New period of Russian history V.O. Klyuchevsky called "Great Russia, Moscow, tsarist-boyar, military-agricultural", which quite fully characterizes the changes in the political and economic development of the country. At this time, the process of internal colonization was completed, as a result of which the territory of the country increased six times. There was a state unification of Russian lands under the rule of Moscow, which made it possible to eliminate feudal fragmentation and overthrow the Tatar-Mongol yoke, as well as to create a system of centralized administration.
Territorial expansion of land lagged behind their qualitative increment: the average population density in the XVI-per. floor. XVII century ranged from 0.3-0.4 to 8 people per 1 sq. km. Agriculture remained the basis of the Russian economy, based on feudal ownership of land while maintaining privately owned (patrimony, “granted patrimony”, estate), church and monastery, palace, Cossack and black-mow farms. Agricultural technologies were not distinguished by high productivity. Even at the beginning of the sixteenth century three-field in many lands was combined with undercutting and fallow. Primitive tools were preserved (a plow with a dump device, a wooden plow, harrows, scythes, chains). The predominance of one-horse farms also hampered the use of more advanced methods of cultivating the land. As a result, the agrarian sector was characterized by poor development of the territory (even in the European part, arable land accounted for 20% of all land in the middle of the 17th century) and low yields at the “self-2” level, by the end of the 16th century. - "self - 3-4" (obtaining a surplus product begins with the level "self - 5"). The insufficient level of development of agriculture and animal husbandry contributed to the preservation of crafts: beekeeping, fishing, hunting and salt production. The development of agriculture continued to be natural in nature, maintaining the isolation of peasant farms. Their main feature remains patriarchal-family corporatism, in which all relations of subordination and dependence were softened by forms of paternalism.
Russia was characterized by a crowded-nesting and nesting type of rural settlement (village with "stretching" villages to it). Sectoral differentiation did not take the form of a sharp functional delimitation of the Western European type. Cities of military and political origin with a backyard type of building had conditions for practicing not only handicrafts, but also agriculture. At the same time, the cities were trade and craft centers, usually of large areas along the radius. For the sixteenth century 210 names of urban crafts were identified; for the beginning of the seventeenth century. - 250 with a numerical predominance of specialties related to the manufacture of food supplies, the production of clothing, fabrics and household utensils. The organization of handicraft production was within the framework of the level of simple cooperation, but in the 15th century. new transitional forms began to emerge, such as state-owned manufactories, providing for the needs of the royal court and the army.
Consider the features of their organization on the example of Khamovnye (textile) yards:
the lack of a clear craft specialization, the performance of boorish duty was associated with the possession of a courtyard and a land plot in a settlement;
the population was not enslaved; there was an opportunity to engage in trade and other crafts (providing benefits);
production was not connected with the market, was unprofitable, did not go beyond the patrimonial economy.
Khamovnye yards, being a national form of craft organization, have evolved from the level of individual production at home to the formation of a closed production with a division of labor in a special room, that is, from scattered to mixed and centralized manufactory.
Along with state-owned in the XVI century. Merchant manufactories appeared (metalworking, leather, ceramic and textile), where civilian labor was mainly used (peasants on dues). Wage labor was also used in handicraft production (zakhrebetniks and podsushedniki).
The development of the craft was accompanied by an increase in its territorial specialization. By the end of the XVI century. there is a pronounced territorial structure of the economy.
1. Craft centers:
The Tulsko-Serpukhov region, Ustyuzhna, Tikhvin, Zaonezhye, Ustyug the Great, the Urals and Western Siberia are centers for the production of iron. The most active entrepreneurs in the extraction and processing of ore were peasants, less often feudal lords and the state, monasteries;
Tula - weapons production;
Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, Rzhev, Pskov, Smolensk - flax processing and linen production.
2. Agricultural centers:
Chernozem region and the northern Volga region - the cultivation of bread;
western and northwestern regions - production of industrial crops (flax and hemp).
The growth of productive forces in agriculture and crafts, the deepening of the social division of labor and territorial specialization led to a steady expansion of trade ties. Trade was conducted at fairs and markets. From the second half of the XVI century. large regional markets began to take shape, at the end of the 16th century. trade relations already existed on a national scale.
The establishment and expansion of economic ties between all economic entities, as well as between individual markets throughout the country, meant the formation of an all-Russian market.
However, in general, the economic development of the Muscovite state at the end of the XVI-beginning. 17th century was comparable to the XIII-XIV centuries in Western Europe. In the absence of good land communications and the freezing of rivers, trade was very slow; trading capital often turned over only once a year. Roads, impassable due to swamps and forests, were also dangerous due to robberies. In addition, all kinds of trade fees, customs duties, travel passes, tamga, bridgework, myt, etc., laid a heavy burden on trade.
An important characteristic of the Russian merchant class was its role as an intermediary wholesaler: buying up goods from artisans and peasants for subsequent resale at a profit. It was determined:
lack of capital and credit for the bulk of merchants;
low purchasing power of the population, which does not allow narrow specialization in trade;
a tradition of economic behavior that requires the storage of products with a margin.
The professional merchant class was heterogeneous. The merchant elite consisted of only 13 guests who had capital from 20 to 100 thousand rubles. The middle layer included 158 living room people and 116 cloth hundreds, exempted from the township tax, but every 2-6 years (depending on the number of hundred members) performing government assignments (purchasing goods for the treasury, carrying out customs and tax services, etc. .). The lowest stratum was made up of hired workers.
clerks acting as a companion;
inmates working in the shop on a contract basis;
peddlers carrying out trade from the "tray" to the "posting";
people who are personally dependent on the merchant (as a rule, prisoners: Turks or Tatars).
The expansion of trade required the unification of the monetary system, characterized by the parallel circulation of "Novgorodka" and "Moskovka". The reform of 1535 by Elena Glinskaya not only eliminated the existing monetary dualism in the country, but also established state control over coinage. The underdevelopment of monetary relations can also be traced in usury. Until the seventeenth century an increase in interest on loans was considered normal. The decree of 1626 limited the term for collecting interest to 5 years, until the amount of interest equals the loan received (that is, from 20% per annum). The Code of 1649 completely banned interest on loans, but unofficially they continued to exist.
The underdevelopment of the system of economic relations required the formation of a rigid authoritarian management system both in the center and in the localities. The old primitive system of government with the help of introduced and worthy boyars, as well as institutions of the prikaz type in the middle of the 16th century. replaced by a new order system, including special military institutions, the apparatus of the palace administration, financial and judicial-police authorities. The system of local government also changed: the power of feeders was limited, new officials appeared (city clerks, labial and zemstvo elders, customs and tavern elected heads). Under such conditions, representatives of the producing class turned out to be politically and civilly disenfranchised.
Different groups of the dependent population are drawing closer in their position, and the division into quitrent and corvée households is disappearing. However, new forms of personal dependence appear: compulsory lending when transferring from taxable arable land to empty and desolated lands; beanery; complete and service servility.
In the most favorable position were state-owned (black-haired) peasants, who only pay state taxes and duties, in the least favorable position were church-monastic and estate-patrimonial peasants, who not only bear the state tax, but also fulfill feudal rent in favor of the owner. The expansion of the state apparatus required an increase in the share of state taxes (from 10% in 1540 to 66% in 1576, and from the middle of the 16th century to the middle of the 17th century, taxes doubled). Their number has also increased. At this time, tribute is levied, yamsky money, will accept (for the construction of siege structures), repayment (ransom of prisoners), treasury, clerk's and clerk's duties, money for the maintenance of foreign ambassadors, food ransom, etc. Under Ivan the Terrible, a single measure for determining profitability for the entire state was established - “plough”, depending on the ownership and quality of the land. Special taxes were introduced for the maintenance of the troops.
The strengthening of the economy, which became a direct consequence of the formation of the Russian centralized state, led to the expansion of foreign economic relations. However, their development was hampered by Russia's isolation from the seas. The defeat in the Livonian War (1558-1583) finally closed the way for the country to the Baltic. At the same time, the opening of the Northern Sea Route, the conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan, the gradual development of Siberia contributed to the intensification of domestic and foreign trade through the mediation of England and Holland. The Arkhangelsk fair began to play the main role, where trade was predominantly one-sided and barter. The balance of trade of Western countries with Russia in the Baltic and the White Sea was passive, therefore, along with goods, Western merchants brought money to buy Russian goods. With the East, trade was less brisk. At the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. trade turnover with the West reached 150 thousand rubles, and with the East - a little more than 4 thousand rubles.
Second third of the 16th century was a favorable time for the economic development of the country. The successes observed in the economy led to the beginning of the formation of regional markets. But since about the 70s of the XVI century. a severe economic crisis ensued, which was the result of the desolation of the most developed regions of the country - the Center and the North-West, from which the population went mainly to the Don; by the end of the 16th century. significantly increased the number of Cossacks. The departure was caused by the intensification of tax oppression in connection with the long Livonian War, the spread of landownership as the most inefficient and least favorable form of feudal landownership for peasants, as well as the pestilence (plague epidemic) of the early 70s. As a result, many landlords had no peasants left at all. This, in turn, caused a crisis in the armed forces, since the landowners could not field people in the army according to the norms of the Code of Service of 1555. Quite a few landlords in such conditions found themselves in debt bondage and fell into bondage to large feudal lords. Of these, the princes and boyars were fighting units that took an active part in the events of the Time of Troubles. He treated such serfs, for example. I. Bolotnikov.The government tried to somehow prevent the departure of people from the inner counties. For this purpose, reserved years were introduced in 1581, when in one year or another in certain territories it was forbidden for peasants to leave. In 1592-1593. scribe books were compiled, which served as the basis for the enslavement of the peasants. It is possible that in the same year a decree was issued banning the right to exit on St. George's Day. The decree has not been preserved, but there are references to it in separate sources. In 1597, a decree appeared on the fixed years, according to which, for five years, the state, on the petition of the landowner, assisted him in the search for fugitive peasants. By the same year, there is a decree on bonded serfs, who were supposed to serve the master not until the payment of the debt, but until his death.
During the Time of Troubles, in the conditions of the famine of 1601-1603, as well as the robberies and robberies that followed, the country's economy more and more fell into decay. The revival of the economy and its further development began only after the Time of Troubles. There was an agricultural development of new territories, especially in the southern outskirts and in Siberia, annexed to Russia at the end of the 16th century, and handicrafts and crafts developed along with agriculture.
In the 17th century a whole series of new phenomena appeared in the economic life of the country. There was a regional specialization in agriculture, when grain production developed in the southern counties, flax growing west of Moscow, and dairy farming in the northern counties. The handicraft began to turn into small-scale production and work to a large extent for the market. Several dozen manufactories appeared (most of all - in metallurgy), which belonged to the court, the treasury, patrimonials, Russian and foreign merchants - who used both hired and, to a large extent, forced labor. The formation of an all-Russian market began, when the trips of merchants with goods became a regular occurrence and fairs and the process of primitive accumulation of capital spread widely, very large fortunes were concentrated in the hands of individual merchants.
Describing the socio-economic development in Russia in the 16-17 centuries, it is important to note that the economy and social relations were of a feudal nature. After the Time of Troubles, serfdom weakened, and the period of investigation of fugitives did not exceed 4-5 years. By the end of the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich, as the state strengthened, the landlords achieved an increase in the investigation to 10-15 years. The feudal Russian city was divided into black and white settlements. The black settlements belonged to the state, their inhabitants paid taxes or carried taxes and were attached to it. White settlements were owned by individual feudal lords, the inhabitants of these settlements did not bear taxes, performing duties in favor of the master, and thus had an advantage over the inhabitants of black settlements. It is not surprising that from the black settlements they sought to go to the white ones and become pawnbrokers, "mortgage" for the owner of the white settlement. The inhabitants of the black settlements demanded the return of the pawnbrokers and the general liquidation of the white settlements, but the government was afraid to go against the interests of the big feudal lords.
Since the beginning of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, replenishing the treasury, it was decided to increase the price of salt. But this did not work, as the population drastically reduced its purchases of salt. Then they restored the previous price, but decided to collect the secondary taxes canceled due to the increase in the price of salt for several years at once. This caused in 1648 the Salt Riot in Moscow, which became the largest in a series of urban uprisings in the first years of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich. In Moscow, dignitaries close to the tsar were killed. The rebellion stimulated the convocation of the Zemsky Sobor, which began to prepare a new set of laws - the Code. In 1649, the Zemsky Sobor adopted the Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, according to which white settlements were canceled, which eased tensions in the cities. According to the Code, the terms for detecting fugitive peasants were canceled. This meant the completion of the legal registration of serfdom. To search for the fugitives, an effective system of detective work was created, so they had to flee beyond the southern border. After the adoption of the Code of 1649, the Cossack population on the Don increased significantly. The new Cossacks were poor, they were called naked.
The Code of 1649 became the most important prerequisite for the largest popular uprising in Russia in the 17th century. - Razinsky, and the growth of the ranks of the Cossack rabble contributed to the transformation of the Don into a hotbed of uprising. In 1666, a detachment of Cossacks, led by ataman Vasily Us, went to the central districts of Russia and reached Tula. The Cossacks wanted to be employed in the royal service, but they were not needed.
They had to return to the Don, and some of the local peasants left with them, robbing their landowners. The situation on the Don became even more aggravated, and the Don army, loyal to Moscow, led by the military ataman Kornila Yakovlev, could no longer control the situation.
Among the Cossacks, the ataman, a native of the noble Cossacks, Stepan Timofeevich Razin, whose godfather was K. Yakovlev, gained popularity. In 1667-1669. the Cossacks led by him made a trip to the Volga and the Caspian Sea. It began as an ordinary predatory Cossack campaign, it quickly grew into an uprising, given that the Cossacks broke through into the Caspian Sea by force, took the royal fortress - Yaitsky town, and then fought with the forces of the Persian Shah. The tsarist government was forced to allow Razin to return to the Don. The fame of Razin and his Cossacks spread throughout the country.
In the spring of 1670, the Cossacks of S. Razin began a new campaign, but not to the Caspian Sea, but to the Volga and to the Russian districts. The movement of the Cossacks was supported by a mass peasant uprising. In September 1670, Razin's army besieged the Simbirsk fortress, but in early October the rebels were defeated under this fortress. To suppress the uprising, the government demanded that the Don army wage the most decisive struggle against the rebels. Don Cossack foremen, led by ataman K. Yakovlev, captured Razin on the Don and, at the request of the authorities, handed him over to Moscow, where he was executed on June 6, 1671. The uprising was crushed. To strengthen its power over the Cossacks, the government took the Don army in August 1671 to swear allegiance to Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. In addition to the Razin uprising, under this king there were many other, smaller popular uprisings, so contemporaries called the entire reign "the rebellious age."
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The influence of a standing army on the socio-economic development of Ancient Egypt. Overview of the wars of conquest of the rulers of ancient Egypt. 22.09.2008 / thesis Domestic and foreign policy of the Egyptian government in 1952-1956. English influence in the country. History of political movements in Egypt. Legislative registration of the new regime. Socio-economic development. The system of international relations. By the middle of the 16th century, Russia, having overcome feudal fragmentation, turned into a single Muscovite state, which became one of the largest states in Europe. The formation of a single centralized state accelerated the socio-economic development of the country. New cities arose, crafts and trade developed. Oprichnina and the Livonian War affected Russia severely consequences: devastated villages and cities, scattered peasants. In search of a way out of the crisis in 1581/1582, the government introduces "forbidden years", during which the peasants were forbidden to resettle. At the end of the XVI century. peasants were generally forbidden to leave the landowners. The way out of the crisis was restrained by the fact that while the size of the land cultivated by the peasants was reduced, the amount of taxes was maintained. Land owners were predominantly secular and church feudal lords, whose estates had wide tax and judicial benefits, secured by grand ducal or princely charters. In the XVI century. in the structure of feudal land ownership there were important changes: the share of land ownership increased significantly. The development of the estate system led to a sharp reduction in the number of black-sown peasants in the center of the country. A distinctive feature of the economic development of medieval Russia was the naturally occurring territorial division of the forms of feudal land tenure, namely: stable land tenure of secular and church feudal lords in the central regions and communal peasant land tenure in the sparsely populated outskirts, which gradually fell under the control of the state. ! 9) Domestic and foreign policy of Ivan IV in 1547-1560 On January 16, 1547, Grand Duke Ivan IV Vasilyevich was married to the kingdom in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. In the first years of his reign, a circle of close associates formed around him, the so-called. "The Chosen Rada", which was led by nobleman Adashev, the confessor of the king, Sylvester, who was not noble by birth. Its active participants were Metropolitan Macarius, princes Kurbsky, Odoevsky, Sheremetev. The Chosen Council concentrated in its hands all the threads of governing the country, its activities were aimed at strengthening the state and strengthening the authority of the central government. At the same time, the Chosen Rada tried to rely on a broad representation of the people - it was during her reign in Russia that Zemsky Sobors began to be convened, which approved the most important decisions of the government. Thus, in political terms, the Chosen Rada sought to rely on a combination of a strong central government with developed local self-government. In February 1549, Ivan IV convened the first Zemsky Sobor. Zemsky Sobors were the central, nationwide class-representative institutions. However, they were not legislative, but legislative bodies. Zemsky Sobors were convened at the initiative of the autocrat (rarely at the initiative of the estates) for advice on resolving the most important problems of Russian life. People from the localities from all classes took part in the work of the Zemsky Sobors. Councils resolved issues of war and peace, carried out, if necessary, the zemstvo choice of monarchs (the first elected autocrat was Boris Godunov (1598)) The general trend towards the centralization of the country and the state apparatus led to the publication in 1550 of a new Sudebnik, which was one of the most significant events of the Chosen One. The “Royal” Code of Laws was based on the Code of Laws of 1497, but expanded, better systematized, it took into account judicial practice. The norms of the peasant transition on St. George's Day (November 26) were confirmed and clarified. The "older", which the peasant paid to the feudal lord during the transition, was slightly increased. The Code of Law limited the rights of governors, toughened the punishment for robbery. For the first time, punishment for bribery was introduced. The unification of the tax system continued, a unified system of land taxation was introduced. The population of the country was obliged to bear the tax - a complex of natural and monetary duties. The size of the tax depended on the nature of land ownership and the quality of the land used. Appointment to military, administrative and court service was carried out taking into account the origin (antiquity of the clan), the official position of the person's ancestors and his personal merits. The Code of Service (1556) was adopted, which determined the scope and nature of the duties of landowners in strict dependence on their estates and estates. For his service, the warrior was given an estate with peasants from the sovereign, but this possession remained state property. The landowners were regularly called to the reviews, and if the warrior caused the discontent of the commanders, then the estate could be taken away; if the landowner proved himself in battle, then the “local dacha” was increased. Russia's foreign policy successes in the 1950s. 16th century were largely the result of the reforms. The threat to the Russian state was represented by the Tatar khanates, formed after the collapse of the Golden Horde (in 1395): in the east and southeast - Kazan and Astrakhan, in the south - Crimean. The rulers of the Kazan Khanate constantly violated peace agreements with Russia and enriched themselves through raids on the Russian border lands. Moscow could no longer ignore the hostile actions of the Volga Tatars and put up with them. In 1552, the Kazan Khanate was annexed to Russia. Next to the Kazan Khanate, in the lower reaches of the Volga, there was another Tatar state - the Astrakhan Khanate. Taking advantage of the exceptionally favorable position of their possessions in the Volga delta, the Astrakhan khans controlled the trade of Russia and Kazan with the countries of the East. In 1556 the Astrakhan Khanate was also conquered. After these victories, the new fertile lands and the entire Volga trade route became part of Russia. In the 16th c. The Moscow state occupied about 2.9 million square meters. m. By the 16th century. peasants were no longer taxed (the tax was imposed on the land), and, becoming more independent, people could move to other territories. The most important role in the process of settlement and development of new territories by the people was played by monasteries. Although the economy retains a natural character, in some areas arable farming and productive cattle breeding are developing. There is an active development of fishing and crafts, centers of iron-making production. Sparsely populated cities still remain the trading center, but the number of trading villages is increasing. During the reign, many Russian cities developed. For this purpose, as well as for the Pushkar cause, foreign workers were attracted by the prince. And not without consequences for Russia:
A strong desire to find a way out of the crisis prompted the government to decide to introduce "forbidden years" (from 1581 to 1582), during which people were not allowed to leave their lands. The feudal lords tried to lease land to the peasants, but this did not bring much success. In the 90s. 16th c. there was a rise in agriculture, but it was extremely vulnerable. The lands were owned mainly by secular and church feudal lords, whose possessions were subject to various benefits, enshrined in grand ducal charters. In the 16th c. there were important changes in the structure of feudal property: the share of landownership was growing strongly, the development of the estate system led to a decrease in the number of black-sown peasants in the center of the country. In Russia, territorially separated two forms of feudal landownership naturally arose:
This was a distinctive feature of the development of the Russian economy in the Middle Ages. The general direction of the socio-economic development of the country in the 16th century. was the strengthening of feudal serfdom. The economic basis of serfdom was feudal ownership of land. According to the social status of the peasants were divided into three groups:
In the 16th c. increased trade with centers in Moscow and other cities. Bread was delivered to the northern lands, and from there - salt, fish and furs. For domestic trade, the feudal lords, who had privileges, as well as the Grand Duke himself, were of great importance. In the field of commodity education, products of the trade economy and handicrafts were listed. Foreign trade was actively gaining momentum. Novgorod and Smolensk were the connecting link of trade relations with the West. In 1553 a trade route to England was opened across the White Sea. Products of Russian crafts and timber were exported, and weapons, metals, and cloth were imported. From the East, Chinese fabrics, porcelain, jewelry were imported to Russia, and furs and wax were exported. The growth of the country's commodity turnover in the 16th century. led to the development of monetary relations and the accumulation of capital. But due to the dominance of feudal serfdom and the cruel fiscal policy of the state, capital or the enrichment of the treasury was directed to lending money at interest and drawing the population into heavy debt dependence. During the expansion of trade, a rich merchant stratum formed from different social strata. Merchant associations with privileges were created in Moscow. In legal terms, they were equated with feudal landowners. In the 16th c. The largest merchants were the Stroganovs, they were Pomeranian peasants who became the founders of a powerful commercial and industrial house in the 15th century, operating until 1917. The overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the abolition of tribute and political unification contributed to the development of productive forces. Early 16th century was a time of economic expansion. The question of the level of development of agriculture during this period is controversial. According to B. A. Rybakov, the three-field arose as early as the 14th century, and in the 16th century. spread everywhere. D. A. Avdusin attributed the appearance of the three-field region in the north-east of Russia to the 15th century. See Avdusin D. A. Archeology of the USSR. M., 1977. According to A. A. Zimin, in the XV century. a two-field system dominated, a slash-and-burn system of agriculture was preserved on the outskirts. Three fields arose at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. in the center of Russia, in densely populated areas. The main argument in favor of this opinion is the impossibility of three-field cultivation without regular application of organic fertilizers. According to A. A. Zimin, at the beginning of the 16th century. this was impossible due to the insufficient development of animal husbandry. The main agricultural tool was a two-pronged plow. The main agricultural crops are rye, barley, oats, turnips, millet, peas, cabbage, onions, garlic, cucumbers, apple trees, pears, plums, cherries, flax, hemp, in the south - wheat; domestic animals - horses, cows, goats, sheep, pigs, poultry. Animal husbandry and the production of industrial crops provided 25% of the income of the peasants. The development of agricultural technology ensured the growth of the surplus product. Agriculture gradually became commercialized. In the XVI century. Two possible ways of Russia's economic development have been identified:
The first path corresponded to national interests, the second - to the class interests of the feudal lords, especially the nobles - small service landowners. The second path was chosen, since the government relied on the nobles in the fight against the boyars, the nobles formed the basis of the army, the population density was low, there were fewer cities than in Western Europe, which limited the ability of the peasants to sell their products. In addition, the numerous urban population could become a counterbalance to the nobility. Since this did not happen, the government predominantly expressed the interests of the nobles. By the beginning of the XVI century. the development of the northeastern lands was completed, so there was not enough land, and the feudal lords began to seize peasant lands. This gave rise to numerous land disputes, so the Sudebnik of 1497 limited their limitation period to 3 years if the subject of the dispute were private lands, and 6 years if the disputed lands belonged to the state. The seizure of peasant lands began monasteries. Monastic landownership also grew at the expense of princely grants and contributions from private individuals. V. O. Klyuchevsky associated the enslavement of the peasants with the growth of monastic land ownership. See Klyuchevsky V.O. The course of Russian history. T. 2. M., 1988. S. 270. The government sought to limit it, therefore, in conflicts between peasants and monasteries, it protected the interests of the peasants. The church council of 1503 limited the growth of monastic land ownership, but the attempt to secularize church lands, undertaken by Ivan III with the support of Nil Sorsky, failed. In the struggle between the possessors and non-possessors, the former won. They were also called Osiflyans, after their leader Joseph Volotsky. The struggle of the government against the growth of monastic landownership was caused by the lack of land to allocate it to the landlords. Gradually, corvee became the main duty of the peasants. Initially, it arose in the monastic estates. Since the monasteries did not have serfs, they rented land to the peasants on the terms of labor rent. According to V. O. Klyuchevsky, quitrent was a rent for land, corvee - working off a debt. See ibid. P. 276. In some estates, quitrents in kind were replaced by cash quitrents. However, corvée became more widespread. It was associated with the expansion of the lord's plowing and the enslavement of the peasants. The Sudebnik of 1497 limited the right of peasants to move to two weeks before and after St. George's Day - November 26th. The source of this legal norm was the Pskov Judicial Charter. It established another deadline for the transition of the peasants - November 14th. This was due to the difference in natural conditions in the northwest and in the center of Russia. See Zimin A. A. Russia at the turn of the XV - XVI centuries. The peasant had the right to leave the landowner, having warned him about this in advance and paid the old. Elderly - the payment of peasants to the landowner for living on his land, in fact, compensation for the loss of a worker. If a peasant lived on the land of a feudal lord for four years or more, he paid the full cost of the yard, if three years - 75%, if two years - 50%, if a year - 25%. See ibid. The Sudebnik of 1550 provided for an increase in the elderly. N. P. Pavlov-Silvansky considered this article of the Sudebnik to be a compromise between landowners, peasants and the state, since, in his opinion, the state was not strong enough to protect the peasants from the arbitrariness of the boyars. See Pavlov-Silvansky N. P. Feudalism in Russia. pp. 305 - 306. In 1581, Ivan the Terrible forbade the peasants from moving to new lands for several years. These years are called "reserved". In 1597, Boris Godunov limited the search for runaway peasants to five years. V. O. Klyuchevsky, S. F. Platonov, N. P. Pavlov-Silvansky and A. A. Zimin separated the attachment of peasants to the land from enslavement, that is, the personal dependence of peasants on landowners, and explained it by the debt of the peasants. A. A. Zimin noted that in the XV century. most of the peasants who lived on the land of the feudal lords were personally free. According to V. O. Klyuchevsky, by the end of the 16th century. the peasants lost the actual possibility of crossing without outside help, so the exit of the peasants turned into export. See Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history. Full course of lectures. Part 1. M., 2000. The question of the economic and legal status of the black-mossed peasants was debatable. L. V. Cherepnin and A. M. Sakharov considered them feudally dependent on the state, A. A. Zimin and I. I. Smirnov considered them free and full owners of the land. A. A. Zimin saw in black-sow land ownership one of the prerequisites for the capitalist development of Russia. See Zimin A. A. Russia at the turn of the XV - XVI centuries. The main forms of peasant protest were escapes, complaints against landowners, and the seizure of their land. In the middle of the XVI century. the rapprochement of the estate with the patrimony began. The Sudebnik of 1550 allowed landowners to change their estates with the consent of the tsar and to transfer land by inheritance to their sons if they could perform military service. Part of the estate, after the death of its owner, remained for the widow until remarriage, monastic vows or death, and daughters up to 15 years of age. If the landowner died at home, 10% of the estate was allocated to the widow, 5% each to daughters. If he died in battle, the widow received 20%, daughters - 10% of the estate. Thus, landowners for the first time received the right to transfer land by inheritance. The right of estate owners to dispose of the land was limited. They did not have the right to sell their estates and could freely transfer them by inheritance only to their sons. It was possible to transfer land to a brother or nephew only in the absence of sons and with the consent of the king. If the votchinnik bequeathed the estate to his wife, after her death it passed to the treasury. It was forbidden to transfer land to daughters and sisters. The purpose of this article of the Sudebnik was to force all landowners to perform military service. Each landowner was obliged from 100 quarters, that is, from 150 hectares of land, to put up one equestrian warrior in full armor. See Solovyov S. M. History of Russia since ancient times. T. 7. M., 1989. S. 12 - 13, 17. Klyuchevsky V. O. Russian history. Noble cavalry in the XVI century. formed the backbone of the Russian army. Military threat from Sweden, Poland, the Crimean Khanate, and until 1552 - 1556. also the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates forced the government to increase the number of armed forces, so local land ownership grew rapidly. In 1550, 1078 servicemen received 176,775 acres of land. The second reason for the growth of landownership and the expansion of the property rights of the nobles was the struggle of Ivan the Terrible with the boyars in the 60s and 70s. 16th century The main industries were metalworking, woodworking, weaving, leather and footwear industries, production of paints, soap, tar, and potash. The process of developing the craft into small-scale production, which began in the 1920s and 1930s, resumed. XII century, but interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion. In the second half of the XVI century. the first manufactories appeared, but they belonged to the state, there were very few of them. Weaving and turning machines and water engines were used in manufactories and craft workshops. Water mills were widespread. A territorial division of labor began to take shape. Cities became centers of crafts and trade. According to A. A. Zimin, the class of townspeople was in the process of formation. See Zimin A. A. Russia at the turn of the XV - XVI centuries. Wage labor was used in the mining industry and transport. See Solovyov S. M. History of Russia since ancient times. T. 7. S. 45. Thus, the beginning of the XVI century. was a time of economic expansion. The economic prerequisites for capitalism were formed, although feudalism still dominated. Oprichnina led Russia to an economic crisis.  
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