Option No. 2617844
When completing tasks with a short answer, enter in the answer field the number that corresponds to the number of the correct answer, or a number, a word, a sequence of letters (words) or numbers. The answer should be written without spaces or any additional characters. The answers to tasks 1-26 are a number (number) or a word (several words), a sequence of numbers (numbers).
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Indicate the numbers of sentences in which the MAIN information contained in the text is correctly conveyed. Write down the numbers of these sentences.
1) Of particular interest to scientists is the only one of the geological processes that quickly forms the face of the Earth and allows you to see its structure - the process of volcanism
2) Volcanic activity is a grandiose and impressive phenomenon.
3) None of the slow geological processes can be directly observed.
4) Volcanic eruption can change certain parts of the Earth beyond recognition in a matter of days.
5) The process of volcanism - the only one of the geological processes that quickly forms the face of the Earth and allows you to see its structure - is of particular interest to scientists.
Answer:
Which of the following words (combinations of words) should be in place of the gap in third text sentence? Write out this word.
Naturally
Thereby
Answer:
Read the fragment of the dictionary entry, which gives the meaning of the word CONTENT. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the third (3) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.
1. That which is contained is contained in something. C. folders.
2. The unity of all the basic elements of the whole, its properties and connections, existing and expressed in the form (in 1 meaning) and inseparable from it. Unity of form and content.
3. The main essence of the presentation; plot. Retell with. report. A book with interesting content.
4. List of sections at the beginning or end of the book, table of contents. S. at the end of the book.
5. The amount of something that is in something. friend. C. vitamins in blackcurrant.
6. Salary, salary (official). Leave with maintenance.
7. Funds to-rye are given to someone. to ensure subsistence, dependency (obsolete). Assign with. to someone Live with someone on content.
Answer:
In one of the words below, a mistake was made in setting the stress: the letter denoting the stressed vowel is highlighted INCORRECTLY. Write out this word.
bleeding
sheet
Answer:
In one of the sentences below, the underlined word is WRONGLY used. Correct the lexical error by choosing a paronym for the highlighted word. Write down the chosen word.
I had previously met ARTISTIC and very talented guys, but the performance of these little virtuosos literally stunned me.
The day promised to be windy and RAINY.
Despite the bright, ARTISTIC inclinations, none of them became a man of art.
A pure RAIN smell poured out of the garden, the intoxicating scent of linden blossoms.
It could not be called anything other than the DISASTER state of his affairs.
Answer:
In one of the words highlighted below, a mistake was made in the formation of the word form. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.
DIRECTORS OF ENTERPRISES
in two thousand and ten
LIGHT THE FIREWORKS
platoon of SOLDIERS
three hundred KILOGRAMS
Answer:
Establish a correspondence between the sentences and the grammatical errors made in them: for each position of the first list, select the corresponding position from the second list.
| A) All those who previously opposed the appointment of Yermolov to no avail now raised their heads again. | 1) incorrect use of the case form of a noun with pretext |
| B) In the story "The Captain's Daughter" there are a number of episodes that indicate not only the cruelty of both warring parties, but also their ability for mercy and generosity. | 2) violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate |
| C) In the outline of the “Study Book of Literature for the Russian Youth”, Gogol defines the “lesser kind of epic” as a genre that is intermediate between the epic and the novel. | 3) violation in the construction of a proposal with an inconsistent application |
| D) Preserving Pushkin's image of the prophet in his lyrics, Nekrasov rejects another important symbol of Pushkin's poetic world - the image of the "poet-priest". | 4) an error in constructing a sentence with homogeneous members |
| E) Upon returning to St. Petersburg, Tolya refused to go home immediately from the airport. | 5) incorrect construction of a sentence with a participial turnover |
| 6) violation of the construction of a sentence with participial turnover | |
| 7) incorrect sentence construction with indirect speech |
| BUT | B | AT | G | D |
Answer:
Determine the word in which the unstressed alternating vowel of the root is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter.
built in..tea
appl..did
art...leria
ass..army
d..rector
Answer:
Find a row in which the same letter is missing in both words. Write these words out with the missing letter.
n..ripe, not..marked;
under..tozhit, dez..information;
neither .. falling, and .. scooping;
pr..to communicate, pr..to overcome;
inter..er, pre..applicant.
Answer:
friendly...
raged ... raged
dol ... voe (participation)
obsolete..vat
weakening
Answer:
Write down the word in which the letter I is written in place of the gap.
select..sh
indescribable..may
waterproof..my
check..my
Answer:
Identify the sentence in which NOT with the word is spelled CONTINUOUSLY. Open the brackets and write out this word.
The still (not) calm sea rolled onto the shore.
It's a pity (not) anyone to tell!
The (not) bright January sun was already shining far away.
(Not) wide, but a narrow pond was made in the garden.
Gerasim (not) paid attention to these cries.
Answer:
Determine the sentence in which both underlined words are spelled ONE. Open the brackets and write out these two words.
The brothers remained (ON) ONE and (C) BEGINNING only looked at each other.
The seller is ALSO responsible to the buyer for damage or breakage of the goods (FROM) due to improper packaging, as well as the buyer to the seller for timely payment for the goods.
Even in a half-asleep existence, Ilya Ilyich could not, in his words, indifferently recall the aria from the opera by V. Bellini, which HOW (WOULD) merged with the appearance of Olga Ilyinskaya, and SO (SAME) with the dramatic result of Oblomov's love for her.
Nikolay (V) DURING the whole dispute was silent and only in (FLOOR) VOICE asked Marina to remove the samovar.
An hour and a half of controversy passed (B) EMPTY, (THAT) IS a common decision was not worked out.
Answer:
Indicate all the numbers in the place of which one letter H is written?
The senior forester, long (1) and clumsy, in riding breeches made of homewinding (2) cloth, in a wash (3) shirt, sat apart from everyone and smiled mockingly.
Answer:
Set up punctuation marks. Indicate the numbers of sentences in which you need to put ONE comma
1) The fellow traveler did not hear what was said or ignored my hint.
2) And the years went by quickly and inaudibly and carried away these memories with them.
3) The themes of war and peace of forgiveness and hatred are relevant at all times.
4) Our train stopped at both large and small stations.
5) On the same lilac bush, I saw yellow leaves and buds that began to swell.
Answer:
Full of enthusiasm (1), we (2) barely unpacked our suitcases (3) and had a quick breakfast (4) gathered in the hotel lobby.
Answer:
Fill in all the missing punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) that should be replaced by a comma(s) in the sentence.
If I find in the notebooks of famous people an interesting (1) in my opinion (2) observation, witty or funny remark, is it really necessary to refuse to reproduce them only because they are expressed in ten or fifteen or (3) for example (4) in two or three lines?
Answer:
Place all punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) that should be replaced by a comma(s) in the sentence.
A colorful spectacle is the exit from the bottom of the reservoirs (1) of gases accumulated in the silt (2) whose bubbles (3) flare up on the surface of the water with a bluish flame.
Answer:
Place all punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) that should be replaced by a comma(s) in the sentence.
The library opened at eight in the morning (1) and (2) although there were never any visitors at such early hours (3) Nina Ivanovna never allowed herself to be late (4) and even came a little earlier.
Answer:
Which of the statements correspond to the content of the text? Specify the answer numbers.
1) The core of the modern literary language is the common vocabulary.
2) In fiction, it is sometimes appropriate to use colloquial, slang words to create local color.
3) The problem of non-compliance with the norms of the Russian literary language is often raised in the media.
4) Changes in the lexical composition of the Russian language reflect changes in society.
5) The old words are gone temporarily, but they live on the pages of the classics and are waiting for brighter days.
(According to T. Zharova*)
* Taisiya Vasilievna Zharova
Answer:
Which of the following statements are true? Specify the answer numbers.
Enter the numbers in ascending order.
1) Sentences 1-4 include descriptive elements.
2) In sentences 13-16, reasoning is presented.
3) Proposition 12 contains the conclusion of the argument.
4) In sentences 5-9, examples are given for the statement made in sentence 4.
5) The predominant type of text is narrative.
(1) What a mirror of life our language is! (2) No, he is truly great, remaining to this day free, truthful. (3) He accepts everything, responds to everything like a Pushkin echo, moreover, he will also take in foreign words and teach them to produce new forms (not clone!) From obsolete and borrowed words. (4) The only trouble is that all this sometimes goes on in an ugly, illiterate mixture.
(5) So, in a short time, they managed to Russify and even delimit in meaning such words familiar in the sports environment as “fanatic” and “fan”, and now “fan”, and even religious fanaticism takes on a different color. (6) There were once "fans", even "clackers" (French) theatrical, and now fanatics have separated from "fans". (7) There are also football fans (not "fans"), pop.
(8) Even the old-fashioned “private”, once rarely found in everyday speech, is interpreted in the dictionary by V. Dahl as “private”, “personal”, “special”, “home” (“private docent”, “private conversation ”), we managed to nationalize in such a way that the word “privatization”, even in everyday, always sensitive to shades of language, acquired a dismissive sound, becoming “privatization”. (9) But it is known that a word, a hero, a phenomenon that has fallen into the folk language, into folklore, an anecdote, is already becoming “ours”, “own”, like witty words from the films of Danelia, Ryazanov, Gaidai.
(10) Linguistic diversity is everywhere. (11) What a field for observation of linguists, writers, actors! (12) But how unusual, spiritually, ancient words sound in our super-business speech, which are temporarily gone, but live on the pages of the classics and are waiting for brighter days.
(13) In no case should we turn a blind eye to the fact that, in addition to foreign words, we are overwhelmed by criminal vocabulary. (14) Where did these “cool”, “cool”, “roofs”, “cool” come from? (15) Their source is clear. (16) But why do they flourish among quite decent youth, sound from the screen, are full of print?
(17) This conversation can be continued by anyone who cares for our language. (18) After all, even now he is “great, powerful, truthful and free.” (19) We only spoil it ourselves, forgetting that it is alive, so there is no need to offend him with vulgarity, other people's rubbish, profanity, clerical delights, incompatible hash.
(According to T. Zharova*)
* Taisiya Vasilievna Zharova(born in 1923), member of the Union of Journalists, veteran of the Great Patriotic War. The main theme of creativity is the fate of the Russian language.
Text source: USE 2012. Russian language. Training tasks
Answer:
Write out contextual antonyms from sentences 11-12.
(1) What a mirror of life our language is! (2) No, he is truly great, remaining to this day free, truthful. (3) He accepts everything, responds to everything like a Pushkin echo, moreover, he will also take in foreign words and teach them to produce new forms (not clone!) From obsolete and borrowed words. (4) The only trouble is that all this sometimes goes on in an ugly, illiterate mixture.
(5) So, in a short time, they managed to Russify and even delimit in meaning such words familiar in the sports environment as “fanatic” and “fan”, and now “fan”, and even religious fanaticism takes on a different color. (6) There were once "fans", even "clackers" (French) theatrical, and now fanatics have separated from "fans". (7) There are also football fans (not "fans"), pop.
(8) Even the old-fashioned “private”, once rarely found in everyday speech, is interpreted in the dictionary by V. Dahl as “private”, “personal”, “special”, “home” (“private docent”, “private conversation ”), we managed to nationalize in such a way that the word “privatization”, even in everyday, always sensitive to shades of language, acquired a dismissive sound, becoming “privatization”. (9) But it is known that a word, a hero, a phenomenon that has fallen into the folk language, into folklore, an anecdote, is already becoming “ours”, “own”, like witty words from the films of Danelia, Ryazanov, Gaidai.
(10) Linguistic diversity is everywhere. (11) What a field for observation of linguists, writers, actors! (12) But how unusual, spiritually, ancient words sound in our super-business speech, which are temporarily gone, but live on the pages of the classics and are waiting for brighter days.
(13) In no case should we turn a blind eye to the fact that, in addition to foreign words, we are overwhelmed by criminal vocabulary. (14) Where did these “cool”, “cool”, “roofs”, “cool” come from? (15) Their source is clear. (16) But why do they flourish among quite decent youth, sound from the screen, are full of print?
(17) This conversation can be continued by anyone who cares for our language. (18) After all, even now he is “great, powerful, truthful and free.” (19) We only spoil it ourselves, forgetting that it is alive, so there is no need to offend him with vulgarity, other people's rubbish, profanity, clerical delights, incompatible hash.
(According to T. Zharova*)
* Taisiya Vasilievna Zharova(born in 1923), member of the Union of Journalists, veteran of the Great Patriotic War. The main theme of creativity is the fate of the Russian language.
Text source: USE 2012. Russian language. Training tasks
(11) What a field for observation of linguists, writers, actors! (12) But how unusual, spiritually, ancient words sound in our super-business speech, which are temporarily gone, but live on the pages of the classics and are waiting for brighter days.
Answer:
Among sentences 10-19, find one (s) that is (s) connected with the previous one using a possessive pronoun. Write the number(s) of this offer(s).
(1) What a mirror of life our language is! (2) No, he is truly great, remaining to this day free, truthful. (3) He accepts everything, responds to everything like a Pushkin echo, moreover, he will also take in foreign words and teach them to produce new forms (not clone!) From obsolete and borrowed words. (4) The only trouble is that all this sometimes goes on in an ugly, illiterate mixture.
(5) So, in a short time, they managed to Russify and even delimit in meaning such words familiar in the sports environment as “fanatic” and “fan”, and now “fan”, and even religious fanaticism takes on a different color. (6) There were once "fans", even "clackers" (French) theatrical, and now fanatics have separated from "fans". (7) There are also football fans (not "fans"), pop.
(8) Even the old-fashioned “private”, once rarely found in everyday speech, is interpreted in the dictionary by V. Dahl as “private”, “personal”, “special”, “home” (“private docent”, “private conversation ”), we managed to nationalize in such a way that the word “privatization”, even in everyday, always sensitive to shades of language, acquired a dismissive sound, becoming “privatization”. (9) But it is known that a word, a hero, a phenomenon that has fallen into the folk language, into folklore, an anecdote, is already becoming “ours”, “own”, like witty words from the films of Danelia, Ryazanov, Gaidai.
(10) Linguistic diversity is everywhere. (11) What a field for observation of linguists, writers, actors! (12) But how unusual, spiritually, ancient words sound in our super-business speech, which are temporarily gone, but live on the pages of the classics and are waiting for brighter days.
(13) In no case should we turn a blind eye to the fact that, in addition to foreign words, we are overwhelmed by criminal vocabulary. (14) Where did these “cool”, “cool”, “roofs”, “cool” come from? (15) Their source is clear. (16) But why do they flourish among quite decent youth, sound from the screen, are full of print?
(17) This conversation can be continued by anyone who cares for our language. (18) After all, even now he is “great, powerful, truthful and free.” (19) We only spoil it ourselves, forgetting that it is alive, so there is no need to offend him with vulgarity, other people's rubbish, profanity, clerical delights, incompatible hash.
(According to T. Zharova*)
* Taisiya Vasilievna Zharova(born in 1923), member of the Union of Journalists, veteran of the Great Patriotic War. The main theme of creativity is the fate of the Russian language.
Text source: USE 2012. Russian language. Training tasks
(1) What a mirror of life our language is!
Answer:
Read the review snippet. It examines the linguistic features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the gaps with the numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list.
“The speech of the author of the text is especially emotional when it comes to the beauty and richness of the Russian language. This emphasizes such a syntactic means of expressiveness as (A) _______ (sentences 1, 11), and such a technique as (B) _______ (“everything accepts, responds to everything”), and lexical means such as (C) _______ ( “super businesslike” in sentence 12) and (D)_______ (“great, mighty, truthful and free” in sentence 18), make the speech expressive, figurative and allow a deeper understanding of the author's position.
List of terms:
2) dialectism
3) lexical repetition
6) parceling
7) colloquial word
8) phraseological unit
9) rhetorical exclamation
Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:
| A | B | AT | G |
(1) What a mirror of life our language is! (2) No, he is truly great, remaining to this day free, truthful. (3) He accepts everything, responds to everything like a Pushkin echo, moreover, he will also take in foreign words and teach them to produce new forms (not clone!) From obsolete and borrowed words. (4) The only trouble is that all this sometimes goes on in an ugly, illiterate mixture.
(5) So, in a short time, they managed to Russify and even delimit in meaning such words familiar in the sports environment as “fanatic” and “fan”, and now “fan”, and even religious fanaticism takes on a different color. (6) There were once "fans", even "clackers" (French) theatrical, and now fanatics have separated from "fans". (7) There are also football fans (not "fans"), pop.
(8) Even the old-fashioned “private”, once rarely found in everyday speech, is interpreted in the dictionary by V. Dahl as “private”, “personal”, “special”, “home” (“private docent”, “private conversation ”), we managed to nationalize in such a way that the word “privatization”, even in everyday, always sensitive to shades of language, acquired a dismissive sound, becoming “privatization”. (9) But it is known that a word, a hero, a phenomenon that has fallen into the folk language, into folklore, an anecdote, is already becoming “ours”, “own”, like witty words from the films of Danelia, Ryazanov, Gaidai.
(10) Linguistic diversity is everywhere. (11) What a field for observation of linguists, writers, actors! (12) But how unusual, spiritually, ancient words sound in our super-business speech, which are temporarily gone, but live on the pages of the classics and are waiting for brighter days.
(13) In no case should we turn a blind eye to the fact that, in addition to foreign words, we are overwhelmed by criminal vocabulary. (14) Where did these “cool”, “cool”, “roofs”, “cool” come from? (15) Their source is clear. (16) But why do they flourish among quite decent youth, sound from the screen, are full of print?
(17) This conversation can be continued by anyone who cares for our language. (18) After all, even now he is “great, powerful, truthful and free.” (19) We only spoil it ourselves, forgetting that it is alive, so there is no need to offend him with vulgarity, other people's rubbish, profanity, clerical delights, incompatible hash.
(According to T. Zharova*)
The volume of the essay is at least 150 words.
A work written without relying on the text read (not on this text) is not evaluated. If the essay is a paraphrase or a complete rewrite of the source text without any comments, then such work is evaluated with 0 points.
Write an essay carefully, legible handwriting.
(1) What a mirror of life our language is! (2) No, he is truly great, remaining to this day free, truthful. (3) He accepts everything, responds to everything like a Pushkin echo, moreover, he will also take in foreign words and teach them to produce new forms (not clone!) From obsolete and borrowed words. (4) The only trouble is that all this sometimes goes on in an ugly, illiterate mixture.
(5) So, in a short time, they managed to Russify and even delimit in meaning such words familiar in the sports environment as “fanatic” and “fan”, and now “fan”, and even religious fanaticism takes on a different color. (6) There were once "fans", even "clackers" (French) theatrical, and now fanatics have separated from "fans". (7) There are also football fans (not "fans"), pop.
(8) Even the old-fashioned “private”, once rarely found in everyday speech, is interpreted in the dictionary by V. Dahl as “private”, “personal”, “special”, “home” (“private docent”, “private conversation ”), we managed to nationalize in such a way that the word “privatization”, even in everyday, always sensitive to shades of language, acquired a dismissive sound, becoming “privatization”. (9) But it is known that a word, a hero, a phenomenon that has fallen into the folk language, into folklore, an anecdote, is already becoming “ours”, “own”, like witty words from the films of Danelia, Ryazanov, Gaidai.
(10) Linguistic diversity is everywhere. (11) What a field for observation of linguists, writers, actors! (12) But how unusual, spiritually, ancient words sound in our super-business speech, which are temporarily gone, but live on the pages of the classics and are waiting for brighter days.
(13) In no case should we turn a blind eye to the fact that, in addition to foreign words, we are overwhelmed by criminal vocabulary. (14) Where did these “cool”, “cool”, “roofs”, “cool” come from? (15) Their source is clear. (16) But why do they flourish among quite decent youth, sound from the screen, are full of print?
(17) This conversation can be continued by anyone who cares for our language. (18) After all, even now he is “great, powerful, truthful and free.” (19) We only spoil it ourselves, forgetting that it is alive, so there is no need to offend him with vulgarity, other people's rubbish, profanity, clerical delights, incompatible hash.
Galileo's water thermometer (1597) is considered the first device created to measure temperature. Galileo's thermometer did not have a scale and was, in essence, only an indicator of temperature. Half a century later, in 1641, an unknown author made a thermometer with a scale having arbitrary divisions. Half a century later, Renaldini first proposed taking as constant points characterizing thermal equilibrium the melting points of ice and the boiling points of water. At the same time, the temperature scale did not yet exist. The first temperature scale was proposed and implemented by D. G. Fahrenheit (1724). Temperature scales were established by arbitrary choice of zero and other constant points and arbitrary adoption of the temperature interval as a unit.
Fahrenheit was not a scientist. He was engaged in the manufacture of glassware. He learned that the height of a mercury barometer depends on temperature. This led him to the idea of creating a glass mercury thermometer with a degree scale. He based his scale on three points: 1 - “the point of extreme cold (absolute zero)”, obtained by mixing water, ice and ammonia in certain proportions, and taken by him as a zero mark (according to our modern scale, equal to approximately -17, 8°C); 2 - the melting point of ice, indicated by him + 32 °, and 3 - the normal temperature of the human body, indicated by + 96 ° (on our scale + 35.6 ° С). The boiling point of water was initially not standardized and only later was set to +212° (at normal atmospheric pressure).
A few years later, in 1731, R. A. Reaumur suggested using alcohol for glass thermometers of such a concentration that at the melting temperature of ice would fill a volume of 1000 volume units, and at the boiling point it would expand to 1080 units. Accordingly, Réaumur proposed initially designating the melting point of ice as 1000°, and the boiling point of water as 1080* (later 0° and 80°).
In 1742, A. Celsius, using mercury in glass thermometers, marked the melting point of ice as 100°, and the boiling point of water as 0°. Such a designation turned out to be inconvenient and after 3 years Strömer (or possibly K. Linnaeus) proposed to change the designations adopted at the beginning by Celsius, to change them back.
A number of other scales have also been proposed. M. V. Lomonosov proposed a liquid thermometer with a scale of 150 ° in the range from the melting point of ice to the boiling point of water. And, G. Lambert (1779) proposed an air thermometer with a scale of 375 °, taking one thousandth of the expansion of air volume as 1 °. There are also known attempts to create thermometers based on the expansion of solids (P. Mushenbrook, 1725).
All proposed temperature scales were built (with rare exceptions) in the same way: two (at least) constant points were assigned certain numerical values and it was assumed that the apparent thermometric property of the substance used in the thermometer is linearly related to temperature t:
Where k is the coefficient of proportionality;
E - thermometric property;
D is a constant.
Taking certain temperatures for two constant points, one can calculate the constants k and D and, on this basis, build a temperature scale. Unfortunately, as it turned out later, the coefficient k could not be considered constant. When the temperature changes, the coefficient k changes, and it is different for different thermometric substances. Therefore, thermometers built on the basis of various thermometric substances with a uniform degree scale gave different readings at temperatures that differed from the temperatures of constant points. The latter became especially noticeable at high (much higher than the boiling point of water) and very low temperatures.
In 1848, Kelvin (W. Thomson) proposed to build a temperature scale on a thermodynamic basis, taking the temperature of absolute zero as zero and denoting the melting point of ice +273.1 °. The thermodynamic temperature scale is based on the second law of thermodynamics. As is known, the work in the Carnot cycle is proportional to the temperature difference and does not depend on the thermometric substance. One degree on the thermodynamic scale corresponds to an increase in temperature that corresponds to 1/100 of the work on the Carnot cycle between the melting points of ice and the boiling points of water at normal atmospheric pressure.
The thermodynamic scale is identical to the ideal gas scale, built on the dependence of ideal gas pressure on temperature. The laws of pressure versus temperature for real gases deviate from ideal ones, but the corrections for deviations of real gases are small and can be established with a high degree of accuracy. Therefore, by observing the expansion of real gases and introducing corrections, one can estimate the temperature on a thermodynamic scale.
With the expansion of scientific observations and the development of industrial production, a natural need arose to establish some kind of unified temperature scale. The first attempt in this direction was made in 1877, when the International Committee for Weights and Measures adopted the centigrade hydrogen scale as the main temperature scale. The melting point of ice was taken as the zero mark, and the boiling point of water at a normal atmospheric pressure of 760 mm was taken as 100°. rt. Art. The temperature was determined from the pressure of hydrogen in a constant volume. The zero mark corresponded to a pressure of 1000 mm. rt. Art. The degrees of temperature on this scale coincided very closely with the degrees of the thermodynamic scale, however, the practical use of a hydrogen thermometer was limited due to the small temperature range from about -25 to + 100 °
At the beginning of the XX century. the Celsius (or Fahrenheit - in the Anglo-American countries) and Reaumur scales were widely used, and in scientific works - also the Kelvin and hydrogen scales. With the sharply increased need for an accurate assessment of temperature, conversions from one scale to another created great difficulties and led to a number of misunderstandings. Therefore, after several years of preparation and preliminary temporary decisions, the VIII General Conference of Weights and Measures adopted in 1933 a decision to introduce the International Temperature Scale (ITS). This decision was legally approved by most of the developed countries of the world. In the USSR, the International Temperature Scale was introduced on October 1, 1934 (All-Union Standard OST VKS 6954).
The International Temperature Scale is a practical implementation of the thermodynamic centigrade temperature scale, in which the melting point of ice and the boiling point of water at normal atmospheric pressure, respectively, are denoted by 0° and 100°.
The ITS is based on a system of constant, exactly reproducible equilibrium temperatures (fixed points), which are assigned numerical values. Interpolating instruments calibrated from these constant points are used to determine intermediate temperatures.
Temperatures measured on the international scale are denoted by SS. Unlike degrees Celsius - also based on the melting points of ice and boiling water at normal atmospheric pressure and having the designations 0 ° and 100 ° C, but built on a different basis (on a linear relationship between temperature and the expansion of mercury in glass), degrees international scale became known as "degrees international" or "degrees centigrade scale".
The main constant points of the ITS and the numerical values of temperatures assigned to them at normal atmospheric pressure are given below:
At the very beginning, we have already said that psychology is a certain culture, a semantic subuniverse, the content of which is a system of concepts formed as a result of communication in the process of specific activities of people supporting this culture. Any communication at the same time provides for an exchange of opinions, ideas about the same issue, which are offered by the most authoritative participants in this process. It is not always possible with such communication to achieve complete agreement and come to a single, acceptable to all definition of the concept that reflects the essence of the phenomenon under consideration. As a result, despite the fact that most members of the community intuitively understand what, in fact, is at stake, there may simultaneously be several views that emphasize or even put forward one or another feature of this phenomenon as decisive.
One of such concepts in psychology is the concept of "consciousness". The authors define this concept in different ways, directly, through use or by analogy, describe in different ways what constitutes, in their opinion, its content, and, consequently, assign it a different role in the integral mental activity of a person.
Rene Descartes understood consciousness as a kind of self-evident, indisputable subjective given to a person of his own mental experiences, which cannot be questioned. You can doubt the truth and certainty of anything, except for one thing - that I am aware of it.
In the future, consciousness was understood both as a kind of stage on which the events experienced by the subject unfold (introspectionists), and as the interaction of ideas (I. Herbart), and as a constantly changing stream of impressions (W. James), and as part of the behavioral processes that can be called or replaced by words,
those. verbalized (J. Watson). They emphasized the dialogue essence of conscious processes or identified consciousness with thinking. It was compared with light "embodied" in various degrees of clarity of consciousness and with a network or web woven from the meanings or meaning of words (M. Weber). They reduced the whole psyche to it and considered it as just an insignificant part of the psyche, like the tip of an iceberg. Endowed with consciousness, including animals, and considered it an exceptional property of man. They completely excluded it from consideration within the framework of psychological science and suggested considering it as an epiphenomenon, a naive illusion that characterizes ordinary everyday experience (behaviorism).
Consciousness can be defined in different ways, you can narrow or expand this concept, emphasize the quality of the source of mental activity in it, or take as a basis the experience of an obvious given, the representation of an object to the subject. But the main thing is that the new concept, which is "consciousness", must contain a new quality of mental, spiritual life, to reflect, the representation of which is just at the disposal of our consciousness that there are not enough concepts. This approach implements the well-known principle of scientific knowledge of the world by a person, proposed by the medieval nominalist philosopher William of Ockham: there is no need to introduce new concepts into the explanation if a given phenomenon can be explained with the help of existing ones. “Consciousness” is the new term that designates and describes by its content a new quality of the psyche that appears on the evolutionary ladder only in humans.
What is this new quality, characteristic only of human mental activity?
Such an undoubted feature of a person is the possession of a language - a complex sign system, which is the only means of discursive thinking and the main means of communication and social inheritance - the transfer of accumulated experience from generation to generation.
The possession of language leads to the emergence of new opportunities for manipulating mental images. Using language as a means of reflecting reality, a person, as already mentioned in the section on thinking, can perform the main, most important, mental action inaccessible to any animal - highlight and generalize ideal in nature relations and connections between an object and its properties, and between individual objects. Using the sign as a means of fixing homogeneous relations that exist between the most diverse objects at the perceptual level, a person can form such an ideal category of relations, which itself later becomes a means understanding relations in the perception of a particular object or situation. For example, fixing a certain relationship between a fruit and a branch, a bunch and a vine, a body and a hand in the word “hanging”, a person is able in the future not only to place this characteristic relationship between any other objects in this category, but also to unequivocally inform another person about it.
This leads to a completely new level of interaction between subjects. In order to draw the attention of a relative to some perceptual object (object), a simple gesture or cry is enough. In order to convey to him meaning relations between objects, it is necessary to repeat joint action with objects, followed by a repeating joint labeling these relationships sign(sound or gesture) (P. Berger, T. Lukman).
As mentioned above, a logical judgment about a relation is presented in speech in the form of an elementary three-term or, in the limit, two-term sentence, which reflects the relationship between the logical subject and its predicate, i.e. object and its property. Characterizing a certain category of objects, a set of judgments merges into a system of relations - a concept, which thus receives its designation - a word, a term.
The use of language leads to a radical restructuring of the entire mental life of a person. The ability to form categories allows a person to build ideal “objects” in the inner, mental space, serving as such a means of reconstructing reality, which allows you to detect and highlight in it what is not amenable to direct perception. Only through language can a person
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to form abstract categories of such spatial relations as “above”, “under”, “before”, “behind”, “in front”, “behind”, “distance”, “size”, etc.; such time categories as "before", "after", "yesterday", "tomorrow", "day", "night", etc.; categories in which the intensity of the impact (energy) is reflected - "strong", "weak", "bright", "heavy" and the quality of the object - "blue", "smooth", "cold". Nowhere in nature are there such objects as, for example, "animal" or "food". These "objects" are certain ideal systems of relations, singled out and generalized |
The ability to form categories allows a person build ideal "objects" in the inner, mental space, serving as such a means of reconstructing reality, which allows you to detect and highlight in it what what does not fit direct perception. |
with the help of signs and therefore existing only in the mind of a person precisely as ideal, or, as they say now, virtual objects. Thanks to this kind of virtual objects, a person forms a categorical grid, which determines the content of all his mental processes and states - sensations, perceptions, thinking, memory, attention, representations, emotional reactions and states, the sequence of actions and the rest of mental life.
A person perceives, for example, not just a book lying on the table, but namely a book-lying-on-the-table. Relying on a system of abstract categories formed by means of signs (words), a person is always, as it were, above the present situation, goes beyond the boundaries that are determined by the perceptual image (image) as such. Perceiving this situation and relying on the whole system of relations known to him, fixed in each of these concepts, he foresees that, taking the book in his hands, he will feel approximately such and such a weight, that he will be able to open it without much effort, leaf through it, that he can set it on fire and it will burn, that it is hard enough to slam some insect with it, that it approaching her, she will not flutter and fly away, which, most likely, she does not know how to talk. A person also knows many other things about the book as a representative of the category to which he refers it. Next, he knows that the table on which the book lies is heavier, that one can lean on it; if the table is wooden, then it will also burn in fire and float in water. A person also knows that for a book, the relationship between it and the table, classified as "lying down", is much more stable than the "standing" position. The category of relations "on" specifies the relative position of the book and the table. In the described situation, using its categorical basis, the subject also understands that the book, most likely, lies "on", and does not represent a single whole with the table. All this knowledge is given to a person at once, simultaneously, in one act of perception.
Using the categorical system of relations, built using signs, a person, in comparison with animals, organizes his memory in a new way. Only through the use of signs can a person mentally place objects and events in space and time, correlating them with each other using standard standards of space and time: meters, kilometers, feet, inches, seconds, minutes, years. Only thanks to signs can a person build a time scale and place events of the past and possible future on it.
No animal has such capabilities, and therefore the effects observed in the human psyche and resulting from the use of language as a means for manipulating images are completely new in the evolutionary process and cannot be inherent in any animal. If we call consciousness that new quality of the psyche that appears with the emergence of language, then among animals, of course, only people possess consciousness.
The cultural-historical concept of the emergence of human consciousness suggests that it did not arise suddenly and not immediately. It is not a gift from God as such. The evolutionary prerequisites for its emergence can be considered a gift of God. Consciousness itself has developed and is still developing on the basis of these premises. One of them was the development in the process of individual activity of a manipulatory organ - the hand. The improvement of the organ, the complication of its actions, the emergence of more and more subtle movements that require very precise visual-motor coordination, led to the development of nervous structures responsible for controlling the movements of the body, including the speech apparatus.
In parallel with this, another process was going on. Under the pressure of the fact that people do not have great physical strength, natural means of protection (fangs, claws, horns), high speed of movement, in order to survive, they were forced to unite in organized groups to carry out joint activities. Thus, a new supraorganismal holistic formation arose, the expedient activity of which was possible only under certain conditions. Team effectiveness in implementing joint purposeful activity, for example, joint hunting (B.V. Yakushin), the higher, the more successfully the distribution of labor and mutual coordination of actions are carried out in it. The means of such coordination of joint actions was the sign - sound and gesture. Having mastered the sign as a means of designating the categories of relations mentioned above, a person got the opportunity to reflect in material form his intentions, experiences, programs of action and thus make them available to another subject.
We remember that a person can generalize relationships only by using a sign, i.e. the sign becomes a means of displaying the category of relations. But the need for a sign appears in the process of joint activity. Using the same sign to isolate one or another category of relations, two subjects become owners of the same knowledge about these relations. They become owners shared knowledge about them or co-knowledge.
The term "consciousness" was introduced into the Russian language by N.M. Karamzin as tracing paper from Latin conscientia, which means consciousness. Consciousness is knowledge built on the basis of the use of language and existing in sign form. Therefore, in order to clearly understand something, it is necessary to present this something in the sign form that
Here the following objection may arise: "We do not always translate into verbal form what we experience apparently consciously." Indeed, we can, for example, be aware that we perceive some object or situation, and not name it either mentally or aloud. Nevertheless, even in this “silent” conscious perception, signs take part in a hidden form, which manifests itself in the phenomenon of generalization of the objective perceptual image. An object is perceived by us as a certain object, depending on which category we attribute it to at the moment of perception. The set of categories to which a given object can be assigned is determined by linguistic means. Thus, the objective perceptual image of a given object can be realized in that meaning, which is determined by the categorical structure of the consciousness of the given subject. Dolphins, for example, are considered by some people to be fish and therefore perceived as fish.
So, there is a direct connection between the development of the sign system as a means of displaying the categories of relations and the development of consciousness. Emphasizing precisely this connection, L.S. Vygotsky expressed the idea that "speech is a correlate of consciousness, not thinking." This statement emphasizes a very important point - speech is not consciousness, it only correlates with its content. Consequently, the richer the speech, the richer the content of consciousness. Speech, in turn, is the richer, the richer the activity and communication in the process of its implementation.
John Dewey wrote a book: How We Think / How We Think, where he outlined a five-step problem-solving procedure:
“(1) Consciousness in general and exploratory thinking, on which the process of cognition is based, in particular, are not, as already mentioned, products of a correct, uninterrupted, habitual course of events, rather, on the contrary, they appear where sharp corners arise where tense, unsatisfactory situations appear. Cognition thus grows out of a failure, a breakdown, a "feeling of inadequacy or difficulty" in the course of experience. As long as everything is going well, cognition is inactive, but "the occurrence of difficulty" prompts cognition to action. The situation requires reworking, and only this makes us begin the search for knowledge.
(2) For the search for knowledge to be of any success, this first step must be followed by a second, and since every investigation is connected with some particular problem, it turns out that this second step is the "definition of the difficulty." It is necessary to wait with conclusions and actions, focusing on everything that is relevant to the difficulty in question, in order to clearly highlight this problem. This postponement of action in the interests of thought distinguishes human activity from the activity of lower animals, and rational activity from irrational activity. It allows you to pay attention to the various aspects of the situation, choose the essential ones and establish those connections of past experience with today's problems that form the basis of wisdom.
(3) The third step in a typical problem-solving process, requiring special resourcefulness and active ingenuity, is "finding a proposed explanation or possible solution." In doing so, some sort of pretext can be used, depending on past experience, but, in addition, "there is a leap, a leap, the correctness of which cannot be guaranteed in advance, no matter what precautions are taken." This is the step that in science is usually called the formation of a hypothesis. A hypothesis is "a proposed or indicated way of solving ... formulated as a possibility" and generating "a proposition like if ... then". The process of generating hypotheses seems to be not subject to direct control. It depends in part "on the basic features of thinking, both enterprising and cautious ... and on the selection and ordering of concrete facts." Often the first suggestion put forward is not very successful, and for the final appearance of the most fruitful solution, it is necessary to "enumerate through many alternative assumptions."
(4) The next step in research is "rational elaboration," or derivation of the consequences of the proposed solution. As soon as the solution is indicated, it is necessary to find out what follows from it; in most cases, the consequences considered will be in the form of an operation or experiments that must be carried out to test the proposed solution from the point of view of the predictions based on it. Basically, it is here that logic, in the narrow sense of the word, enters the process of cognition. The task is to deduce from the proposed solution a sufficient number of significant consequences to establish the extent to which the data that we have at our disposal, and especially those that can be discovered subsequently, follow from the proposed solution or hypothesis. The details of this process depend on the type of problem and are often complex. The general requirement is to introduce hypothetical judgments specifying the operations to be performed and the consequences to be expected if the proposed solution is reasonable, in other words, judgments of the following content: if the proposed solution is reasonable, then if perform such and such actions, one should expect such and such consequences. Of course, the initial assumption and the indication of the final expected consequences can be separated by any number of intermediate workers. if...then. The conditional proposition associated with the proposed solution "needs to be compared in an orderly manner with other propositions of the same kind ... so that a specific conditional proposition follows from their content, directing the experimental observations that will give rise to new data." It should be noted that, since any given set of data can be the consequence of any one of a large or even an infinite number of premises proposed, in many cases it will be necessary to consider a huge number of alternative hypothetical judgments.
(5) The last step in solving the problem is to test, in which the execution of the proposed operations leads to the expected consequences, inclining to confirm one hypothesis and exclude all others. It is "the transformation of data into a unified situation by performing the operations required by the hypothesis as a guide to action." At this stage, "the conditions are purposefully ordered according to the requirements of the idea or hypothesis in order to find out whether the results theoretically predicted by this idea will actually take place." And “if at the same time we discover all the conditions required by this theory and do not find the signs required by alternative solutions, then the desire to believe, to accept becomes almost irresistible.”
However, for a number of reasons, the results of the verification, even at best, can only be probable. First, despite the fact that the logic on which hypothetical judgments are based is suggested by the facts, it is formal, postulate, and can never be fully applied to the facts. Second, the number of alternative hypotheses to be tested is potentially infinite. Speaking in traditional terms, the confirmation of the consequence of a hypothetical proposition does not guarantee the confirmation of its premise, but at best only increases its probability.
Thomas Hill, Modern Theories of Knowledge, Moscow, Progress, 1965, p. 309-310.
What is imagination? Not everything lends itself to direct perception. For example, in our time it is impossible to observe the fight of gladiators, as this is a phenomenon of the distant past.
However, by the power of imagination, based on the knowledge of history, it is quite possible to imagine such a picture.
That is why the role of imagination in a person is so great, especially in art, literature, the field of science and technology.
Role of imagination
Imagination is a property that allows a person to create new sensory or mental images based on existing perceptions and knowledge.
Imagination as a mental process is inherent in man, although its rudiments are also characteristic (for example, instinct contains a significant proportion of imagination).
Bizarre and daring "footprints" of the imagination can be found at many key points in human history.
L. N. Tolstoy saw one of the main merits of I. S. Turgenev (1818-1883) in that he created with his imagination the type of “Turgenev woman”: there was no such thing in reality, but after his novels about Liza Kalitina, Elena Insarova and others she appeared.
However, imagination can become a negative factor, especially when it takes perverse forms.
If the psychophysical mechanism that stimulates the work of the imagination is influenced with the help of various kinds, then it is possible to sharply activate the work of the imagination, but make it fruitless and even destructive - first for higher mental functions, and eventually for the biological basis of man.
It was previously believed that the pressure of the imagination decreases with age, but the latest research has shown that it rather takes on other forms, being less visible in external signs, and more affecting the results.
The creative process is unthinkable without imagination, fantasy, inspiration.
People of art express this special emotional state in different ways, depending on individual characteristics, tastes,.
The French philosopher D. Diderot (1713-1784), according to the memoirs of contemporaries, when writing, looked like an obsessed.
He ran around the rooms, waving his arms and shouting at the whole house, tore off his wig from his head, threw it up, trampled it and threw it again.
The famous French writer of the XVII century. J. Lafontaine (1621 -1695) wrote his fables only in heavy rain.
Taking off his wig and hat, he paced the streets for hours, repeating in full verse, arguing with himself, stamping his feet frantically and waving his arms.
