, which was provided by the same peasants, exhausted by various payments.

The shortcomings of the Russian zemstvos were obvious: a truncated structure - the absence of volost zemstvos at the lowest level and the all-Russian zemstvo assembly at the top (the zemstvo was called "a building without a foundation and a roof"); the decisive predominance of the nobility in all zemstvo bodies; scarcity of funds. Yet the reform at first seemed very significant. The electivity of the zemstvos, their independence from the local administration - all this made it possible to expect that the zemstvos in their activities would proceed from the interests of the local population and bring real benefits to them. Indeed, the zemstvos managed to achieve certain successes, especially in the field of education and medicine - zemstvo schools and hospitals became a completely new and very positive phenomenon of Russian post-reform reality. But the zemstvos never managed to become full-fledged self-government bodies: instead of developing this system, the autocratic-bureaucratic authorities began to mercilessly bend it to suit themselves, allowing their functionaries - governors, first of all - a wide variety of opportunities to interfere in the activities of the zemstvos and subjugate their administrative control.

urban reform

In 1870, the "City Regulation" was introduced in Russia. In accordance with it, in more than 500 cities, city self-government bodies were created - city dumas, elected for a period of 4 years. From their midst, the dumas chose city councils - permanent executive bodies. Unlike zemstvos, elections to city dumas were classless: all those who paid city taxes took part in them. However, even here the voters were divided into three curia - according to property wealth. As a result, city government was in the hands of representatives of the small first curia, which consisted of entrepreneurs and wealthy homeowners.

The functions of city self-government were akin to those of zemstvos: dumas and councils were engaged in matters related to the improvement of the city, care of local trade and industry, health care and public education. City dumas received fixed assets from commercial and industrial establishments in the amount of 1% of their income. But only 40% of these, as a rule, not very significant amounts, were used by city councils for their intended purpose. The remaining 60% went to the maintenance of the police, city prisons, barracks for soldiers, firefighters. And yet, with very modest opportunities, the new bodies noticeably revived urban life and contributed a lot to the development of cities in economic and cultural terms.

Judicial reform

In 1864, the “Judicial Charters” were approved, according to which the old clerical bureaucratic court was abolished unconditionally. Instead, two judicial systems were created, practically independent of each other: world and state.

The World Court was created in order to relieve the state from the mass of cases related to petty offenses and minor claims. The justice of the peace was chosen by the local population from among themselves; he had to have at least a secondary education. The judicial procedure itself was of an extremely simplified nature: the magistrate heard the case and immediately pronounced a verdict. The court was open to visitors.

The state or crown court was more complicated. All of Russia was divided into judicial districts, and the district court became the main body of the new system. Characteristically, the boundaries of the judicial districts did not coincide with the boundaries of the provinces. This was done in order to make it difficult for the local administration to influence the new court. For the same purpose, judges and investigators became irremovable; it was impossible to dismiss them at the request of the authorities - only by a court verdict. District courts were controlled by judicial chambers—several contiguous districts per chamber. An appeal, that is, a complaint against an unfair court decision, could be filed with the judicial chamber and try to get a review of the case. General control over the system was exercised by the Senate, which received cassations - also complaints, but, unlike appeals, on violations of the law during the trial.

The whole judicial process also had a fundamentally new character. Unlike the old one, during which several officials behind closed doors adjusted the materials of the investigation to a certain punitive formula, the new process was not only open and transparent, but also adversarial. The prosecution, which was led by the prosecutor, competed here with the defense, which was in the hands of a lawyer (in the Russian tradition, a barrister). The judge only led the process, trying to maintain order and legality as much as possible. The outcome of the trial was determined by the jurors - representatives of society, who, after reviewing the case, had to answer the questions posed to them by the judge - to answer not formally, but according to their conscience. On the basis of their answers, the judge issued a verdict.

Judicial reform was rightly considered the most consistent. However, the system introduced by her over time also began to be subject to distortions. The most significant of them were associated with political processes, which since the late 1860s have become commonplace in Russian life. Dissatisfied with what he sees as too lenient sentences, and lacking reliable leverage over jury trials, the government is gradually turning political cases over to military courts - usually without any legal grounds. On the other hand, military courts, in which military officers played the role of jurors, always handed down the sentences that the authorities demanded of them.

Military reforms

Military reforms were a whole range of measures aimed at increasing the combat effectiveness of the Russian army and navy, eliminating the shortcomings that became apparent during the Crimean War. The preparation and implementation of these reforms were associated, first of all, with the name of Minister of War D.A. Milyutin (brother of N.A. Milyutin, leader of the peasant reform).

First of all, it should be noted here the "Charter on military service", signed by Alexander II in 1874, according to which universal military service was introduced in Russia, replacing recruit sets. It extended to all fit for health reasons men who have reached the age of 20, without distinction of class. For the ground forces, a 6-year term of active service and 9 years in the reserve were established; for the fleet - 7 years and 3 years, respectively. At the same time, the Charter provided for various benefits: according to marital status, a reduction in the term of service depending on the level of education received. As a result, no more than 25-30% of the total number of conscripts were in active service in peacetime.

Much attention to D.A. Milyutin devoted himself to improving the management of the army. To this end, back in 1864, he achieved the creation of a system of military districts - 15 for the whole of Russia. At the head of the troops stationed on the territory of each district, there was a commander who reported directly to the minister.

A major achievement of Milyutin was the system of military education. He liquidated closed military educational institutions - cadet corps. Instead, military gymnasiums were established with a well-thought-out curriculum; after graduating from them, it was possible to enter a variety of educational institutions. Those who wished to continue their military education entered cadet schools - infantry, cavalry, military engineering, artillery. Higher military education was given by the academies of the General Staff, artillery, etc.

An important component of military reforms was the rearmament of the army and navy. In the fleet, which was controlled by the energetic and intelligent brother of the tsar, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich, rearmament began back in the years of the Crimean War. The place of sailing wooden ships was taken by steam-powered metal ships. The ground forces received rapid-fire rifles, new artillery, and so on. In the name of modernizing the army, the state went to great expense.

Alexander 2 went down in history as a reformer tsar. It was he who made a huge number of transformations in the country, significantly changing the position of Russia on the world stage. The activities of the king were given conflicting assessments: some considered him almost a saint, while others sincerely wished for the death of the monarch. A number of assassination attempts were made on him, each time Alexander was saved by a real miracle. But at sixty-two, he was killed by a bomb thrown at his feet. The tragic death of the emperor stirred up Russia and gave rise to a number of prohibitions and a departure from the liberal course that Alexander led. The reform of Alexander 2, associated with the abolition of serfdom, the modernization of the judicial system, educational reforms - all this went down in history as the largest changes in Russian society.

Judicial Reform (1864)

The judicial reform of Alexander 2 was a turning point in Russian office work. The courts were now divided into two parts: the local court dealt with the affairs of the townspeople and peasants, and the district court dealt with more serious crimes. A jury was introduced, whose members could belong to any class. His powers included the consideration of serious crimes. Discrimination was abolished: absolutely everyone was equal before the judiciary. Decisions were not made secretly, it was impossible to change the judge if for some reason he did not suit the participants in the process. The rules were the same for everyone and could not change during the meeting. In addition, the administrative division of the country also changed: now the empire was divided into districts.

The judicial reform of Alexander 2 deprived the emperor himself of real power in the courts, the only thing he could do was pardon a nobleman who was threatened with confiscation of property.

Zemstvo reform (1864)

The next after the abolition of serfdom was the zemstvo reform of Alexander 2. A new local self-government body was introduced - the zemstvo, whose members were elected by vote (representatives of all estates gained access to it). The zemstvos themselves were subdivided into administrative (zemstvo assemblies) and executive (zemstvo councils) bodies. Only rich people could be elected to zemstvo assemblies, and representatives of each property class had their own elections. Later, participants in zemstvo assemblies appointed a chairman and a certain number of members of zemstvo councils.

This reform of Alexander 2 made it possible to create local authorities, whose powers included the solution of local issues. Such changes made it possible to significantly improve the life of all segments of the population, to give more independence to the provinces and counties, but there were also disadvantages. Metamorphoses implied the forced collection of money from the population for the implementation of all the functions of the zemstvos. So the zemstvo reform of Alexander 2 allowed the new local authorities to appoint taxes and duties themselves.

Abolition of serfdom (1861)

The great reform of Alexander II was a response to the growing social tension in the country. The question of the abolition of serfdom has been standing for a very long time, but all previous monarchs constantly ignored it, oppressing the peasants more and more. There was a constant danger of rebellions, the kings understood that if the whole peasantry rises, then no one will be able to resist it. This is what caused Alexander's strong-willed decision.

On February 19, 1861, the Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom saw the light. But everything was not so simple: the reform of Alexander 2 turned out to be controversial. The table will tell about it in more detail.

Evaluation of the results of the abolition of serfdom

pros	Minuses
The peasants became free from the landlords	The peasants were obliged to buy allotments from the landlords.
Peasants could manage their own property	As long as the peasant did not buy his land, he continued to fulfill all his former duties, if within ten years the peasant did not redeem the land, he could refuse it
Elective peasant self-government was created	The reform extended only to the European part of the empire.
The state was ready to provide the peasant with the amount of money necessary for the redemption of land, he was given an installment plan for 49 years	The peasant had to repay the loan for the redemption of land with huge interest: he paid the state two or three times the amount that he borrowed

The peasant reform of Alexander 2 can be briefly described as follows: the formal emancipation of the peasants, but the preservation of their dependence on the landowners in reality.

Military reform (1857)

As part of the universal conscription in Russia, military settlements were created - a kind of camp, where part of the day the peasants performed their duties on the ground, and the rest of the time they were drilled by the commanders. First of all, the reform of Alexander 2 eliminated these settlements.

Changes were also made in the field of military service: an exact number of conscripts was appointed annually, and all persons over 21 years of age drew lots, which determined who would go to serve. Of course, there were certain benefits: they did not take away the only breadwinner, the only son, or the one whose older brother served in the army. Military education shortened the length of service in the army, which varied by unit.

The reform of Alexander 2 also affected administration: military districts were created, each of which was in charge of a local governor-general. The army received new weapons, railway troops were created. A prisoner now, if he did not go over to the side of the enemy, was considered a victim and received monetary compensation for the time he spent in captivity.

The great reform of Alexander 2 made it possible to create a strong, albeit small, army, in the reserve of which there was a huge number of people. Technical modernization and revision of the command had a positive effect on the combat readiness of the troops.

Education reform (1864)

And education was not spared by the reform of Alexander 2. The table will tell you more about all the innovations.

Censorship (1857)

The reform of Alexander 2 also affected periodicals. The state has always controlled what writers wrote, but with the introduction of the reform, the situation changed dramatically: now works that were more than a certain number of pages were not censored. Scientific works and government publications were generally not subject to censorship.

Urban reform (1870)

It became a logical continuation of the zemstvo. The urban reform of Alexander 2 can be briefly described as follows: the introduction of self-government in cities. Now all power was transferred to city councils and councils, which were already answerable to higher officials. Only wealthy people could apply for a place in self-government bodies.

Conclusion

After Peter the Great, not a single tsar carried out as many transformations in Russia as Alexander 2. His contribution to the development of the country is truly invaluable. The reforms of Alexander 2 changed the state, stuck in the Middle Ages, marking the beginning of a new page in the history of Russia.

1. Introduction
2. Education reform1863
3. Zemstvo reform
4. urban reform1864
5. Judicial reform 1864
6. Military reform 1874
7. The results of the reforms of Alexander II

The article briefly outlines the reforms of Alexander II - the fundamental transformations in Russia, which greatly influenced its development. The reforms were accompanied by the breaking of many established concepts. The main event, of course, is the abolition of serfdom in 1861.
The peasant reform is the first on our list and its main event is serfdom in the year 1861

Serfdom was a special form of slavery, which was justly condemned by prominent public figures. The serf system retarded the development of the country, served as a support for its backward position. The need to abolish serfdom was recognized by many. Difficulties arose in the development of methods for the implementation of this project.

Under Alexander II, work on the development of the project began in 1857. As a result, in 1861, an epoch-making event finally took place - the abolition of serfdom. The peasants gained freedom, but the land plots were required to be redeemed from the landlords, making a quarter of the cost as a down payment. The rest of the amount was contributed by the state, and the peasants paid off the debt for 49 years. Until the final redemption, the peasant received the status of a temporarily liable person and continued to work for the landowner and pay dues. Personal freedom made it possible to engage in any kind of activity and change class status.

The state thus created a certain compromise between the landlords and peasants and acted as its guarantor. However, the interests of the peasants were taken into account to the least extent. Despite this, the reform was a huge step forward. Russia could throw off the nickname "land of slaves." The huge masses of the liberated peasantry served as a source of labor power for the development of capitalist production.

Financial reforms (since 1863)

The nature of the redemption of the peasants, where state finances played a huge role, required significant expenses. The general pace of Russia's development during the reforms also required large investments. Meanwhile, the situation was far from favorable. Significant damage to the treasury was caused by the notorious Russian embezzlement, as well as the hidden transfer of finances and the abuse of public funds. The main direction of the financial reform was the streamlining of the financial apparatus, clear state control over its activities. A mandatory requirement for budgeting was imposed on all public institutions. Information was collected at the Ministry of Finance, and then the state estimate was published. All revenues were concentrated in the state treasury, and strict control over their distribution was introduced.
Progressive changes have taken place in the tax system
Taxation was divided into indirect and direct taxes. A special excise tax was introduced instead of the existing system of wine farming. As a result of the reform, budget transparency and clear control over finances were established.

Next reform -1863 Education reform

The social development of Russia was strongly restrained due to the low education of people. In order to correct this situation, a provision was introduced on elementary public schools, which meant an understanding of the need for universal education. The charter of gymnasiums opened access to secondary education for all classes. Classical gymnasiums were engaged in preparing for admission to universities, real ones - to higher technical institutions.
The main thing in the reform of education was the adoption of a new University charter. Universities received broad rights, professors and students independently dealt with issues within the institutions. Prior censorship was abolished for a large number of periodicals and books. Censorship could punish only materials already published. This was a huge step forward for the autocratic state.

Zemstvo reform

The course of this reform - "a system of local self-government is being created in Russia", which independently dealt with issues of industry, education, health care, etc. Elective district and provincial zemstvos were organized, headed by leaders of the nobility. The zemstvos had a class character, where the advantage was given to the nobles. At the same time, other classes had the opportunity to take part in public life. Zemstvos quickly gained strength and actively engaged in self-government.

1864 - city reform

The city regulation provided for the introduction of self-government in cities through the establishment of city Dumas. These authorities, like the zemstvos, were all-class, and there was also a qualification for deputies, determined by the ownership of real estate and the payment of taxes. Thus, hired workers and representatives of mental labor, who do not have their own housing in cities, were completely excluded from participation in the elections. The nobles and the bourgeoisie occupied the predominant role in the Dumas. From among the deputies, the city government was elected, headed by the mayor. Dumas were directly subordinate to the Senate and independently resolved economic issues of urban development.

1864 Judicial Reform

This reform was one of the most radical reforms of Alexander II, as it was based on the latest achievements of justice in the leading powers. The judicial reform was based on the following: non-estate legislation, independence of the judiciary and the irremovability of judges. The jury and the institution of lawyers were introduced. Court employees were required to have a higher legal education or extensive legal practice.
A completely new judicial system was being created. The lower courts were the magistrates' courts, considering petty criminal and civil cases. The next step was the crown court, divided into the district court and the judicial chamber. The judicial districts included several provinces. District courts dealt with most criminal offenses and were held with the participation of juries. The Trial Chambers dealt with cases relating to state crimes.
The final cassation instance was the Senate.

1874 - Military reform

The urgent need for military reform was recognized in Russian society after the Crimean War. The war demonstrated Russia's military incompetence compared to the leading powers. It was necessary to introduce a new order of command and control of troops and their equipment. The build-up of the world military potential made it possible to draw conclusions about the inevitability of new military conflicts with Russia's obligatory participation.
Russia was divided into military districts headed by governors-general. The structure of the military command was reorganized. In order to improve military education, cadet and military schools were created. In view of the obvious futility, military settlements were abolished.
The main event was the introduction in 1874 of universal military service from the age of twenty.

The results of the reforms of Alexander II

The reforms of Alexander II represent a significant step in the development and modernization of the Russian Empire. Covering almost all areas of life, the reforms radically affected society and Russia's prestige on the world stage. The transformations took into account all the accumulated experience of the state system in other countries and, if possible, used in Russian conditions.

This served as a source of discontent for those socio-political movements that sought to completely reorganize the state without regard to reality. Russia remained an autocratic empire with the leading position of the nobility. The preservation of noble privileges and the desire to protect them as much as possible from the impact of reforms left a negative imprint on all the activities of Alexander II.

He was subjected to sharp criticism both from the conservatives, who did not tolerate the very fact of any changes, and from the radicals, who declared that the reforms were half-hearted and insufficient. In fact, Alexander II proved to be a very flexible and skillful statesman, realizing that transformations are necessary, but should be gradual and not immediately break the entire state system.
Alexander II became one of the most tragic figures in Russian history. Called the king-liberator, he was killed by those whom he actually freed.

Reforms of Alexander 2:

• peasant reform. The abolition of serfdom (1861);
• Financial reforms (since 1863);
• Education Reform (1863);
• Zemstvo reform;
• Urban reform (1864);
• Judicial Reform (1864);
• Reform of public administration (1870);
• Military reform (1874).

· The essence of the reforms of Alexander 2 was the restructuring of the state to a new type, which could more effectively build the economy along the path of industrialization and capitalism.

The main reform of this period can be called the peasant reform, which proclaimed the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform was being prepared for several years and, despite the fact that the ruling classes did not want freedom for the peasants, the emperor understood that it was impossible to move on with serfdom, so the changes were nevertheless implemented. As a result of the reform, serfdom was abolished, the peasants gained independence and could redeem themselves from their landowner, while receiving an allotment for housekeeping. To make a ransom, a peasant could take a loan from a bank for 49 years. The redeemed peasants were freed from administrative and legal dependence on the landowners. In addition, free peasants received a number of civil rights, they could trade and carry out real estate transactions.

Another important reform is the reform of the judicial system. The court ceased to focus on the class principle, and all citizens of the country now had equal rights before the law. A jury trial also appeared, and the judicial system was completely separated from the administrative system and formed into an independent institution.

Zemstvo reform and urban reform were designed to simplify the administration of the state and make it more efficient. According to the new laws, villages and cities could now form their own self-government bodies and deal with economic issues without waiting for an order from above. This made it possible to develop the economy of the regions, as the management began to focus on the real situation in a particular province.

The military reform was supposed to make the army more efficient so that the situation with the Crimean War would not be repeated. General conscription was introduced, the army received new weapons, the principle of educating soldiers was changed. Many educational institutions for the military have also opened.

Along with military schools, new ordinary schools and universities began to open. University rectors received more rights and could make their own decisions - this helped the country make a leap in public education.

The reform of the press was also important. The principle of publicity was proclaimed and the press was given the right to discuss and even criticize government decisions.

40. The liberation of the peasants and the implementation of land reform.

February 19, 1861, on the fifth anniversary of his accession to the throne, Alexander II signed Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom in Russia and a number of "Regulations" that explained the conditions for the liberation of the peasants. Former landlord peasants moved from the category of land users to the category of owners and acquired personal freedom. The peasant could now freely take a job, go to the city or engage in crafts. Proceeding from this, the peasants were endowed with estate and field land not free of charge, but for duties and then a ransom. Preference was given to an "amicable" agreement between the peasants and the landowner. In the event that such an agreement could not be reached, the norms envisaged by the reformers came into effect. During the first two years, statutory letters were to be drawn up, which determined the specific conditions for the liberation of the peasants. The peasants were transferred to the position temporarily liable. They remained in this state until the transition to redemption. The size of peasant allotments was determined by local regulations. All provinces were divided into three bands (chernozem, non-chernozem and steppe). In the chernozem and non-chernozem zones in each locality, the highest and lowest norms for allotments were determined. The peasants were supposed to transfer those allotments that they used before the reform. If the allotment allotted to the peasant was more than the highest norm, then the landowner had the right to cut off the "surplus" to this norm. And vice versa, if the actual allotment of the peasant was less than the lowest norm, then the landowner had to cut the land to this norm.

The landowners tried to establish norms in such a size that they could cut off part of the peasant lands in their favor. The submission by the landlords to the Editorial Commissions of underestimated data on the size of peasant allotments led to the fact that even after the commissions increased the higher norms, the peasants in most provinces lost part of the land. As a result, the peasants received an average of 3.4 acres per capita. Meanwhile, in order to ensure a living wage, a peasant in the black earth belt had to have at least 5.5 tithes per capita, and in other areas - from 6 to 8 tithes.

Temporarily liable peasants had to perform temporary duties in the form of a cash quitrent or corvée in favor of the landowner. The period of transition from duties to ransom lasted for 20 years (from 1863 to 1883). Only in the western provinces were all peasants immediately transferred to the category of peasant proprietors. The main duty was recognized quitrent. The size of the corvée was limited to 40 men's and 30 women's days per year. Two years later, the peasants could switch from corvée to dues without the consent of the landowner.

The amount of the redemption of peasant duties was determined as follows: the amount of capital was found, which, being put into a bank paying 6% of the profit per year on deposits, would bring annually the amount of quitrent received by the landowner. For example, if the quitrent was 10 rubles, the amount of the ransom was 166 rubles 66 kopecks. In other words, by depositing an amount of 166 rubles 66 kopecks in the bank, the landowner received 6% of this amount per year, which was exactly 10 rubles.

Of course, the peasants could not immediately pay the full amount of the ransom to the landowner. But the landowner was interested in receiving exactly the entire amount at a time. Therefore, a redemption operation was carried out with the participation of the state. Peasants received a state loan in the amount of 80% of the redemption amount. The landlords received 80% of the entire ransom immediately after the conclusion of the redemption transaction. The remaining 20% ​​was to be paid by the peasants to the landowner by agreement. Then, for 49 years, the peasants had to return the loan to the state with interest in the form of redemption payments. The amount of these payments far exceeded the costs of the state.

According to the peasant reform of 1861, the community and its elected bodies became the lowest level of administrative control in the countryside on all categories of land. The functions of the community, which received the name rural society, the rights and obligations of the village assembly as a meeting of the heads of peasant households, as well as the headman elected by the village assembly.

Preparation of reforms
The preparation of the zemstvo reform began in 1859, when work on the peasant reform of 1861 was in full swing. N. A. Milyutin was the leader in this legislative activity of the government. Milyutin's resignation in April 1861. The Minister of the Interior, P. A. Valuev (Milyutin's opponent), who then headed the preparatory work, was forced to reckon with this project and accept it as a basis.
Formation of local bodies
The “Regulations of January 1, 1864” provided for the creation of a zemstvo in 34 provinces of the European part of Russia. Zemstvo reform did not extend to Siberia, Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where there was almost no noble land ownership, as well as to the national outskirts of Russia - the Baltic States, Poland, the Caucasus, Kazakhstan, and Central Asia. In 1911-13 zemstvo institutions, in addition to 34 provinces, were introduced in 9 more.
According to the “Regulations”, zemstvo institutions were created in the county and province, consisting of zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils. The electoral system was based on a combination of estate and property principles. Every three years, residents of the county of different classes elected from 14 to more than 100 vowels - deputies of county zemstvo assemblies. Elections were held in curia (parts), into which the entire county population was divided. The first curia consisted of landowners who had 200 acres or more of land (including allotment land tenure of peasants who had not yet been redeemed) or other immovable property worth 15,000 rubles, or an annual income of 6,000 rubles. The tone in this curia was set by the nobles (landlords), but over time, representatives of other classes began to play an increasingly important role - merchants who bought up noble lands, rich peasants who acquired land as property. The second curia consisted of citizens who owned merchant certificates, commercial and industrial enterprises with an annual income of at least 6 thousand rubles, owners of urban real estate worth at least 500 rubles. - in small and 2 thousand rubles. in big cities. The third curia mainly consisted of representatives of rural communities, peasants, for whom a special property qualification was not required. The creation of class peasant self-government (rural and volost) made it possible to give the peasants access to all-class zemstvo institutions. As a result of the first zemstvo elections of 1865-66, the nobles made up 42% of the county and 74% of the provincial councilors, the peasants, respectively, 38.5% and 10.6%, and the merchants, 10.4% and 11%. Vowels of county zemstvos were elected in curia, and provincial ones - in county zemstvo assemblies. The chairmen of the county and provincial zemstvo assemblies were the county and provincial marshals of the nobility. Zemstvo assemblies were administrative bodies, they elected executive power - provincial and district zemstvo councils (three, five people).
Pravozemstvos
The competence of the zemstvo was limited to local economic affairs (medicine, public education, agronomy, veterinary service, arrangement of local roads, organization of statistics, etc.). Zemstvo fees provided the financial basis for the activities of zemstvo institutions. The budget was approved by the zemstvo assembly. It consisted mainly of taxes on real estate, primarily on land, while the main burden fell on the possessions of the peasants. Within their competence, the zemstvos had relative independence. The Minister of the Interior approved the chairman of the provincial zemstvo council.
In the structure of zemstvo institutions there was no “small zemstvo unit”, that is, an all-estate volost zemstvo closest to the needs of the local population, and there was no all-Russian body that could coordinate the activities of local zemstvos. As a result, the Zemstvos turned out to be "a building without a foundation and a roof." The government also prevented the communication of zemstvos with each other, being afraid of constitutional trends. Zemstvos did not have their own enforcement authorities, which forced them to turn to the administration and the police. All this placed the Zemstvo from the first steps in opposition to the autocratic power and at the same time made it vulnerable, not protected from the pressure of the mighty state machine. A general revision of the zemstvo reform was carried out in the reign of Alexander III. In 1890, the Zemstvo counter-reform was adopted, which significantly limited the rights of Zemstvos.
The value of the Zemstvo reform
Zemstvo reform created in Russia a new, modern institution of local self-government, attached to civilian life the previously absolutely powerless peasantry, it contributed to the development of local improvement. The zemstvo intellectual described by A.P. Chekhov - a doctor and teacher, a disinterested ascetic and an expert in his field - became the personification of the best features of the Russian intelligentsia

See No. 39 and 40

4. Zemstvo and city reforms held in 1864 and 1870, respectively, formed elected bodies of local self-government based on suffrage curial system (with different norms of representation for different classes) and property qualification. In the cities they became city ​​councils, whose executive bodies were city ​​councils and heading them mayor, and in rural areas - county and provincial zemstvo meetings(or simply zemstvos) with executive bodies represented by zemstvo councils.

Despite the limitation of their powers to issues of economy, health care and education (power still remained in the hands of government-appointed governors), zemstvos and city dumas gave the liberal intelligentsia the first experience organizations. The best forces of the intelligentsia were in them, thanks to which education and medical care were significantly improved, especially in rural areas.

5. Educational reforms consisted in the introduction of elective self-government of universities (1863), equality of estates for admission to educational institutions (with the exception of individual elite ones) - while maintaining, however, high tuition fees. The main types of secondary schools were gymnasiums with a humanitarian focus and real schools who gave mainly technical education. The first women's gymnasiums and higher courses for women were created, which marked the beginning of women's education in Russia.

6. In a row military reforms the main thing was the replacement of the Petrovsky recruiting system for recruiting the army universal conscription(1874), which made it possible to deploy a mass army from a trained reserve during the war (following the example of advanced European countries). From now on, they were subject to conscription all estates (except clergy) not excluding and nobles. Those who had a secondary or higher education were called up on preferential terms and with a reduction in the term of service as volunteers. From now on, the conditions for exemption from military service were not class origin, but marital status (the only breadwinner in the family) or a socially significant profession (teachers, doctors, etc.).

In addition, the terms of service of soldiers and sailors were reduced from 25 to 6 years (later - 3 years in the army and 5 years in the navy), corporal punishment for them, which had been widely used before (1863), was abolished. The territory of the country was divided into military districts. The army was equipped with rifled weapons, the fleet - with steam, and then with armored ships.

The level of military education increased significantly: a network of military academies was founded (before that there was one Academy of the General Staff, founded under Nicholas I) and schools separated from the senior classes of the cadet corps. Access to military educational institutions (except for the most elite ones, like the Corps of Pages) was opened again for all estates . Thanks to this, if in the era of serfdom the officers of the Russian army were almost entirely from the nobility, now access to the officer rank was open to almost everyone, and by the beginning of the First World War, more than half of the officers (with the exception of the guards) did not have a noble origin.

The General Significance of the Great Reforms as the Second Modernization of Russia can be formulated in three main directions :

1. Transition to a liberal, humanistic path political development no revolution (characteristic difference from most Western countries ).

2. Transition to a more efficient, market-capitalist path of development economy based not on coercion, but on such incentives as freedom of wage labor, competition and unemployment.

3. In social relations - the weakening of the estate system, which was a relic of feudal society.

42. Growth of social movement and opposition to autocracy. The activities of underground and terrorist organizations ("Land and Freedom", "Narodnaya Volya", "Black Redistribution").

"Land and freedom”, the society (first) was born at the end of 1861. N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. N. Obruchev (author of revolutionary proclamations, under Alexander III - chief of the general staff) participated in it. A. A. Sleptsov, brothers N. A. and A. A. Serno-Solov'evichi, P. I. Bokov, N. I. Utin, and others. M. I. Mikhailov did not participate in Land and Freedom: he was arrested before it happened. The society was associated with A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev. At the end of 1863, after the suppression of the Polish uprising and the triumph of the reaction, Land and Freedom was liquidated by its participants.

The Party's main task was to work among the masses in order to prepare an uprising. Within the "Land and Freedom" party, two currents were formed: the landowners - "villagers" and the landlords - "townspeople". The former worked among the peasantry, preparing the ground for future revolutionary activity in the countryside, while the latter gathered in the cities, turning their attention to the workers, as to the most revolutionary stratum of the population. The most important point in the society's program was "the transfer of all land into the hands of the rural working class", and a number of democratic demands were put forward, which could be achieved "only through a violent revolution."

People's Will- a revolutionary populist organization that arose in 1879 after the split of the organization "Land and Freedom" with the main goal of forcing the government to democratic reforms, after which it would be possible to fight for the social transformation of society. Terror became one of the main methods of the political struggle of Narodnaya Volya. In particular, members of the terrorist faction Narodnaya Volya hoped to push political change by assassinating Emperor Alexander II. The name of its members is formed from the name of the organization - Narodnaya Volya. A small party, based on the sympathy of a part of the intelligentsia and having no ground among the broad masses, showed such energy that it itself believed in its own strength and forced to believe in it. By the policy of Count M.T. Loris-Melikov, a part of society that had previously sympathized with the "Narodnaya Volya" was repelled from it. When the party, not softened by concessions, on March 1, 1881, assassinated Emperor Alexander II, this assassination provoked not only a government reaction, but also a public reaction on a much wider scale than Narodnaya Volya had expected. Nevertheless, in the following years the party still continued its activities.

Black Redistribution- a secret society associated with the magazine of the same name. "Black Redistribution" was formed during the collapse of the "Earth and Freedom" society in 1879; the terrorist wing of the latter formed Narodnaya Volya, and the wing that remained true to purely populist tendencies - the Black Redistribution society. The people of Chernoperedel set as their immediate task the organization of a broad people's militant party, but by the end of 1879 the conditions and conditions of revolutionary activity in Russia had changed so much that the fulfillment of this task under the given political conditions became completely impossible. The former landowner settlements in the villages have completely disintegrated; attempts to restore them failed, and the Chernoperedelites had to concentrate all their activities in the cities on propagating populist ideas among the intelligentsia and workers. But even here they were not successful; the call to activity among the people had by this time lost its former charm. The party-organizational work of the "Black Redistribution" was also extremely unsuccessful. Among the persons included in the "Black Repartition" (in the printing group), was the worker Zhirnov, who turned out to be a traitor and soon betrayed all members of the group. The organization has suffered an irreparable blow. At the beginning of 1880, the main members of the "Black Repartition" - Plekhanov, Susudit Stefanovich, Deitch - went abroad and there formed a social-democratic division in 1883. group "Emancipation of Labor".

43. The reign of Alexander III: the state of the economy, the development of capitalist relations. Foreign policy.

The domestic policy of Alexander III (1881 - 1894) was consistent. It was based on a set of quite definite ideas about what Russia should become. Alexander III was a conservative by nature, upbringing, and life experience. His convictions were formed under the influence of the bitter experience of the struggle between the government and the populist revolutionaries, which he witnessed and the victim of which was his father, Alexander II. The instructions of K. P. Pobedonostsev, a prominent ideologist of Russian conservatism, found in the person of the new monarch a grateful student who was ready to follow them.

Having removed from power the liberal ministers (D.N. Milyutin, M.T. Loris-Melikov, A.A. Aba-za, and others), and having executed the March First people by court verdict, the tsar firmly announced his intention to establish and protect the autocracy. Alexander III believed in the historical mission of Russia, in autocracy, called to lead her on the road of victories, in Orthodoxy, the spiritual support of the people and power. Autocratic power, the tsar believed, should help a confused society find ground under its feet, surround it with care and guardianship, and severely punish disobedience. Alexander III felt like the father of a large family that needed his firm hand.

Politics in the peasant question. In 1881, a law was passed on the obligatory redemption of peasants from their allotments.

Politics at work. Laws of 1882-1886 the foundations of labor legislation were laid: the labor of children under the age of twelve was prohibited; night work of women and minors is prohibited; the terms of employment and the procedure for terminating the contracts of workers with entrepreneurs were determined.

Police activities. The Decree on "Strengthened Guard" (1881) allowed the introduction of a special position in unreliable provinces.

Activities in the field of press and education. The new "Provisional Rules on the Press" (1882) established the most severe censorship and made it possible to freely close objectionable publications.

Counter-reforms. 1889-1892 Law of 1889 established the position of zemstvo chief. Zemstvo chiefs received administrative and judicial powers, they could dismiss village elders, subject peasants to corporal punishment, fines, and arrest. They were appointed by the government from among the local hereditary nobles.

The law of 1890 effectively deprived peasants of the right to nominate vowels to county and provincial zemstvo institutions. Now they were appointed by the governor.

The law of 1892 introduced a high property qualification, artisans and small merchants were excluded from elections to the city duma.

In the 80s. the government got the opportunity to remove judges at its own discretion, withdrew political cases from jury trials, and fired many prosecutors who served in the 60s and 70s.

Historians call these measures counter-reforms to emphasize that they were directed against the transformations of the reign of Alexander II.

The assessment of the reign of Alexander III cannot be unambiguous. On the one hand, the government ensured internal stability, industry developed rapidly, and foreign capital flowed into the country. On the other hand, the tsar's attempts to reverse the processes begun during the years of the "great reforms" did not meet the needs of a rapidly changing society. The modernization of the economy that began in post-reform Russia gave rise to acute, qualitatively new problems and conflicts. The government, which saw its purpose in restraining society, protecting it from change, could not cope with the new problems. The results were not long in coming: the revolution that shook the foundations of the old system took place ten years after the death of Alexander III.

44. Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century: characteristics of the economic potential. The crisis of the political system of the autocracy. Formation of illegal political parties. Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905

Calm, according to the definition of the Minister of Foreign Affairs N.K. Girs, the policy of Alexander III was continued in the first decade of the reign of Nicholas II (1894-1917). "Calmness" consisted of maintaining friendly relations with France, respectful but lacking trust with Germany, aimed at maintaining the status quo in Balkan affairs - with Austria-Hungary, friendly and not too warm - with Great Britain.

The “calm policy” of Nicholas II in European affairs was determined by the need to provide favorable external conditions for the economic development of Russia, which solved the painful tasks of modernization, on the one hand, and to strengthen Russian influence in the Far East, on the other. It was in the Far East that the most important foreign policy event in Russian history at the beginning of the 20th century took place. - Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905

Causes of the Russo-Japanese War. The situation that arose in the Far East required active actions from Russia. China, weakened by a protracted crisis, has riveted the selfish attention of all the major participants in world politics: Great Britain, France, Germany, the USA, Japan, and Russia. There was a fierce struggle for the division of spheres of influence in China. Japan in 1894 sent troops to Korea, entered the war with China, imposed humiliating peace conditions on it (they were partially revised under pressure from Russia, France and Germany). Russia in 1891 began the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, considering it as the beginning of the vigorous development of its Siberian and Far Eastern outskirts. In 1896, China granted Russia a concession for the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER), in 1898 it obtained the right to lease the southern part of the Liaodong Peninsula with the port fortress of Port Arthur and the port of Dalniy. The Boxer Rebellion in China provided an excuse for foreign powers to openly intervene in internal Chinese affairs. Russia sent troops into Manchuria and, despite the protests of Japan, which enlisted the support of Germany and Great Britain, refused to withdraw them (although the Russian-Japanese treaty provided for the withdrawal of troops by the autumn of 1904). Japan, in turn, imposed on Russia unacceptable terms of the agreement on Korea. Things were heading for an open confrontation.

On the night of January 27, 1904, Japanese destroyers attacked Russian ships stationed in the outer roadstead of Port Arthur, as well as the cruiser Varyag and the gunboat Koreets. The war has begun.

The course of hostilities. On land, the Russian troops (A. N. Kuropat-kin was appointed commander-in-chief, devoid of any significant military talents) were defeated in battles near Laoyang (August 1904), near the Shahe River (October 1904), and near Mukden (February 1905). In all battles, the numerical superiority was behind the Russian armies. The Japanese turned out to be stronger in military-technical terms, their generals had a better command of the art of modern warfare. In December, Port Arthur fell, besieged in July - it was surrendered by the ignorant and cowardly General A. M. Stessel.

Reasons for the defeat of Russia. The unpreparedness of the top leadership for war; military-technical lag; mediocre command; lengthy communications, remoteness of the theater of operations; foreign policy isolation (Russia was not supported by any major state that feared its strengthening in the Far East).

Results and consequences of the war. The peace treaty was signed in Portsmouth, in the United States, which acted as mediators in the negotiations. Despite the extremely unsuccessful course of the war, S. Yu. Witte managed to conclude a favorable (taking into account the current situation) peace: Russia ceded South Sakhalin and Port Arthur to Japan, recognized Korea as a zone of Japanese interests, but avoided paying indemnities. Both countries pledged to withdraw troops from Manchuria.

The consequences of a military defeat for Russia were significant: the authority of the authorities in the eyes of society was catastrophically undermined; opposition and revolutionary sentiments intensified. The war, perceived as a national disgrace, which claimed tens of thousands of human lives, played a role in the development of the revolution of 1905-1907.

As a result of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, Japan became the leading power in the Far East. Russia's foreign policy positions were seriously undermined. The defeat also exposed the vices of its military organization (the technical backwardness of the fleet, the weakness of the senior command staff, the shortcomings of the management and supply system) and contributed to the deepening of the crisis of the monarchical system.

Political parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. (conservative, liberal, radical)

Events 1905-1907 created favorable conditions for the formation of many political parties - both all-Russian and local, of which there were up to 50. All these parties belonged to three main areas: conservative-monarchist; liberal opposition; revolutionary-democratic (radical).

During the revolution, monarchist and nationalist parties arose - the Russian Monarchist Party (spring 1905), the Union of the Russian People (November 1905), etc. The leaders of the right were V.M. Purishkevich, A.I. Dubrovin, N.E. Markov 2nd, I. I. Vostorgov, G. G. Rosen, and others. The social basis of these parties was the aristocracy, officials, Orthodox clergy, small merchants and petty bourgeois, part of the monarchist-minded peasants and intelligentsia. "

In October 1905 liberal parties arose. On October 12-18, the 1st Congress of the Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets) was held, which since 1906 was also called the “People's Freedom Party”.

The second major liberal party was the "Union of October 17" (Octobrists), which arose in October 1905 - February 1906. The leaders of the party were well-known entrepreneurs and financiers A.I. Guchkov, M.V. Rodzianko, brothers P.P. and V.P. Ryabushinsky, N.S. Avdakov, as well as representatives of the intelligentsia L.N. Benois, prof. IN AND. Guerrier. The Octobrists were the party of big capital. They advocated the strengthening of a constitutional monarchy of a non-parliamentary type, their program involved the exercise of civil liberties, but while maintaining a "united and indivisible Russia." The program proclaimed the need for social reforms - social insurance for workers and limitation of the working day, transfer of state lands and lands of the imperial family to the peasants. An intermediate position between the Cadets and the Octobrists was occupied by the Peaceful Renewal Party and its successor, the Progressive Party.

The Socialist-Revolutionary Party during the period of the revolution reached its maximum number - 50-60 thousand people, and the majority of its members were peasants, although the intelligentsia dominated the leadership. The main goal of the Social Revolutionaries in the revolution was the overthrow of the autocracy and the establishment of a democratic republic, so they boycotted the elections to the First State Duma. The Social Revolutionaries took part in almost all armed uprisings and uprisings, carried out acts of terror. February 4, 1905 I.P. Kalyaev killed the Emperor's uncle, Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich (Governor-General of Moscow).

Neo-populist ideology was also adhered to by representatives of the Labor People's Socialist Party (populists), created in September-November 1906.

The Socialist-Revolutionaries and Socialist-Revolutionaries had a great influence on the peasantry and on its representatives in the State Duma, who formed the Labor Group. In addition, peasant organizations arose in 1905, the largest of which was the All-Russian Peasant Union, with up to 200 thousand members (leaders - S.V. Kurnin, V.F. Krasnov, SP. and V.P. Mazurenko) .

During the revolution, the Social Democrats remained divided into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks, which greatly complicated their actions.

The largest political parties in Russia took part in the main events of the revolution, including the activities of the First and Second State Dumas. But one should not exaggerate the degree of their influence on the population of the empire: in 1906-1907. the total number of members of all parties was only about 0.5% of the total population of Russia.

45. Revolution of 1905–1907: causes, the course of the protest movement, the growth of the political crisis. Manifesto of October 17, 1905 and its influence on the revolutionary movement.

Educational reform of Alexander II

The need to change the system of school and university education in the Russian Empire has been brewing for a long time. This was understood by the emperor, and his entourage, and the intellectual elite of society. Therefore, specially created commissions were engaged in the development of reform projects for university and secondary education for several years. The education reform was carried out by the emperor in two stages - in 1863 (higher) and 1871 (secondary)

Founding Documents

1864 - Regulations on elementary public schools;
1894 - Regulations on gymnasiums and progymnasiums.

Emperor's actions

The developed reforms and activities within their framework were introduced gradually, but had a tremendous impact on the whole country.
A new system of primary and secondary education was introduced, which allowed people from the lower classes to gain knowledge within the walls of educational institutions;
In educational institutions, classical education was introduced, which was introduced simultaneously with the realistic one. This had a positive impact on the overall results of the reform;
Education was considered classical, which was based on the teaching of the ancient Greek language, Latin, mathematics, history, literature, rhetoric, philosophy, in real gymnasiums they taught foreign languages ​​and natural science;
Gymnasium students could enter universities and higher technical schools;
Universities were given broad autonomy. Universities were divided into faculties, and those - into departments. Scientific degrees and titles were introduced.
Teachers independently chose rectors and deans, had the right to invite lecturers from abroad and other universities, a student court appeared, the opportunity to choose lecture and seminar courses, various disciplines, subjects;
Scientific societies could be formed at universities.
Each university had public libraries;
The departments of philosophy and state law were restored;
The role of trustee and pedagogical councils has increased.

Creation of educational institutions

A new system of educational institutions was created, which were divided into several types:
Zemstvo schools, which were created by zemstvos;
Church schools;
Public schools belonging to the Ministry of Public Education;
Commercial schools, initiated by representatives of the big bourgeoisie;
Women's educational institutions.
Anyone who wanted to study in gymnasiums could study, but only after passing tests. Graduates of classical gymnasiums or those who passed examinations for passing the course of such a gymnasium entered universities.

Results of the reforms

1. Pedagogical societies have been created.
2. Literacy committees appeared.
3. Pedagogical congresses were held.
4. The structure of education has become strictly hierarchical, with an emphasis on the education of all segments of the population.