Lvov M. R. Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language. St. 3000 antonym. steam / Ed. L. A. Novikova. - 8th ed., stereotype. - M.: AST-PRESS KNIGA, 2006. - 592 p.
Collecting antonyms and systematizing them according to a single principle - that is, compiling a dictionary - is a very difficult task. And although the work on the dictionary brought joy and satisfaction, there were moments when the task seemed overwhelming.
A significant place in the dictionary is occupied by text illustrations, without which the meaning of antonymic pairs is not always clear, and sometimes antonymy is doubtful. And naturally, the greatest difficulties in working on a dictionary are associated with the selection of literary quotations.
The expressive power of contrast, antithesis, and therefore antonyms (full, symmetrical and so-called "quasi-antonyms") is amazing. Antonyms reveal not only the opposite ("A merry and boredom is merry, and a boring one is boring." Proverb), but also the internal inconsistency of phenomena ("Petersburg with its merry boredom and bored gaiety." N. Leskov), the completeness of the coverage of the depicted phenomenon (“In the Russian language, all tones and shades, all transitions of sounds from the hardest to the most gentle and soft.” Gogol) and other meanings. The collection of semantically opposed words found in works of literature was the first step towards the creation of the Dictionary of Antonyms. For more than 20 years, a card file of antonyms has been accumulating and continues to grow - quotes containing antonymic pairs in one sentence or in one small passage of text. It is very important that the illustrated antonyms be used in exactly one context, since the antonymic pair is a lexical-semantic unity.
The dictionary uses quotes from works of Russian fiction from A. S. Pushkin to the present day (A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol, N. A. Nekrasov, I. S. Turgenev, L N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, A. P. Chekhov, M. Gorky, A. A. Blok, S. A. Yesenin, M. I. Tsvetaeva, A. N. Tolstoy, M. A. Bulgakov , K. A. Fedin, M. A. Sholokhov, A. A. Fadeev, A. T. Tvardovsky, K. G. Paustovsky, K. M. Simonov, V. P. Astafiev and others), from the political, journalistic, scientific literature, from magazine and newspaper periodicals. When preparing the dictionary, the following were used: "The Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language" (M.; L., 1950-1965. Vol. 1-17); "Dictionary of the Russian language" (M., 1957-1961. Vol. 1-4; 2nd ed., Rev. and added. M., 1981-1984. Vol. 1-4); "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" ed. A. P. Evgenyeva (L., 1970-1971. Vol. 1-2); "Dictionary of synonyms" ed. A. P. Evgenyeva (L., 1975). The nature of the literature used makes it possible to consider that the dictionary reflects the use of antonyms in the modern literary language. Due to the lack of illustrative material, not all commonly used antonyms are included in the dictionary, not all antonymic pairs are uniformly illustrated, rarely used antonyms sometimes have only one quote.
Note, by the way, that the frequency of the use of antonyms does not always coincide with the frequency of individual words - members of an antonymic pair. So the words virtue and vice have, as shown in the Frequency Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. LN Zasorina (M., 1977), a relatively low frequency of use, while the antonymic pair of virtue - vice is quite common.
Great difficulties in the lexicographic description of antonyms are due to the fact that the degree of antonymy of different pairs is not the same. In the process of work, various options for constructing a dictionary were tried: full and incomplete antonyms were given in two of its sections; thematic nests were compiled; an attempt was made to arrange all the antonyms in a row, alphabetically, providing them with marks that determine the degree of antonymy, etc. At the suggestion of the doctor of philological sciences L. A. Novikov, author of the monograph "Antonymy in the Russian language" (M., 1973), in the dictionary, such a structure was adopted and implemented that made it possible to distinguish antonyms into complete and incomplete ("quasi-antonyms") within each dictionary entry, highlighting complete antonyms as dominants or their synonyms, and incomplete antonyms as subordinates to them.
However, such a structure, for all its merits, turned out to be rather complicated for this work. The card file did not always provide illustrative material, as a result of which some synonymous groups of antonyms were not marked; in some, rare cases, one had to resort to the traditional method of quoting - combining two quotations or limiting oneself to typical phrases indicating the parallelism in the use of antonyms.
The dictionary is not explanatory: refusing to interpret each member of the antonymic pair separately, the author believes that a specific way of interpreting the meaning of the antonymic pair as a lexical-semantic unity should be found. This problem has so far been satisfactorily solved only for some antonymic pairs. Therefore, the meanings (one or more) are revealed by the selection of literary examples (citations): each quotation usually illustrates a new meaning, a new shade of meaning, or features of the use of antonyms.
In the fifth edition, the dictionary is supplemented with new entries, the synonymic nests of antonyms are significantly replenished, the number of derived antonymic pairs (not illustrated with citations) inside the dictionary entries is increased. The illustrative material of the dictionary has been significantly updated by including quotations from works published in recent years.
The seventh edition of the "Dictionary of Antonyms" has been significantly increased in volume. For what? The card index continued to accumulate, thanks to which the dictionary was supplemented with new articles (there are about 200 of them). Many articles were enriched with new textual illustrations that reflected the variants of the meaning and use of antonymic pairs in the text, synonymous nests and word-formation series became richer. I tried to present more fully the literature of the Russian diaspora, the works of the last two decades, and also to present authors who were not published in those years when the dictionary was created. A worthy place among them was taken by V. Solovyov, N. Berdyaev, M. Tsvetaeva, D. Merezhkovsky, A. Solzhenitsyn, A. Akhmatova, V. Khodasevich, I. Annensky, N. Gumilev, V. Grossman, V. Nabokov, M Voloshin and other writers.
Appendix III was introduced into the new edition, which presents some antonymic pairs that are usually not included in dictionaries: occasional, contextual, connotative antonyms, the phenomena of derivational and grammatical antonymy are noted. I appreciate their expressive power; they are widely used both in fiction and in everyday life (wedding - funeral, honey - poison, roses - thorns).
These antonyms were introduced sporadically in previous editions of the Dictionary of Antonyms, but only in cases where they could be considered as synonymous in the nest, for example: “Heat - cold, heat - cold, heat - frost, heat - cold, heat - frost , fire - ice "; "Laughter - crying, laughter - tears, comedy - tragedy."
In the seventh edition of the dictionary, lexical antonymy was shown more fully than in previous editions. But it is far from exhausted. The general laws of nature are reflected in antonymy: the laws of rhythm, symmetry, contrast... Antonymic relations go beyond the scope of vocabulary: we see them in grammar, in the structure of the text, and in style...
The release of the 8th, stereotyped edition of the Dictionary of Antonyms by the AST-PRESS KNIGA publishing house testifies to the interest in it: the dictionary, apparently, performs its functions well.
M. R. Lvov
HOW TO USE THE DICTIONARY
COMPOSITION OF THE DICTIONARY
§ 1. The dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language includes both heterogeneous antonyms (big - small, loud - quiet, day - night), and single-root ones (flight - short flight, come - leave, revolutionary - counter-revolutionary).
§ 2. Not only significant parts of speech (nouns and adjectives, adverbs, verbs, pronouns), but also service parts (prepositions, particles) are presented as antonyms in the dictionary: love - hate, high - low, fun - sad, light - extinguish, everything - no one, to - from, over - under, give - on, yes - no, etc.
§ 3. The dictionary contains antonyms expressing: a) a qualitative opposite (easy - difficult, beautiful - ugly, talented - mediocre); b) complementarity (married - single, alive - dead, sighted - blind, true - false); c) the opposite direction of actions, signs, properties (fly in - fly out, light up - extinguish, bloom - fade, warming - cooling, mind - madness).
DICTIONARY STRUCTURE
§ 4. The dictionary consists of the main part, an appendix and an index of antonymic pairs included in the dictionary.
§ 5. The main part contains dictionary entries arranged in alphabetical order of capital pairs of antonyms (dominant), which are assigned a serial number. Subordinate antonymic pairs do not have their own number and are marked with the same number as the dominant.
STRUCTURE OF A GLOSSARY ENTRY
§ 6. A single pair of antonyms or a group of antonymic pairs united on a synonymic basis and subordinate to the capital pair - dominant can be presented in a dictionary entry.
Dictionary entry title
§ 7. The most common, semantically homogeneous and stylistically neutral symmetrical pair of antonyms is given as the main heading (dominant), typed in capital bold, for example:
GOOD BAD
In the absence of a stylistically neutral option in the modern language, a commonly used, symmetrical, but stylistically colored pair of antonyms can be chosen as a dominant, for example:
WEATHER (colloquial) - BAD WEATHER
§ 8. Below the main heading, in smaller (than the dominant) bold capital font, synonyms of the main antonymic pair are given, for example:
GOOD BAD
GOOD - BAD
§ 9. Then the so-called “quasi-antonyms” are given in bold italics: semantically and stylistically heterogeneous, asymmetrical oppositions, based not on the primary, but on the secondary meanings of the word, figurative oppositions and some others, for example:
GOOD BAD
GOOD - BAD
GOOD - BAD
GOOD - THIN (colloquial)
JOY - SAD
JOY - SAD
JOY - LONGING
JOY - KRUCHINA (nar.-poet.)
§ 10. In the title: a) nouns are given in the nominative singular, except when they are used predominantly in the plural as part of an antonymic pair, for example:
HOLIDAYS - WEEKDAYS
ANCESTORS - DESCENDANTS
b) adjectives are given in the nominative singular masculine; c) verbs are given in the infinitive form.
§ 11. Masculine nouns with the meaning of person and correlative feminine nouns derived from them are given in one article, for example:
BLONDE - BRUNETTE
and. blonde - brunette
Verbs considered as correlative in aspect are given in one article with the corresponding aspect mark, for example:
APPEAR - DISAPPEAR
owls. appear - disappear
SLEEP - WAKE UP
nesov. fall asleep - wake up
Verbs that do not have a correlative aspectual pair are given in the heading without specifying the aspect.
§ 12. In the title: the word order within the antonymic pair is due to traditional fixedness (war - peace), logical or temporal sequence (to get sick - to recover, yesterday - tomorrow), the presence of a positive quality, property (good - evil, legal - illegal, revolutionary - counter-revolutionary), in the absence of such conditionality - the order is alphabetical.
Stylistic notes
§ 13. If a word is a member of an antonymic pair, which is a heading, is stylistically or expressively colored, then it is supplied with the mark colloquial, simple, nar.-poet., bookish, obsolete. or high, for example:
BUCKET (simple) - HAZARD
SAVE - WIND (colloquial)
In paired aspectual verbs and nouns with the meaning of a person, the stylistic mark is placed only at the word in the main heading, for example:
EARN - WIND (colloquial) and WASTE (colloquial)
owls. acquire - squander
TALKER (colloquial) - SILENT (colloquial)
and. talker - silent
Word-building connections
§ 14. With antonyms that are considered as initial ones, one-root, relative to the capital, antonymic pairs are given. So, in the article white - black, the following antonymic pairs are given:
white - black
white - black
turn white (sya) - blacken (sya) (see)
whiten - blacken (see)
whiten - blacken
white - draft (see)
whitewash - denigrate (see)
whitening - blackening (see)
The mark (see) for some of them means that these antonyms are headings and their place in the dictionary can be determined by the index (§ 21).
Illustrations
§ 15. As illustrations, in case of usage, phrases are given that mark the similarity in the syntactic links of antonyms, for example:
LEGAL - ILLEGAL
Legal claims are illegal claims. A legal act is an illegal act. Legally - illegally.
§ 16. The following are illustrations taken from works of fiction, journalistic, scientific literature, from periodicals. Quotations usually contain both opposing words and help to reveal the meaning of antonyms, demonstrate their use in direct and figurative meaning, emphasize polysemy, note substantivation, etc. Omissions in the text are indicated by a dot.
Antonym Dictionary
Explanatory translation dictionary. - 3rd edition, revised. - M.: Flinta: Science. L.L. Nelyubin. 2003 .
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MBOU "KRASNOGVARDEYSKAYA SCHOOL №1"
REPUBLIC OF CRIMEA
Abstract on the topic:
Phraseological dictionaries. Dictionaries of antonyms, synonyms, homonyms, paronyms and other types.
settlement Krasnogvardeyskoye - 2017
1. Introduction. The meaning and use of phraseological units, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms in speech ................................................... ................................................. ...3
2. Phraseological dictionaries .................................................... ..............................................four
3. Dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms…………………………………………………………6
4. Dictionaries of homonyms and paronyms………………………………………………………….10
5.Other types of dictionaries……………………………………………………………………..13
6. Conclusion. Learning to use dictionaries is the task of every person……..16
7. References…………………………………………………………………..... 17
Introduction
The richness and expressiveness of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms and paronyms in the Russian language creates unlimited opportunities for their targeted selection and careful use in speech. Writers, working on the language of their works, attach special importance to these expressive means, which make speech accurate and vivid.
Each person to a certain extent owns the technique of using phraseological units, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms and paronyms in speech. He must pay attention to their use in literary texts, be able to independently use them in speech.
In my essay, I will try to fully reflect all the information about the above-mentioned expressive means, as they contribute to the development of beautiful and correct speech, which is so necessary for a person in modern conditions. Unfortunately, in our time, the problem of speech literacy is the most acute. Each of us must systematically work on replenishing our vocabulary and the ability to appropriately use figurative means of expression in speech.
Lexicography is one of the applied (that is, having a practical purpose and application) sciences that are part of modern linguistics. This is the theory and practice of compiling various language dictionaries, which means that this is the science of dictionaries, of how to make them most reasonably, at the same time it is the practice of compiling dictionaries itself.
Phraseological dictionaries
Dictionary of phraseological units- a reference publication that describes the phraseological material of the language (set expressions, proverbs and sayings, winged words), provides information about the semantics of phraseological units, their compatibility, stylistic features, functioning in texts.
Interest in phraseological units arose as early as the 19th century, which was reflected in the remarkable work Proverbs of the Russian People (1861-1862), as well as the reference book Winged Words (1890).
The most complete collection of phraseological units of the Russian language is presented in the two-volume Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language (1997). The dictionary of figurative expressions of the Russian language, etc. (1995) arranges phraseological units according to the ideographic principle, combining them into headings: “characteristics of a person”, “labor”, “wealth”, “poverty”, “intellectual abilities”, etc. Thus , the dictionary shows the reflection in phraseological units of ideas about the world and the place of a person in it.
The School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language VA (1980) is addressed to students and contains the most common phraseological units of the Russian language.
The origin of phraseological units.
The sources of origin of phraseological units are:
Separate words of the Russian language;
- free phrases of Russian speech;
- proverbs of the Russian language;
- phraseological units of the Russian language;
- foreign phraseological units.
For example: the soul is wide open, a man in a case, stand on his ears, hang his nose.
The largest number of phraseological units is formed on the basis of free phrases. Such phrases acquire a new meaning, transferred to them by the similarity of phenomena or their connection. The head, for example, is compared with a bowler hat, hence the bowler brews - "the head thinks."
Many phraseological units arose on the basis of proverbs. Usually, a phraseological unit becomes a part of a proverb used independently in speech; without knowing such a proverb, the phraseological unit is incomprehensible. For example, an old sparrow (you can’t fool an old sparrow on chaff.)
Phraseology often becomes the basis for the formation of new phraseological units. This way is used in the formation of phraseological units based on terminological combinations: second wind, chain reaction, zero cycle, etc.
A special type of formation of new phraseological units on the basis of existing ones is when the composition and meaning of phraseological unit changes. This is, as it were, the development of a phraseological unit, for example, with the word green - “free”: green light - “free passage”. Borrowed phraseological units are formed on the basis of phraseological units of other languages.
Sources of Russian phraseological units
All phraseological units of the Russian language can be divided by origin into 2 groups: phraseological units of Russian origin and borrowed ones.
The vast majority of Russian phraseological units originated in the Russian language itself or were inherited by the Russian language from the language of their ancestors: you can’t spill it with water - “very friendly”, what the mother gave birth to - “without clothes” and many others.
Each craft in Russia left its mark in Russian phraseology. From carpenters, “clumsy work” originates, from furriers - “the sky is like a sheepskin”. New professions gave new phraseological units. From the speech of the railroad workers, Russian phraseology took the expression "green street" and so on.
It is difficult to establish the time and place of occurrence of many phraseological units, therefore, there is only a proposal about where they originated and on what basis.
It is much easier to determine the source of author's phraseological units. For example, "leavened patriotism" - false, ostentatious - arose in a letter from a famous Russian poet and critic. Even more precisely, it is possible to establish the origin of phraseological units that arose in a work of fiction with the same name. Phraseologism "Trishkin caftan" arose from a fable. Already as part of a fable, this expression has become a phraseological unit with a meaning: a matter when the elimination of some shortcomings entails new shortcomings. Borrowed phraseological units are divided into borrowed from the Old Slavonic language and borrowed from Western European languages.
Old Slavonic phraseological units were fixed in the Russian language after the introduction of Christianity; for the most part, they originate from books, including scripture. Most often they are of a bookish nature. For example, “the talk of the town”, “seek and you will find”, “throwing pearls before swine” and others.
Phraseologisms borrowed from the Western European language include the oldest borrowings from Latin or Ancient Greek, for example, "terra incognita". More recent borrowings are from phraseology (“to have a tooth”), German (“to smash”), English (“blue stocking”) languages.
Dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms
The first Russian dictionaries of synonyms were "Experience of the Russian Soslovnik" (1783), which contained 32 synonymic series (105 words in total) and "Experience of the Dictionary of Russian Synonyms" (1818), which contained 77 synonymic series. More complete in material (226 synonymous nests), but lower in quality was the "Dictionary of Russian synonyms or estates, compiled by the editors of moral writings" edited (1840). In 1850-1860. Materials for the dictionary of synonyms were published in separate issues by Acad. (in total he published 150 synonymous series). Of low quality (in a theoretical sense, in explaining words of a socio-political nature) were the Dictionary of Synonyms and Expressions Similar in Meaning (1912) and the Educational Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Literary Language, published after the revolution, by Shishkin and (editions of 1930 and 1931. ).
In 1956, the Brief Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language was published, intended for school practice and containing about 1500 words (2nd ed. M., 1961). More complete is "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" containing about 9000 synonymic series (1968; 4th ed. 1975). In 1970-1971. a two-volume "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" was published under the editorship of. In 1975, on the basis of this dictionary, a one-volume "Dictionary of synonyms. Reference manual" was created under the same editorship.
In 1971, our first Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language was published. The dictionary contains over 1000 pairs of words, which are single-root or multi-root antonyms. In a revised form, the dictionary was republished in 1982. In 1972, the Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language was published under the editorship of. The dictionary contains over 1300 pairs of antonyms or lexical pairs that are opposed in any respect. In 1978, the Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language was published, ed. , containing about 2000 antonymic pairs (3rd ed. M., 1985). The same author published in 1981 the School Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language, which includes over 500 dictionary entries.
Synonyms are words that are different in sound and spelling, but similar in meaning. As you know, synonyms are combined into rows; a synonym that is neutral in use is a dominant. For example: a lazy person - a loafer - a parasite - a drone - a couch potato - a loafer.
Synonyms may have different functional and stylistic coloring. Yes, the words mistake, miscalculation, oversight, mistake– stylistically neutral, commonly used; hole, overlay- colloquial; blunder- colloquial; blunder - professional jargon.
The use of one of the synonyms without taking into account its stylistic coloring can lead to a speech error: Having made a mistake, the principal of the school immediately began to correct it.
When using synonyms, the ability of each of them to be more or less selectively combined with other words is often not taken into account: My friend has a difficult character. I had to bear the difficult backpack. Character can only be difficult, and the backpack can be heavy. But the road can be both difficult and difficult.
Differing in shades of lexical meaning, synonyms can express a different degree of manifestation of a sign, action. But, even denoting the same thing, interchangeable in some cases, in others, synonyms cannot be replaced - this leads to a speech error. Yesterday I was sad. Synonym sad here is quite suitable: Yesterday I was sad. But in two-part sentences, these synonyms are interchanged: Sadly, I look at our generation ...
Antonyms are words that are opposite in meaning. Unlike synonyms, antonyms are paired: white - black, high - low, run - stand, love - hate, day - night, sweet - bitter, fast - slow. Not all words are antonymous. Words with a purely objective meaning do not form antonyms ( door, window, pen, notebook), numerals, pronouns (except for pairs: nobody - everything, nothing - everything).
Dictionaries of homonyms and paronyms.
In 1974, the first in our country "Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language" was published (3rd ed. M., 1986). The dictionary lists homonymous pairs in alphabetical order, provides grammatical information and stylistic marks, as well as the qualification of homonyms in terms of their formation or origin. In 1976, the "Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language" appeared under the editorship (2nd ed. Tbilisi, 1978; more than 3500 nests of homonyms).
In 1968, a reference dictionary was published and "Difficult cases of using single-root words of the Russian language", which can be considered the first attempt to create a dictionary of paronyms. It contains about 200 pairs (groups) of single-root words, in the use of which confusion is observed in the practice of speech. The second in terms of publication time was the "Dictionary of Paronyms of the Russian Language" (1971), containing over 3000 similar-sounding words with the same root and different roots, divided into 1432 nests. In 1974, the book "Paronyms in the Russian Language" was published, consisting of a theoretical part and the dictionary itself, including over 500 paronymic pairs, and in 1984 the "Dictionary of Russian Paronyms" by the same author was published as a separate edition. In 1994, the Dictionary of Paronyms of the Modern Russian Language was published. Authors - and.
When using homonyms in speech, there are no errors as such. However, "verbal misunderstandings" may well arise. For example, a proposal “They issued a law on the abolition of transport courts” sounds ambiguous due to the presence of homonyms in the language; courts - the genitive plural form court and courts - the genitive plural form of the noun vessel. The question arises what was abolished - transport courts or transport courts? Unfortunate use of homonyms can lead to a comic effect. Yes, the phrase "Joint rest, like work, makes people drunk" necessarily causes an unwanted reaction. Therefore, when choosing words to frame thoughts, we must pay attention to the context, which in some speech situations is designed to reveal the meaning of words.
Paronymy (from Greek near, at + name) - partial sound similarity of words with their semantic difference (full or partial).
Paronyms are words that are different in meaning, but close in pronunciation, lexical and grammatical affiliation and relatedness of the roots, the similarity in sounding of which often results from mixing these words and violating the correctness of speech ( artistic / artistic, turn green / turn green, wiser / wiser).
The dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language presents in an ordered, concentrated form two-term groupings of paronyms, showing their possible compatibility with other words, if necessary, a stylistic characteristic, synonyms and antonyms, if any, their use in phraseology is also given.
In 1971, the Dictionary of Paronyms of the Russian Language was published in Tbilisi, which contains words similar in morphological composition and sound, but having a different meaning ( give a vacation, a word, but submit a report, a report, present for encouragement, an award, or such pairs of words as dress - put on, toast - health resort.).
In 1984, the Dictionary of Paronyms of the Russian Language was published.
Kolesnikov paronyms of the Russian language. Tbilisi, 1971.
Vishnyakova paronyms of the Russian language. M., 1984.
Petrov to the dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language. M., 1992.
Panyushev paronyms of the modern Russian language. M., 1994.
The Dictionary of Paronyms is addressed to those people for whom Russian is not their native language, as well as to all those who are interested in improving the culture of their speech.
It is also customary to call the term paronymy such a phenomenon in speech when two words that sound similar to some extent, but have different meanings, are mistakenly used one instead of the other. For example, the use of the word addressee instead of the addressee; boatswain instead of pilot; flint instead of silicon is a paronymy, and the words that make up such pairs are called paronyms.
The use of one word instead of another, similar-sounding, is explained by insufficiently solid knowledge of the meaning of one of the words or even both, by the incompetence of the speaker (writer) in that field of human activity (science, technology, art, craft) from which the word was taken.
Some paronyms are widely distributed in the language and are reflected in dictionaries, "to be angry", "to be opposed to something", is very often used instead of the similar verb "to disturb", and this meaning is listed in dictionaries.
Other types of dictionaries.
Widely used explanatory dictionaries. The main task is to interpret the meanings of words. The interpretation is given by the logical definition of the conceptual meaning (for example, heat up - heat up to a very high temperature; record holder - an athlete who set record), through the selection of synonyms ( annoying - annoying, intrusive) or in the form of an indication of a grammatical relationship to another word ( cover- action according to the meaning of the verbs to cover up and hide behind). In some explanatory dictionaries, the meanings of words are revealed, if necessary, with the help of drawings. As a rule, explanatory dictionaries also give a grammatical description of the word, indicating with the help of special marks the part of speech, the grammatical gender of the noun, the type of the verb, etc. The pronunciation of the word is also indicated to some extent (for example, in Russian explanatory dictionaries - stress ), sometimes various other, additional information is reported.
A different character is the famous, more than once reprinted "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language"(4 volumes, first ed. 1863-1866), which includes in abundance the regional and dialect vocabulary of the mid-19th century and is still unsurpassed in terms of the completeness of coverage of this vocabulary and the abundance of folk expressions. It includes about 200 thousand words of the literary language and dialects.
Since 1965 began to appear "Dictionary of Russian folk dialects" edited, which presents the dialect vocabulary and phraseology of all Russian dialects of the 19th-20th centuries.
Explanatory dictionaries are opposed transferable, most often bilingual (say, Russian-English and English-Russian), and sometimes multilingual. In translation dictionaries, instead of interpreting meanings in the same language, translations of these meanings into another language are given. Translation dictionaries can be bilingual (Russian-French, English-Russian, etc.) and multilingual.
Common dictionaries also include dictionaries derivational. An example is the "School word-formation dictionary" (1964); etymological dictionaries containing information about the origin of words. "The Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by A. Preobrazhensky, "Russisches etymologisches Wörterbuch" by M. Fasmer, which since 1966 began to appear in Russian translation. For practical purposes, the Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language, published in 1961, and.
From etymological dictionaries should be distinguished historical dictionaries, which, in turn, are represented by two varieties. Some of them aim to trace the evolution of each word and its individual meanings over the recorded history of the respective language, usually up to the present (or some part of this history). Examples of dictionaries of this type are the "big Oxford Dictionary" of the English language, German dictionaries - started by the Grimm brothers and G. Paul's dictionary, the big dictionary of the Swedish Academy and some others.
The forerunners of historical dictionaries were alphabet books, lexicons and the so-called textual dictionaries: they were placed right next to the texts and only the words of a particular given text were explained in them.
Writer's Dictionary must be exhaustive, include absolutely all the words used in the works of a given writer and indicate all the forms of words encountered. Typically, such a dictionary not only illustrates all the highlighted meanings and shades of meanings with quotes from the text, but also gives the “addresses” of all cases of using the word (for example, a volume, a page, a line for each use case. A good example of a writer’s dictionary is Pushkin’s Language Dictionary (t .1-4, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, M,), dictionaries of Shakespeare, Goethe and other great writers have been created abroad.
Orthographic and orthoepic dictionaries indicating the "correct" (i.e., meeting the accepted norm) spelling of words and their forms or, accordingly, their "correct" pronunciation. The most widely used spelling dictionaries provide information about the correct spelling of words. Orthoepic dictionaries indicate the correct pronunciation of words.
Dictionaries of neologisms describe words, meanings of words or combinations of words that appeared in a certain period of time or used only once (occasionalisms). In developed languages, the number of neologisms recorded in newspapers and magazines during one year is tens of thousands. Even in ancient times, neologisms attracted the attention of scientists.
Conclusion
Dictionaries of phraseological units are carriers of the richness of the imagery of the Russian language. In this regard, it is important that Russian speakers know what they are dealing with when referring to a phraseological dictionary. It is important to understand, for example, how a phraseological unit differs from a proverb, saying or catch phrase and what exactly can be found in this dictionary. Native speakers should know the result of what painstaking work is presented to their eyes, how carefully the material was studied and selected.
Having opened a phraseological dictionary, we can discover a lot of new information about the life of our ancestors, about the past of our Motherland, get acquainted with a lot of realities that we might never have heard of.
Reference dictionaries can be used directly for educational purposes, such as "Educational dictionary-reference book of Russian grammatical terms (with English equivalents)" and (1998). The dictionary contains 600 grammatical terms used in the description of the Russian language. It gives an idea of grammatical means, their meaning, use in different styles of speech, correct pronunciation and spelling.
Literature
1. Russian language: Encycloᴨȇdiya / Ed. . - M .: Scientific publishing house "Big Russian Encycloᴨȇdiya", 2003.
2. Modern Russian: Lexicology. Phraseology. Lexicography: Reader and study tasks / Ed. . - St. Petersburg: Faculty of Philology of St. Petersburg State University, 2002.
3. "Russian lexicography": textbook /,. - M.: Bustard, 2004
4. Phraseological dictionary of the Russian language. Comp.: , / Ed. . - M .: "Russian language", 1986. - 544 p. - (FSRYA)
6. On the main types of phraseological units in the Russian language (Vinogradov works. Lexicology and lexicography. - M., 1977. - P. 140-161)
7. Larin in phraseology (On the systematization and methods of researching phraseological materials) (Larin of the Russian language and general linguistics. - M., 1977. - S. 125-149)
8. Molotkov phraseology of the Russian language. - L.: Nauka, 1977. - 284 p.
9. Shan of the modern Russian language: Proc. allowance for universities on special. "Rus. lang. or T.". - St. Petersburg: Special Literature, 1996. - 192 p.
10. Larin on phraseology (On the systematization and research methods of phraseological materials) // History of the Russian language and general linguistics. - M., 1977. - S. 126
11. Phraseological dictionary of the Russian language / Ed. . M., 1986. p. 14
12. Russian language: Encyclopedia / Ed. . - M .: Scientific publishing house "Big Russian Encyclopedia", 2003.
Modern Russian language: Lexicology. Phraseology.
13. Lexicography: Reader and study tasks / Ed. . - St. Petersburg: Faculty of Philology of St. Petersburg State University, 2002.
"Russian lexicography": textbook /, . - M .: Bustard, 2004
For a long time there were no special dictionaries of antonyms of the Russian language.
In 1971, two dictionaries of antonyms were published. In the "Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language" L.A. Vvedenskaya explained 862 antonymic pairs. All interpretations are provided with numerous, very convincing examples from works that differ in style. The second edition of this dictionary was published in 1982.
In the dictionary N.P. Kolesnikov included many terms that exist in pairs.
In 1978, the "Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language" by M.R. Lvov (under the editorship of L.A. Novikov). The dictionary contains almost 2 thousand antonymic pairs of words. The interpretation of their meanings is given through the citation of phrases with these words and examples in the texts.
In 1980, M. Lvov's School Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language was published. The dictionary explains over 500 pairs of the most common antonyms.
Ticket 19. semantic field. Construction technique.
Ticket 20.Dictionary types in Russian lexicography. Types of dictionary entries.
Lexicography- theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. The main task is the development of principles and techniques for the dictionary description of vocabulary.
The type of a dictionary is determined by a set of essential characteristics, the relationship and opposition of dictionaries of various types forms a general typology of dictionaries (Shcherba, 1940). The presented oppositions give an idea of the classification types of dictionaries as differential features that allow one to build a general typology of dictionaries and describe any dictionary in its opposition to another.
1. Dictionary of academic type - dictionary reference.
The academic dictionary is normative, in it the language is fully reflected as a single integral system, LE receive a comprehensive interpretation, a large volume of vocabulary (BAS).
Dictionary-reference book - they look in order to find out the meaning of ilov, it does not cover the entire system of the language and includes only a part of the words, also normative, but is characterized by a smaller vocabulary and a more concise interpretation of words (explanatory dictionaries, anonymous dictionaries, phraseological, orthoepic. Ozhegov Dictionary) .
There is no sharp boundary between the academic dictionary and the reference dictionary (Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary is a compromise).
2. Encyclopedic - general dictionary
Encyclopedic - terminological dictionaries, special and general encyclopedic ones, in which words are explained - scientific concepts (and not LZ), without giving any lexical, grammatical, stylistic characteristics of words.
General dictionary - linguistic, revealing the meanings of words and expressions.
3. Thesaurus - a regular dictionary
Thesaurus is a dictionary covering the vocabulary as much as possible, absorbing all the words encountered in the texts at least once and all the language material for each word, a treasure-trove dictionary. (Dictionary of Shakhmatov).
regular dictionary- contains common, but not all words and limited illustrative material sufficient to define the word.
4. Ordinary dictionary - ideographic dictionary.
Ordinary vocabulary - organized based on the forms of words, arranged in alphabetical order, reflecting the semasiological grouping from signs to meanings.
Ideographic dictionary - gives a description of the vocabulary from meanings to signs, systematizing words-concepts by LSG and fields, onomasiologically (Roger, Dornseif).
5. Explanatory dictionary - translation dictionary.
Explanatory - designed for native speakers, contributes to the normalization of speech and explains lexical units.
Translation dictionary - necessary for understanding the text in a foreign language. Shcherba emphasized the difficulty of compiling translation dictionaries and the possible negative consequences of their use, given the inadequacy of the lexical systems of the compared languages. Translation dictionaries not only give real knowledge of foreign words, but help to guess their meaning in the text.
The dictionary is the whole universe in alphabetical order!
A. France
The mighty Russian language is great and diverse, and its dictionaries are just as diverse. The vocabulary of any living language is in continuous change and addition. New words appear, reflecting the development of modern science, culture, art, unused words are marked obsolete.
Dictionaries are an element of national culture. After all, many aspects of people's life are captured in the word.
All the richness and diversity of the vocabulary of the language is collected in dictionaries.
It is hard to imagine what would be in our life without dictionaries and reference books. Where and how would we find the meaning of a new word for us, an explanation of some event? Many people use dictionaries and reference books: translators, pupils and students, specialists working in various fields of activity.
What is a dictionary?
A dictionary is a book containing a list of words arranged in a certain order (usually alphabetically), with interpretations in the same language or with translation into another language.
Dictionaries perform many functions . The common function of all dictionaries is the fixation, systematization, accumulation and storage of knowledge about the world and the national language, the transfer of this knowledge from generation to generation. Human memory also stores knowledge, but it is limited, it cannot accumulate and store knowledge for centuries. Only a record of accumulated knowledge can save it for posterity. In this sense, the dictionary is the most convenient form of communication of our knowledge.
The science of compiling dictionaries, as well as the work of collecting and systematizing words and phraseological phrases, is called lexicography.
Lexicography is one of the applied (having practical purpose and application) sciences included in modern linguistics. Its main content, as mentioned above, is the compilation of various language dictionaries. This is the science of dictionaries, how to make them most intelligently.
It is clear that one cannot compile dictionaries without understanding what a word is, how it lives and how it “works” in our speech. This is the task of lexicology. At the same time, the compilers of dictionaries, thinking about words and their meanings, enrich the science of the word with new observations and generalizations. Hence - lexicology and lexicography are closely related.
Thus, lexicography is a scientific technique and the art of compiling dictionaries, the practical application of lexicological science, which is extremely important both for the practice of reading foreign literature and learning a foreign language, and for understanding one's own language in its present and past.
In order to more fully and correctly understand what compilers of dictionaries (lexicographers) do, one needs to get acquainted with the results of their work, that is, dictionaries. Let's consider different types of dictionaries used in Russian.
There are a lot of dictionaries. All of them are divided into two large categories:
1) Encyclopedic dictionaries
2) Linguistic dictionaries
If you need to find out when an event happened, what this or that scientific term means, to find out when a scientist or writer lived, what is the city or country where you are going to travel, then you need to turn to encyclopedic dictionaries. They can tell you almost everything!
And we will not find all this data in linguistic dictionaries - there the object of description is a word or its form. Linguistic dictionaries are divided into monolingual and bilingual (sometimes multilingual). We come across bilingual dictionaries very often - they help to learn a foreign language faster. They are actively used by schoolchildren, students and translators. Among them there are also dictionaries for certain branches of knowledge, that is, special ones, for example, the English-Russian Dictionary of Mathematical Terms, the English-Russian Dictionary for PC Users and Programmers.
There are a lot of types of dictionaries in Russian - about thirty. Consider the most used dictionaries in everyday life:
à Dictionaries
à Phraseological dictionaries
à Dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms
à Grammar dictionaries
à Etymological dictionaries
à Dictionaries of foreign words
à Dictionaries
The first type of monolingual linguistic dictionary is an explanatory dictionary containing words with an interpretation of their meanings, grammatical and stylistic characteristics. In explanatory dictionaries, the meanings of words are described with the exact correspondence of their use.
The first explanatory dictionary was the six-volume "Dictionary of the Russian Academy", published in 1789-1794 and containing 43 thousand words taken from modern secular and spiritual books, as well as from ancient Russian writing. The second edition, entitled "The Dictionary of the Russian Academy, arranged in alphabetical order" was published in 1806-1822 and contained 51,388 words.
A valuable lexicographic aid was the four-volume Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, published in 1863-1866 by V. I. Dahl (Eighth edition - in 1981-1982). Having put folk speech as the basis of the dictionary, including in it the vocabulary of common, dialectal, bookish, Dahl sought to reflect in it all the lexical richness of the Russian language (about 200 thousand words and 30 thousand proverbs and sayings). The weak side of Dahl's activity was his desire to prove the uselessness of most of the words of foreign origin, an attempt to introduce non-existent words that he himself composed as their equivalents, a tendentious explanation of the meanings of many words of socio-political vocabulary.
The four-volume Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language edited by D. N. Ushakov, published in 1934-1940, played a major role in the history of Soviet lexicography. In the dictionary, numbering 85,289 words, many issues of normalizing the Russian language, streamlining word usage, shaping, and pronunciation were resolved. The dictionary is built on the vocabulary of works of art, journalism, and scientific literature. In 1947-1948 the dictionary was republished.
Based on the dictionary edited by D. N. Ushakov in 1949. S. I. Ozhegov created a one-volume Dictionary of the Russian Language, containing over 52 thousand words. The dictionary was repeatedly reprinted, now it is published under the editorship of N. Yu. Shvedova. In 1989, the 21st edition of the dictionary was published, supplemented and revised, containing over 70 thousand words.
In 1950-1965. A seventeen-volume academic Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language was published (including 120,480 words). The meanings of words and the features of their use are illustrated in it with examples from the literature of the 19th-20th centuries of various styles and genres. The grammatical characteristics of words are given, the features of their pronunciation are noted, information on word formation is reported.
Phraseological dictionaries
The desire to collect and systematize phraseological units of the Russian language found expression in the publication of a number of phraseological collections.
Phraseologisms are stable combinations of words, the meaning of which is not derived from the meanings of its constituent components (for example "to hit back"- to answer blow for blow).
This type of dictionaries is needed in order to more fully illustrate the meaning of the word and how it is used, which is not always found in explanatory dictionaries.
In 1955, the collection “Winged Words. Literary quotations. Figurative expressions” by N. S. Ashukina and M. G. Ashukina. The book includes a large number of literary quotations and figurative expressions arranged in alphabetical order.
The most complete (over 4 thousand phraseological units) is the “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” published in 1967 under the editorship of A. I. Molotkov. Phraseologisms are given with possible variants of components, an interpretation of the meaning is given, forms of use in speech are indicated. Each meaning is illustrated with quotes from fiction and journalism. In some cases, etymological information is given.
In 1980, V.P. Zhukov’s “School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” was published, containing about 2 thousand of the most common phraseological units found in fiction and journalistic literature and in oral speech. Much attention is paid in the book to historical and etymological references.
In 1967, the Dictionary of Russian Proverbs and Sayings was published by the same author, which includes about a thousand expressions of this nature.
The most complete collection of such material is the collection "Proverbs of the Russian people" by V. I. Dahl, published in 1862.
In 1981, R. I. Yarantsev’s “Dictionary-Reference Book of Russian Phraseology” was published, containing about eight hundred phraseological units.
Dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms
To understand why explanatory dictionaries of this type are needed, we will give each of them a definition.
Synonyms are words that are different in sound but similar in meaning. For example: " road - path ».
Antonyms are words with opposite meanings. For example: “truth is a lie”, “poor is rich”.
Homonyms are words that sound the same as others but are completely different in meaning. For example: "lynx - running" and "lynx - animal".
As a rule, in the work of a writer, journalist, and even a copywriter - in a word, everyone who, insofar as they are engaged in literary work or writing, it is necessary to choose exactly the synonym that corresponds to the meaning of the selected word. But there are always not enough synonyms in the vocabulary that we own (as a rule, it is always very small, no matter how many words it contains!) You have to rummage around and look for a paper dictionary of synonyms, surf the Internet to find the only word that is needed in this particular text. But for some reason, paper dictionaries are too thick to facilitate our work, and Internet sources are very scarce and sometimes pass off as the desired synonym not at all what we would like to draw from them.
The dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language is the first attempt to fully describe the synonyms of the modern Russian literary language with a description of their features and with examples of the use of synonyms in literary Russian speech. Synonyms are collected in synonymous groups. Each synonymic group is accompanied by a description of the semantic and stylistic features, as well as the features of the use in speech of those words that are included in the group. The dictionary serves as a guide to the correct use of synonyms. In total, the dictionary contains over 4 thousand entries.
In 1971, the first "Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language" by L. A. Vvedenskaya was published, containing over a thousand pairs of words. In 1978, M. R. Lvov’s Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language was published, edited by L. A. Novikov, containing about two thousand antonymic pairs. The same author published in 1981 the "School Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language", which includes over five hundred dictionary entries.
In 1974, O.S. Akhmanova’s Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language was published in our country. It lists homonymous pairs in alphabetical order (rarely groups of three or four words), and, if necessary, provides grammatical information and stylistic notes, information about the origin.
In 1971, under the editorship of N. 3. Kotelova and Yu. S. Sorokin, a dictionary was published - a reference book "New words and meanings", containing about 3500 new words, expressions and meanings of words that were not included in previously published dictionaries. The new edition of the dictionary contains about 5500 new words, meanings and combinations of words. These dictionaries reflect the material of the press and literature of the 60s and 70s.
Grammar dictionaries
Grammar is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure and change of words, the combination of words in combinations and sentences.
The grammar dictionary describes the formal structure of the language (word formation, morphology and syntax).
The most complete grammatical dictionary is the “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language. Inflection” by A. A. Zaliznyak. It includes about one hundred thousand words. It comprehensively reflects modern Russian inflection.
In 1978, N. P. Kolesnikov's "Dictionary of Indeclinable Words" was published, containing about 1800 indeclinable nouns and other invariable words.
A. V. Tekuchev’s “Grammar and Spelling Dictionary” was published especially for the school.
In 1962, a reference dictionary was published under the editorship of S. I. Ozhegov, containing about four hundred dictionary entries on issues of modern word usage.
Spelling and orthoepic dictionaries
The section of linguistics that studies and regulates the rules of writing is called spelling. No one can do without a spelling dictionary, because without it you can’t write a new word without errors, you can’t write a competent statement or letter. But orthoepy is another section of linguistics that studies the rules for the literary pronunciation of words. Without an orthoepic dictionary, one cannot speak at a conference, read an article to the public, work as a leader without knowing the correct pronunciation of words.
In 1934, D. N. Ushakov's Spelling Dictionary was published, intended for secondary school students (the dictionary is constantly being reprinted).
At present, the main manual of this type is the academic Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by I. F. Protchenko. The dictionary contains over one hundred thousand words.
Special spelling dictionaries were also published: “The use of the letter ё”, “Together or separately?”.
Among the first editions of the orthoepic dictionary, we highlight the brochure published in 1951 - the dictionary "To Help the Speaker". On its basis, the Dictionary of Stress for Radio and Television Workers was created. Along with common nouns, proper names (personal names and surnames, geographical names, names of press organs, literary and musical works) are widely represented in the dictionary.
In 1983, the Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language was published. Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms. The publication contains about 65.5 thousand words. Two appendices are given to the dictionary: "Information on pronunciation and stress" and "Information on grammatical forms". The dictionary elaborated systems of normative indications, as well as prohibitive marks
Etymological dictionaries
Etymology is a branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words.
In the process of centuries-old communication with other peoples, the Russian literary language acquired words of foreign origin to convey new concepts.
The vast majority of borrowed words adopted Russian grammatical design (Russian suffixes and endings, gender, conjugation, declension). Many elephants acquired new meanings or semantic shades on Russian soil. There are not so many dictionaries in this direction.
In 1961, N. M. Shansky's "Concise Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" was published, containing an etymological interpretation of commonly used words of the modern Russian literary language.
For the needs of school practice in 1970, the "Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by G. P. Tsyganenko was published in Kyiv
Dictionaries of foreign words
A dictionary of foreign words is a reference book that includes a list of borrowings from different languages that have become part of the everyday life of the Russian language. In this dictionary, you can find not only information about the spelling of a word, but also its interpretation, information about the etymology and how to pronounce this word correctly, as well as examples of its use in speech. Dictionaries of foreign words are constantly being improved and supplemented, as some words acquire additional meanings (for example, "resume"), for some it is necessary to clarify the spelling (for example, the word "brand").
Every year more and more new dictionaries of foreign words are published and even more are reprinted. But, unfortunately, many of them contain a number of shortcomings: these are too short, incomprehensible articles of descriptions, and explanation of the meaning of words with the help of other foreign words, which makes it difficult to understand, and dictionaries that include only very popular words, the meaning of which is already known in most cases. On the one hand, the dictionaries of the Soviet period are considered the most reliable. However, they also have disadvantages. First, they do not contain words that have come into use in recent years (for example, those that have emerged as a result of the growth of the Internet, such as "offline" and "user"). Secondly, the spelling of many words has changed since that time - before, many foreign words were written with one consonant, and now - with a double one.
On the other hand, the newer the dictionary, the more modern words it includes. But, and here there are shortcomings. For example, in different dictionaries of foreign words there are different spellings of the word "fla (y) er". There are also inconsistencies in the use of the hyphen - "french fries" or "french fries"? And, for example, about the popular word "Internet" there are still disputes and discrepancies even among specialized publications. Some of them argue that, depending on the meaning, this word can be written both with a capital letter and with a lowercase letter, while others insist that "Internet" is written only with a capital letter. And rightly so, by the way, "flyer" and "french fries."
Various variants and inconsistencies also arise with regard to the stress of the word. Until recently, for example, it was believed that in the word "sushi" both the first and second syllables could be stressed, and this was recorded in the Russian Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Academy of Sciences. However, in the latest editions of this guide, only one option is offered - stress on the first syllable.
The question arises - so what kind of reference literature can be trusted? Trust the dictionaries of foreign words of serious specialized publishers, and even better - refer to several reference books. Moreover, it is often worth checking the spelling and stress of a foreign word even if it seems to you that you know how it is spelled and pronounced, because often incorrect spelling or stress is firmly fixed in speech. entrenched in it and therefore do not have an equivalent Russian word in origin, which would be expedient to replace the foreign language.
Others are characteristic only of narrow areas of use, special terminology, book style, etc. Words that are foreign in origin, especially if they can be replaced by equivalent Russian words, should not be used unnecessarily.
At present, the most complete is the "Dictionary of Foreign Words" edited by I. V. Lekhin, F. N. Petrov. The dictionary gives a brief explanation of words and terms of foreign origin found in various styles, indicates the origin of the word, and, if necessary, marks the way of borrowing.
In 1966, the two-volume Dictionary of Foreign Expressions and Words by A. M. Babkin and V. V. Shendetsov was published. It contains words and expressions of foreign languages used in Russian without translation, in compliance with the graphics and spelling of the source language.
In 1983, the “School Dictionary of Foreign Words” was published under the editorship of V. V. Ivanov (compiled by V. V. Odintsov, G. P. Smolitskaya, E. I. Golanova, I. A. Vasilevskaya).
Encyclopedic dictionaries
An encyclopedia is a scientific or popular science reference publication containing a systematic body of knowledge. The material in the encyclopedia is arranged in alphabetical order or according to a systematic principle (by branches of knowledge).
There are several types of encyclopedic dictionaries:
à Universal
à Industry
à Regional
Universal encyclopedias include books on all branches of knowledge and practice. The largest universal encyclopedic publications: "Encyclopedic Dictionary" of Brockhaus and Efron (Russia), "Great Soviet Encyclopedia" (USSR).
Industry encyclopedias include books on individual practical activities. For example, "Encyclopedia of Agriculture", "The Newest Encyclopedia of a Personal Computer", "Physical Encyclopedic Dictionary".
Regional encyclopedias include encyclopedias about some region of the country, describing its nature, climate, location of cities and towns, and the history of development. An example is the "Yenisei Encyclopedic Dictionary". He talks quite fully and in detail about the Krasnoyarsk Territory.
Reference books
A reference book is a publication containing, unlike a dictionary, brief information of a scientific, industrial, or applied nature, arranged in a certain order. Here the arrangement of words can go not only alphabetically, but also in chronological or systematic order.
Reference books are designed for a narrow circle of specialists in a particular field and are not designed for constant reading. Most directories are equipped with various indexes - subject, nominal, which make it easier to find the information you need.
Handbooks contain material in a concise, concentrated presentation. The material is arranged in an order that makes it easier to quickly find the necessary information: alphabetically, systematically (by field of knowledge), chronologically, etc. Reference books are supplied with auxiliary indexes - alphabetical, subject, systematic, nominal and geographical.
Reference books are published on many problems of politics, economics, natural sciences, technology, and culture. For example, The Book Lover's Quick Reference Guide has been repeatedly reprinted. There are also biographical directories. Handbooks of a professional production nature are published - for specialists and workers of various professions employed in all sectors of the national economy (“Technologist's Handbook”, “Turner's Handbook”, etc.). The information provided in such reference books is systematized. A special reference book for librarians are tables of library and bibliographic classification (for scientific, public, children's and other libraries). Non-production reference books are addressed to a wide range of readers who are interested in a variety of information from a particular field of knowledge or practice.
Dictionaries and reference books are constant companions of our life, serving us to expand our knowledge and improve our language culture. They are deservedly called satellites of civilization.
Dictionaries are truly an inexhaustible treasury of the national language.
Bibliography
L. A. Vvedenskaya, L. G. Pavlova - “ Culture and art of speech»
S. I. Ozhegov "Dictionary of the Russian language"
Sergeev V.N. Dictionaries are our friends and helpers
"Great Soviet Encyclopedia"
