GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY, a system of opposing rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. In this system, the categorizing attribute is decisive (see Linguistic category), for example, the generalized meaning of time, person, voice, etc., which unites the system of values of individual tenses, persons, voices, etc. into the corresponding forms. A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of its meaning and the expression of this meaning in the system of grammatical forms.
Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological grammatical categories, there are, for example, grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech). The number of opposed members within such categories can be different: for example, in Russian the grammatical category of gender is represented by a system of three rows of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter, and the grammatical category of number is represented by a system of two rows of forms - singular and plural . In languages with developed inflection, grammatical inflectional categories are distinguished, that is, those whose members can be represented by forms of the same word within its paradigm (for example, in Russian - tense, mood, person of the verb, number, case, gender, degrees comparisons of adjectives) and non-inflective (classifying, classifying), that is, those whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word (for example, in Russian - gender and animateness-inanimateness of nouns). The belonging of some grammatical categories (for example, in the Russian language - aspect and voice) to inflectional or non-inflectional type is the subject of discussion.
There are also grammatical categories that are syntactically identifiable, that is, indicating, first of all, the compatibility of forms in the composition of a phrase or sentence (for example, in Russian - gender, case), and non-syntactically identifiable, that is, expressing, first of all, various semantic abstractions, abstract from the properties, connections and relations of extralinguistic reality (for example, in Russian - type, time); such grammatical categories as, for example, number or person, combine features of both these types.
The languages of the world are different:
1) by the number and composition of grammatical categories; compare, for example, the category of the verb form, which is specific to some languages - Slavic, etc.; the category of the so-called grammatical class - a person or a thing - in a number of Caucasian languages; the category of certainty-uncertainty, inherent mainly in languages with an article; the category of politeness, or respectability, characteristic of a number of Asian languages (in particular, Japanese and Korean) and associated with the grammatical expression of the speaker's attitude towards the interlocutor and the persons in question;
2) by the number of opposed members within the same category; compare the traditionally distinguished 6 cases in Russian and up to 40 in some Dagestan;
3) according to what parts of speech contain this or that category (for example, in the Nenets language nouns have the categories of person and tense). These characteristics may change in the course of the historical development of one language; compare three forms of number in Old Russian, including the dual, and two in modern Russian.
Lit .: Shcherba L. V. On the parts of speech in the Russian language // Shcherba L. V. Selected works in the Russian language. M., 1957; Gukhman M. M. Grammatical category and structure of paradigms // Studies in the general theory of grammar. M., 1968; Katsnelson SD Typology of language and speech thinking. L., 1972; Lomtev T.P. Proposition and its grammatical categories. M., 1972; Typology of grammatical categories. Meshchaninov readings. M., 1973; Bondarko A. V. Theory of morphological categories. L., 1976; Panfilov V. 3. Philosophical problems of linguistics. M., 1977; Lyons J. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. M., 1978; Kholodovich A. A. Problems of grammatical theory. L., 1979; Russian grammar. M., 1980. T. 1. S. 453-459; Typology of grammatical categories. L., 1991; Melchuk I. A. Course of general morphology. M., 1998. T. 2. Part 2; Gak VG Theoretical grammar of the French language. M., 2004.
The subject of morphology. Stages of development of morphology as a science. The concept of a grammatical word, grammatical meaning, morphological paradigm, word form. (WE ACTIVELY PRAY TO THE GODS THAT THIS IS TO ARINA AND NOT TO US)
Morphology in translation from Greek means literally "the doctrine of form." This is the section of grammar that studies grammatical properties of a word. Since morphology is inextricably linked with grammatical meanings and categories, it is part of grammar. The term "inflection" is often used as a synonym for the term "morphology".
The well-known linguist V.V. Vinogradov called morphology the grammatical doctrine of the word.
A word as a grammatical unit is a set of word forms with a single lexical and categorical grammatical meaning. In the text, it appears in a specific word form. Yes, the word book has 12 word forms: 6 case forms of the singular and 6 case forms of the plural. In the examples I was given an interesting book and I was given interesting books the selected word forms differ in particular grammatical meanings - unit values. and many others. numbers, while the word book preserves both the lexical and categorical grammatical meaning of the subject. lexeme is a representative of a group of specific word forms that have an identical lexical meaning. The whole set of word forms included in this lexeme is called paradigm.
When producing a text, constructing an utterance, it is very important to choose the form of the word that is most optimal for expressing a certain meaning. To do this, you need to know the rules of inflection of different parts of speech, the features of the functioning of grammatical forms, to have an idea about the semantic potential of grammatical categories of different parts of speech.
That's why subject of morphology is the doctrine of parts of speech(grammatical classes of words),their morphological categories(gender, number, case, species, mood, tense, person, pledge),vocabulary system.
Morphology tasks.
Determine the principles of combining word forms into a lexeme.
Determine which part of the meaning of word forms is grammatical.
establish the list and nature of grammatical categories,
correlate them with the characteristics of the objective reality reflected in the language,
· establish a set of formal tools involved in the creation of grammatical categories. (SRYa under the editorship of Beloshapkova, 1981)
Aspects of studying morphology:
· Proper grammatical or system-structural approach (in different academic grammars) -> a complete description of the grammatical structure of the language.
· Contrastive - the study of grammar in comparison with other languages.
· Normative approach - creation of various dictionaries, norms, changes in grammar. Sociolinguistic research. Gram.variants in various spheres of life.
· Grammar of Russian as a foreign language. It is important to know the accuracy, be able to explain, write for different purposes (to teach to speak or write essays).
· Functional aspect. Describes how the language actually functions. Work on this aspect has been going on for a very long time. Founder of Bondarko.
Basic concepts of morphology:
grammatical (morphological) form,
the grammatical meaning
The morphological paradigm
parts of speech.
Grammar is a generalized linguistic meaning inherent in a large number of words and necessarily expressed formally: either by separate elements, or with the help of other words in a sentence.
Grammatical features of the word form DOMIKOM
- From the question, we can determine that this word form names an object in general.
2. From the question, we can determine that this word form names something inanimate
3. Interpretation can be given through a picture, that is, this is an object of a certain type.
4. The modifying suffix indicates that this word form means something small.
5. The word form informs that only one subject is meant.
6. Allows phrases like a white house, admiring the house, standing in front of the house and does not allow good house, very house (belongs to the class of words with the syntactic functions of a noun)
7. Allows the phrase house that I built, and does not allow the house that I built
(syntactic inanimate)
8. Allows a phrase white house, and does not allow white house or house on the mountain
(syntactic masculine)
9. Allows a phrase yellow house, and does not allow yellow house
(syntactic singular)
10. Allows a phrase admiring the house, walk in front of the house, happy with the house, and does not allow I'm standing in the house, lost his house
(subordinate instrumental)
11. Allows a phrase
a wonderful house, but does not allow a wonderful house
(subordinating creative)
Grammatical meanings are additional in relation to lexical ones, but due to enviable regularity they can be comprehended separately.
A specific word in a specific grammatical form is called word form
The totality of all possible word forms of one particular word is GRAMMAR WORDBrother, brother, brother, brother, brother, oh brother; brothers, brothers, brothers, brothers, brothers, oh brothers.
Each grammatical form is included in a certain group of the same type of means, where it is opposed to other forms. (unit and plural, for example)
Grammatical form- the unity of grammatical meaning and means of expression.
grammatical meaning- generalized (not individual, unlike lexical), regular, obligatory for each word form, formally expressed and being one of the components of the grammatical category opposed to each other. In the word forms of the changed parts of speech, both the general grammatical meaning and particular morphological meanings are expressed. For unchangeable parts of speech, only a common grammatical (categorical) meaning is characteristic. For example, adverbs denote a sign of action ( dressed warmly), sign of sign ( hospitable in Moscow). They do not have a morphological paradigm.
Morphological paradigm the totality of all forms of the modified word is called. The general paradigm of words of one part of speech is made up of particular paradigms. For example, the noun paradigm includes the number and case paradigms.
The concept of a grammatical category. Types of grammatical categories.
Grammatical forms according to their grammatical content are combined into grammatical categories.
Grammatical (morphological) category- a system of opposing rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous content. It is this definition of the grammatical category that is accepted in modern grammar. It indicates the main features of the grammatical category. This is a closed system.
Need to distinguish inflectional and non-inflective (classifying) categories.
Inflectional:
non-inflective:
This is necessary in order to be able to correctly form forms. So, for example, the form I will defend formed from a perfective verb protect, the form I protect - from imperfective verb protect.
Grammar category- a system of rows of grammatical forms opposed to each other with homogeneous grammatical meanings. GK is characterized by the number of opposed rows. subdivided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories are the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech).
For the Russian language, a language with a developed system of inflection, it is fundamental to distinguish between inflectional and classifying grammatical categories.
Members of inflectional categories can be represented by a series of forms of one word (case, tense).
3. Parts of speech: grounds for their distinction. L.V. Shcherba and V.V. Vinogradov on the system of parts of speech. Parts of speech in scientific and school grammar. (CE SEMINAR)
4. Characteristics of a noun as a part of speech. The grammatical category of animateness/inanimateness.
The noun is a kind of core of the parts of speech of the Russian language. The core nature of this group of words is provided by unique semantic features: any reality can be a denotation of a noun. For example:
Material objects: house, pen.
・Signs: blue.
Qualities: kindness.
· Action: the washing up.
· Traffic: walking.
· State: sadness.
Attitude: conformity.
· Quantity: a hundred.
· Abstractions: impressionism.
A noun is a part of speech that expresses the meaning of a grammatical object (objectivity), performs the syntactic function of the subject and object, and has independent morphological categories of gender, number and case. Fully named features are manifested in specific nouns.
Noun- this is a significant part of speech that designates an object and expresses this meaning in inflectional grammatical categories of number and case and non-inflective categories of gender and animation-inanimateness. The noun always answers the question who? what? You need to ask a question to the initial form of the word.
Initial the form of the noun is the form of the nominative case, singular. numbers, and for nouns that do not have the form of units. hours - form them. case pl. numbers (sleigh, day, jeans).
A noun in a sentence can be a subject and an object, as well as an inconsistent definition: performance of figure skaters, Pushkin's fairy tales.
An important point is the ability of a noun to be determined by an adjective and a participle: a cold winter, a past holiday.
Division of nouns into animate and inanimate mainly depends on what object this noun denotes - living beings or objects of inanimate nature, but it is impossible to completely identify the concept of animation-inanimateness with the concept of living-inanimate. So, from a grammatical point of view birch, aspen, elm- nouns are inanimate, but from a scientific point of view, these are living organisms. In grammar, the names of dead people - dead man, deceased- are considered animate, and only a noun dead body- inanimate. Thus, the meaning of animate-inanimate is category is purely grammatical.
Animation:
Animated nouns usually refer to living beings (persons and animals). They have their own specifics of declension and represent a special category in relation to the gender category, since the gender of animate nouns can be associated with the gender of the named creatures:
Brother - sister, bull - cow.
In animate nouns, the accusative plural form (and in the masculine and the singular) coincides with the genitive form.
I see who? (vin.pad.) - students, student, horses.
No one? (rod.pad.) - students, student, horses. Who am I waiting for? Apprentice.
Animated nouns include not only the names of people and animals, but also the names of such objects that for some reason seem to be alive. For example: dressing up dolls, flying a kite.
Inanimate:
Inanimate nouns have the accusative plural form (and in the masculine singular) the same as the nominative form.
See what? (win.fall.) - airplanes, airplane. Waiting for what? Bus.
What's this? (im. pad.) - airplanes, airplane.
Inanimate nouns, used in a figurative sense, get the meaning of a person and become animated: the tournament brought together all the table tennis stars.
Nouns in combination with compound numbers ending in two, three, four are used as inanimate ones: invite twenty-two specialists (colloquial).
Conclusion: in order to correctly determine the animate / inanimate noun, the word must be considered in the context of the sentence.
| Animate and inanimate nouns |
|
| animated | Inanimate |
| names of living things | names of inanimate objects |
| plant names | |
| names of gods | names of the planets by the names of the gods |
| names of mythical creatures | |
| names of figures in games | |
| names of toys, mechanisms, images of a person | |
| dead man, deceased | dead body |
| names of microorganisms |
|
| image, character |
|
5. Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns. The grammatical category of the number of nouns.
Nouns are combined into lexico-grammatical categories according to their meaning and manifestation of grammatical categories (number and case).
Allocate such lexical and grammatical categories nouns, both proper and common, animate and inanimate, concrete and abstract, real, collective.
Lexico-grammatical categories- semantic subtypes of nouns, which, due to the peculiarities of the meaning, interact differently with its morphological categories.
Gender specific for animate/inanimate substantives and immutable nouns.
Animation and inanimateness are also associated with the category of case.
Morphological category of the number of nouns is a system of unit forms. and many others. number of nouns, expressing the opposition of a single object to a dismembered set of objects. This is an inflectional category covering all inflected nouns.
The inflectional nature of categories is clearly observed when considering specific nouns as a nuclear group. Abstract, material and collective nouns express the meaning of quantity formally and are actually devoid of semantic opposition in terms of the category of number.
Pay attention: lexically non-identical forms of number: choice, elections. Wed:
· snow / snow
· sky / heaven
· pain / pains
Lexico-grammatical groups of words that have only a single number.
1. Collective (crows, nobility, poor, professors, proletariat)
2. Material (milk, copper, horsehair wig)
3. Vegetables, cereals, years, etc. (raspberries, gooseberries, oats, hay?)
4. “Especially brightly negative, devoid of a direct relationship to number, account, the function of the singular appears in words with abstract meanings of property-quality, action-state, emotion, feeling, mood, physical phenomenon or natural phenomenon, ideological direction, flow in general for designations abstract concepts" (military, whiteness, boredom, secrecy).
5. Proper names.
6. The use of singular forms is observed when one object refers to several persons or objects and is inherent in each of them separately (they walked with their noses closed) (People walked with a handkerchief tied around their noses and mouths. Tolstoy)
Lexico-semantic groups of nouns pluraliatantum
1. Paired items;
2. Composite items (wood firewood, sledge, sled);
3. Mass, substance, material in its totality (yeast, firewood, grub);
4. Sets of monetary amounts (extortions, taxes, finances);
5. Waste or residues from any process: bran, sawdust, leftovers;
6. Places and localities (compacts, in the heads, settlements, as well as proper names of Bronnitsy);
7. Time interval (day, twilight, holidays);
8. A complex action, a state consisting of many acts (childbirth, chores, beatings, tricks);
9. Games (hide and seek, blunders, catch-ups);
10. Ceremonies and holidays (christenings, name days, bridesmaids);
11. Single words denoting a state (to live in the dark, to be strong, in trouble);
12. Single words denoting emotions (envy is taken, for joy).
All nouns are singular. h. have the category of gender, i.e. belong to one of 3 genders: masculine, feminine and neuter.
Nouns ending in -а, -я in the form im. p. units numbers are usually feminine (road, land, country, grandmother). The exception is words like uncle, slob, time.
If the initial form has the ending -o, -e, then the noun belongs to the middle gender (sea, good). Exception: domishko, domishche (nouns with words of subjective evaluation, formed from nouns of m. kind).
A small group of words belongs to the so-called common gender. These include nouns that do not have the singular form. numbers (pluraliatantum sled, gate, ink) are not distributed by genus.
generic couple
generic couple- this is a paired opposition of nouns m. and f. genders that have the same lexical meaning, but differ in the meaning of the biological sex.
Pairs are distinguished:
1. suppletive tribal couples (man - woman, grandmother - grandfather, sheep - ram);
2. derivational(student - student, goose - goose, lion - lioness);
3. inflectional- having a common basis and differing in endings (spouse - wife, godfather - godfather, Alexander - Alexander).
If the words included in the generic pair are the names of animals, then the type of animals can be indicated both by the word m. of the genus (hares, lions, donkeys), and by the word f. genus (cats, sheep, goats).
Common nouns
In addition to the 3 main genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), nouns are also distinguished generic, by meaning they correspond to both male and female persons, in the context they realize the meaning of only one kind (our / our Sasha, terrible / terrible bore, Belykh knew / knew). In colloquial speech, you can hear: the deputy received visitors; master of sports set a new record; The turner did a good job.
In stylized speech, for the speech characterization of characters, when referring to a woman by profession, it is recommended to use neutral forms: comrade conductor, comrade cashier.
Descriptive expressions are used to indicate male correspondence to the words ballerina, typist ballet dancer, typewriter. A pair emerged in professional use nurse - nurse.
generic options
Many nouns are used in SRY both in the form of m and in the form of f. kind.
- aviary - aviary (more common form 1);
- giraffe - giraffe (more common form 1);
- clip - clip (literary is 1 form);
- reprise - reprise (more commonly used form 2).
The central and fundamental concept of grammar is the concept of a grammatical category.
Grammar category- these are the meanings of a generalized nature inherent in words, meanings abstracted from the specific lexical meanings of these words. Categorical meanings can be indicators of, for example, the relationship of a given word to other words in a phrase and sentence (case category), relationship to the speaker (person category), relationship of reported to reality (mood category), relationship of reported to time (tense category) and etc.
Grammar categories have varying degrees of abstraction. For example, the grammatical category of case, in comparison with the grammatical category of gender, is a more abstract category. So, any noun is included in the system of case relations, but not every one of them is included in the system of oppositions by gender: teacher - teacher, actor - actress, but teacher, linguist, director.
b) within the framework of morphological categories, the grammatical meanings of a word (as well as grammatical formal means) are studied not in isolation, but in opposition to all other homogeneous grammatical meanings and all formal means of expressing these meanings. For example, the category of the verb aspect is made up of homogeneous meanings of the perfect and imperfect aspect, the category of person is the homogeneous meanings of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person.
When analyzing morphological categories, it is especially important to take into account the unity of semantic and formal plans: if any plan is missing, then this phenomenon cannot be considered as a category. For example, there is no reason to consider the opposition of proper names to common nouns as a morphological category, since this opposition does not find a consistent formal expression. The opposition of verbal conjugations is not a category either, but for a different reason: clear formal indicators (endings) of I and II conjugations do not serve to express semantic differences between verbs of different conjugations.
1. By the number of forms that a morphological category can be represented, they distinguish binary and non-binary categories.
Binary categories are represented by the opposition of two (series) forms. For example, the number category of a noun is represented by the singular and plural forms, the voice category by the active and passive forms. One form is not a system, and due to the absence of a contrast of meanings (opposition) cannot represent categories. Consider an analogy: a street traffic light represents a system of color signals: red - stop, yellow - attention, green - go, which, in fact, constitutes a lexical paradigm (red / yellow / green = stop / attention / go).
Suppose this system is simplified, reduced to one color, then the color value system remains binary (becomes similar to the grammatical one):
Yellow color - blinking - be careful (especially attentive), because the traffic light is installed in especially important places for pedestrian traffic;
Red - stop, especially dangerous, the absence of color allows movement;
Green - go, the absence of color in principle prohibits movement (it is dangerous to go) - the system of pointers, and in the presence of one expresser, as in grammar, it seems to be the opposition of its zero significance, and you can choose the most optimal system of signs.
(In practice, flashing yellow is selected). However, with any number of forms and in non-binary categories (represented, for example, by three forms, as in the category of mood of the verb, or six forms, as in the category of the case of the noun), binary as a phenomenon of opposition (contrast of meanings) is of fundamental importance for the realization of the semantic potential of the category .
2. By the nature of the opposition of the components, categories are distinguished that are formed on the basis of:
1) privative (unequal), 2) equivalent (equivalent), 3) gradual (gradual) relations.
A privative opposition according to gender is formed by nouns of the type teacher - teacher, tractor driver - tractor driver, cashier - cashier: a masculine noun in such pairs can name both a man and a woman, and a feminine noun can only name a woman. The privative category is the aspect in the verb. Perfective verbs answer only the semantic question What to do, and imperfective verbs, except for the question What to do, in some speech situations they also answer the question What to do? What was wrong with the boy? What did he do? He was picking apples in someone else's garden.
Equivalent opposition is formed by some masculine and feminine personal nouns: mother - father, brother - sister, girl - boy. Masculine nouns denote men, feminine nouns denote women.
Gradual relations are presented in degrees of comparison.
The case as a grammatical category in a certain volume is arranged according to the principle of additional distribution: the same lexical meaning with the help of a case is placed in different syntactic positions: to lose someone, to envy someone, to hate someone, to admire someone, to grieve about someone - about something.
In the same grammatical category, different principles of semantic organization can be found.
3. Depending on whether the components of the grammatical category are one word or represent different lexemes, they distinguish inflectional and classifying (lexico-grammatical) categories. Inflectional categories find their expression in the opposition of different word forms of the same word. For example, the category of the person of the verb is inflectional, since to find it it is enough to compare different forms of the same verb (go, go, go)
Non-inflecting(classification, or lexico-grammatical) categories find their expression in the opposition of words according to their grammatical properties. Taking into account the meanings expressed by non-inflective categories, the vocabulary of the language can be divided into grammatical classes (therefore, morphological categories of this type are called classification categories). Non-inflective are, for example, the categories of gender and animate/inanimate nouns.
A. V. Bondarko called inflectional categories correlative, and classifying - non-correlative. At the same time, he singled out consistently correlative, consistently non-correlative and inconsistently correlative grammatical categories.
E.V. Klobukov proposed to single out interpretative morphological categories as a special type, " intended to express the degree of relative importance of two or more homogeneous semantic elements» statements. " Thanks to these categories, one of the homogeneous meanings is singled out by the speaker as the main one, and the other meaning as an additional, accompanying, comitative informational part.". The grammatical meaning expressed by such categories, E. V. Klobukov calls comitative On the basis of comitativity, in his opinion, opposition of full and short forms of the adjective, conjugated and attributive forms of the verb, forms of the active and passive voice, as well as nominative and vocative cases to oblique cases is organized
4. By the nature of the content, morphological categories are distinguished with formal dominant and semantic dominant.
In categories with a formal dominant, forms perform to a greater extent the function of constructing a sentence, its structural units - combinations of words, rather than distinguishing grammatical semantics based on conceptual content. These are the categories of gender, number and case of adjectives. Adjective forms agree in gender, number and case with the noun. These three different categories in the adjective denote the same formal feature - dependence on the noun: the material differences between these forms white (shawl) - white (dress) - white (kerchief) - white (shawls, dresses, scarves, trousers) - white (trousers)— etc. - do not introduce any meanings into the semantics of forms, except for the general meaning of the adjective - dependence on the noun.
Another thing is the form of the number of nouns in words denoting counted objects: house - at home, notebook - notebooks. However, in other nouns, the number forms lose this quantitative semantics, their formal side is strengthened: the form of the number is in some cases only an indicator of the formal independence of the noun, independence in number from other words (compare: ate soup - ate cabbage soup; bought perfume, cologne - bought perfume, cologne; put on glasses bruh ki).
The case forms of nouns distinguish the subject/object of the action: The student asks the teacher. — The teacher asks the student. The sentences differ not in form, but in the meaning of the subject/object of the same lexical units. The category of case is a category with semantic significance, but it also has a formal (structural) significance.
The situation is even more complicated with the category of the gender of a noun. Therefore, in different grammars, one can find a different interpretation of the content of this category: either it falls into the lexico-grammatical category, or into the grammatical category. The content of the gender category is genetically based on the distinction between masculine and feminine, everything connected with it in one way or another, but in a synchronous plan, only in some cases, the gender form reveals the semantics of gender. In the Russian language, in accordance with the gender of the noun, the words were distributed according to the types of declension, so that we can already speak of the type of declension as a morphological expression of the gender.
Thus, the category of the gender of a noun in the modern Russian language is a category with a formal dominant that interacts with the lexical component of the word form. Semantically, the form of the gender is not motivated in words denoting realities that do not have gender characteristics: house - wall - window. The gender of these nouns is a purely formal feature of the noun; the immutability of the gender is an indicator of the form of a noun, in contrast to an adjective, and an indicator of the type of declension (as well as the number forms of nouns that are immutable in number; in particular, nouns like glasses, gates, scissors are sometimes called nouns of natural paired gender for this feature). Many nouns denoting persons and living beings also have an unmotivated gender form (not directly related to the gender of the signified) ( painter, well done, soldier; pike, dog etc.).
A notable proportion of nouns, however, have a gender-motivated gender form: father - mother, cow - bull, lion - lioness. For some nouns, the morphological expression of the gender - the type of declension - does not coincide with the syntactic expression - the main indicator of the gender: like[oh] men[a](which gives rise to the natural question of the child: "Dad, are you a man?"). The semantic field of male and female is wider, of course, than the semantics of gender itself. The meaning of the masculine, for example, is associated with the semantics of the strong, important, large, etc., the meaning of the feminine is associated with the semantics of the gentle, soft, beautiful and everything opposite to the masculine.
« In languages weighed down- as I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, genitourinary nightmare”, in historical terms, one can observe how the mentality of the people developed in the field of fundamental human culture problems, analyzing the design of nouns by gender. But this must be done with great care, understanding a certain convention of form and the inevitability of folk etymologization in this paralinguistic field of research, the creative potential of which can be seen in the artist's work with the word.
As a category with a formal dominant, the category of gender of a noun has developed to perform a structural function - to connect, on the one hand, adjectives with a noun, on the other hand, a noun with verbs and other nouns. This category is represented by the forms of agreement between the adjective and the noun and the type of declension that has developed in accordance with the gender of the noun.
In the forms of inclination, an assessment of the action is expressed from the point of view of the reality of the action ( read - would read - read), in the forms of time - the ratio of the action to the moment of speech ( read - read - reads - will read, will read), in the form of a face - the attitude to the speaker as to the performer of the action ( reading - reading - reading), in forms of the form - the nature of the course of the action in time ( write down - write down), in forms of voice - the location of the action relative to its subject and object ( lost - was lost: Children lost a telegram in the snow. — The telegram was lost by the children in the snow).
The term "grammatical category" is also used in another, broader sense - in the sense of a class of words united by common grammatical features. In this sense, we are talking about the category of a noun, and so on. However, at the same time, the qualifying adjective lexical is added, i.e. we are talking about lexico-grammatical categories of words, or parts of speech.
Grammatical categories are usually classified on two grounds: by the number of members that form the category, and by the nature of the relationship between them. A grammatical category cannot have less than two members. If there were only one form with any meaning, then this meaning could not be grammatical, since it would be deprived, firstly, of the relationship between the concrete and the general, and secondly, of regularity. Those categories that consist of two members are called binary. However, there are grammatical categories with a large number of members. Trinomial, for example, is the category of time. An even greater number of members contains the category of case.
The oppositions that form a grammatical category can (as in the case of phonetic oppositions) constitute an equipotent opposition, i.e., be in such relations when the members are equal. It is in such relations that word forms are found that form, for example, the category of number in nouns. There are also categories whose members constitute a privative opposition, i.e., are in such relations when one of the members can convey not only "his" attribute, but also the attribute expressed by another member. So, according to some scientists, the category of tense is “arranged” for imperfective verbs, where the past tense word forms indicate the action before the moment of speech, the future tense word forms indicate the action after this moment, and the present tense word forms can indicate the action regardless of the moment of speech . (Compare with the opposition of the secretary-secretary type, where the second member denotes only a female person, and the first one denotes both sexes.)
A feature of grammatical categories is also their ability or inability to oppose word forms of one lexeme. Let's look at some examples.
The category of number in nouns is able to oppose word forms that do not differ from each other in anything other than the meaning of the number: table - tables, road - roads, gun - guns. The category of time in verbs is able to contrast word forms that differ from each other not only in the meaning of time, but also in other grammatical meanings. I wrote and I will write differ from each other in the meaning of time, as well as in the meanings of gender and person. The meanings of gender and person are grammatical. Consequently, the grammatical categories of number for nouns and tense for verbs are able to oppose the word forms of one lexeme.
The nouns godfather and godfather, head and head, student and student differ in their combinational possibilities, which, being obligatory, form the gender category of nouns. However, the nouns under consideration differ not only in combinational properties, but also in content: godfather, manager, student indicate a male person; godfather, manager, student - on a female person. Characterization by gender is not mandatory for nouns. Nor is it regular: a noun with the meaning of a person or an animal does not always have a correlate with the meaning of the opposite sex. (How to form in Russian names of females from insolent or fighter?) Consequently, the gender category of nouns is not able to oppose the word forms of one lexeme. This category is always combined with such characteristics that are not grammatical and form the opposition of lexemes.
Grammatical categories capable of opposing word forms of one lexeme are usually called inflectional. Grammatical categories that are not able to oppose the word forms of one lexeme are usually called classifying or lexico-grammatical.
So, the tasks of morphology are as follows. First, morphology must determine the principles for combining word forms into a lexeme. Secondly, it must establish which part of the meaning of the word form is grammatical. Thirdly, morphology must compile a list and establish the nature of grammatical categories, correlate them with the characteristics of the reality reflected in the language, and determine the set of formal means involved in the formation of grammatical categories.
Since morphology is inextricably linked with grammatical meanings and grammatical categories, it is part of grammar. The word "morphology" is sometimes used to refer to the actual morphology and word formation. However, more often, morphology is understood only as inflection. The term "inflection" is often used as a synonym for the term "morphology" in the narrow sense of the word (without word formation). Like many other linguistic terms, morphology denotes both the rules of inflection and the science of this side of the language.
It has already been noted more than once that morphology deals with both the content and the "binding" properties of word forms. Thus, morphology on one side adjoins word formation, to the part that contains the doctrine of the semantic properties of Russian morphemes, on the other hand, to syntax, to the part that contains the doctrine of the formal structure of phrases and sentences.
The boundary between morphology and word formation runs as a boundary between endings and other types of morphemes, as a boundary between meanings whose appearance in word forms is obligatory and regular, and meanings that do not possess these properties. So, magnification ~ diminutiveness is not the subject of morphology, but is studied by word formation. This meaning does not necessarily characterize all forms of nouns. Among them there are those that are either not characterized in any way on this basis (city, table, wall), or are generally alien to this attribute (sour cream, electricity). At the same time, the value of magnification ~ diminutiveness is not regular. The existence of a word form with a diminutive value does not necessarily predetermine the presence of a word form with a magnifying value, and vice versa; cf .: house - house - house and box - box -?; hand - pen - hands and longing -? - skinny.
Studying the obligatory combinational properties of word forms, morphology shows a self-sufficient interest in this phenomenon. This is the difference between the morphological approach and the syntactic approach, in which the word form is considered not in itself, but as an element of higher-level units - phrases and sentences.
There are also such characteristics of word forms that are included in morphology with only one of their sides. For example, the meaning of animate ~ inanimate, while being obligatory for nouns, is not regular for them. Therefore, from the point of view of content, this characteristic is not the subject of morphology. However, the animateness or inanimateness of a noun affects the choice of agreed word forms. This "binding" characteristic of nouns, having not an individual, but a generalized character, is the subject of study in morphology.
In order to state that in some language there is a certain grammatical category, it is necessary that there be a number of forms united by some common meaning, that within this association there is an opposition, and that those opposed meanings have a formal expression. Thus, the grammatical category is the category of number, because it unites language units on the basis of the common meaning "number". Within this association, singularity and plurality are contrasted, and the grammatical meanings of the singular and plural are formally expressed using special endings. Por: forest - forests, spring - springs, lake - lakes, where the grammatical meaning of the singular is expressed by the zero ending and the endings -a and o, and the grammatical meaning of the plural is expressed by the endings -i and -nyami -and that -a.
A formal expression is a very important feature of a grammatical category, since it is its presence or absence that is the main criterion for distinguishing a grammatical category. The fact is that a certain meaning in one language can not exist as a grammatical one, and in another language as a lexical one. Hence, grammatical and conceptual categories are distinguished. For example, there is a conceptual category of gender and a grammatical category of gender. The conceptual category of stat is universal, that is, all people, regardless of the language they use, distinguish between male and female. However, the category of gender is not inherent in all languages. Let's say it's not in English, whale. Gaya, Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages, because there are no special formal means of its expression. In the Ukrainian language, as well as in other Slavic, as well as Romance and German languages, there is such a category of iya, because there are formal means of expressing it here: ending (teacher, wall, window), articles (German der Vater "father", die Mutter "mother", dae Kind "child", fr le regue "father", la x and Romance languages are characterized by the grammatical category of definite / indefinite, formally expressed by marked and indefinite articles. So, in particular, it der Tag "day", die Blume "flower", das Fenst er "window" mean specific concepts, objects already known to the speaker and listener, while the same nouns with an indefinite article - ein Tag, eine Blume, ein Fenster - mean some day, some a flower is some kind of window.Similarly in English, French, Italian: definiteness is expressed by articles - English the, French le, 1a, Italian il, 1a, and uncertainty - by articles - English and French un, une, ital un, una. In Slavic languages, with the exception of Bulgarian and Macedonian, there is no grammatical category of certainty / indefinite, because there is no formal expression of it, but the conceptual category of certainty /. There is NOT certainty and it is expressed lexically (this book, some kind of book, the category of significance / ambiguity is expressed lexically (this book, like a book).
The languages of the world differ in the number and composition of grammatical categories. So, in the Ibero-Caucasian languages there is a category of the grammatical class "person" and "things", in Japanese and Korean languages - the category of politeness and. The language also differs in the number of opposed members within the categories. For example, in English there are two cases, in German - four, in Russian - six, in Ukrainian - seven, in Finnish - fourteen, in Tabasarai - forty sixth - forty six.
Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. The morphological category includes the category of gender, number, case, type, tense, manner, person, to the syntactic category - the category of activity / passivity, to the communicative orientation (narrative, nutritional, spontuality), rigidity / reverberation, syntactic tense and syntactic way.
Classification (word-building, derivational) categories are those whose members act as headings for the classification of words. So, in particular, the classification category is the category of noun gender and the category of the aspect of the verb, therefore, nouns are not declined, but are classified by gender (each noun belongs to one specific gender), and verbs are distributed among three aspect groups - verbs of perfect or imperfect output or two-species.
Inflectional (relative) categories - grammatical categories that a word can acquire depending on another word with which it is combined in a sentence. In the inflectional category, the gender of adjectives belongs, therefore adjectives are not classifiable, but are declined by gender and the generic form of the adjective depends on the noun combined with it (great success, great deed, great impression). Purely relational also cat. Egoria case: each nominal part of speech changes according to case.
In the languages of the world, the most common grammatical categories are gender, case, number, certainty / indefinitely, degree of quality, tense, aspect, state, mode and person.
It is found in most modern Indo-European languages. It does not exist in English, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Japanese and other languages. In Ukrainian, every noun has a category of gender (masculine, feminine or neuter). In adjectives, ordinal numbers, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative pronouns, participles and past tense verbs, this category is dependent on the noun with which the word classes are named. In Italian, French, Spanish and Danish, nouns have two genders - masculine and feminine. The genus category has a formal expression. In Slavic languages - ce endings, in Romance and German - articles (German der, ein for masculine, die, eine for feminine, das, ein for middle, fr le, un for masculine, la, une for feminine, Italian il , un for novice, la, una for feminine genus.
The number of cases in different languages is not the same. There are languages in which there are no cases at all: Bulgarian, Italian, French, Tajik, Abkhazian, etc.
In the languages of the world, the category of number does not match. From a language in which, in addition to the singular and plural, there is a dual and a triple. The dual was in the ancient Ukrainian language (two tables, see the remains of these forms in dialects: two hands, two are ele, etc.). Troina is found in some of the Papuan languages on the island. New. Guinea. In the ancient Indo-European languages - Sanskrit, ancient Greek, ancient Germanic, there were three numbers: singular, dual and plurality.
The category of certainty / indefinite (determination) is a grammatical category indicating whether the name of an object is thought of as the only one in the described situation (certainty) or as belonging to a class of similar phenomena (uncertainty.
As already noted, this category is typical for Germanic, Romance, Bulgarian, Macedonian and other languages and is expressed using the articles of definitions is the English article the, German der die, das, French le, la, les (the last for the set), and indefinite correspondence a; ein, eine, ein; un, une. In Bulgarian, Macedonian, Romanian and Scandinavian languages, there are postpositive arts kli, that is, articles that appear after a word, joining it as a postfix. Por: bolg table "some kind of chair" - stolgt "certain chair", mass "some kind of table" -. Masato "certain table"; village "some village" - village "a certain village"; village "yakes village" - village "pevne village".
In those languages where there are no articles, the meaning of definite/indefinite is expressed lexically and contextually. For example, in the Ukrainian language, demonstrative pronouns this, this, this, these, then oh, and, then, those, shares only, yet (only the teacher didn’t know. Another cup!), are used for this. Indefinite pronouns some, some, some, some, adjectives sure, whole, unknown, unfamiliar, numeral one, word order (before the predicate - certainty, after - uncertainty:. The boy went out into the street;. On a boy came out of the street), phrasal stress (Here is a notebook; Here is a notebook). The strongest means of expressing the meaning of signification / indefiniteness is the context. As we can see, in the Ukrainian language the category of certainty / indefiniteness is not grammatical, but conceptual, since there are no morphological means of its expression here.
Distinguish between ordinary, high and high degree. In some languages, there are only two degrees of comparison - ordinary and elative, combining the meaning of the highest and superlative degrees. The highest degree indicates the presence of b in the object of some quality more than in another, high - more than in all others. A positive degree means quality regardless of the degree.
Degrees of comparison have adjectives and adverbs (heavy, heavier, heavy; dark, darker, darker). In some languages, nouns and verbs also have degrees of comparison. For example, in the Komi language kuzho o "can do", kuzhodzhik "can do more";
The degrees of comparison are expressed by affixes (interesting - interesting - interesting; English large "large" - larger "more" - largest "greatest", German interessant "interesting" - interesanter "more interesting" - inte eresantest "interesting") and analytically (known - more known - the most famous, English difficult "heavy" - more difficult "heavy" (the) most difficult "heavy"). In Slavic, Germanic and Romance languages there are several adjectives and adverbs comparable in meaning, which create degrees of comparison from other bases: Ukr good - best - best; rus good - better - best; English good - better - best, German gut - besser - best (am bestenр. Good - better - best; English good - better - best, German gut - besser - best (am besten).
Category of time - the grammatical category of the verb, which is a specific linguistic reflection of objective time and serves to temporally localize the event or state referred to in the sentence
This category indicates the one-hour, preceding or continuity of the event relative to the moment of speech in most languages there are three tenses: present, past and future. These are absolute times. In addition to them, some languages have sp. PECIAL "relative" tenses, denoting events relative to some reference point, which, in turn, is determined relative to the moment of speech (before the past time, before the future tense, coming in the past, vinulom toshcho).
In Slavic languages, the perfect and imperfect form are grammatically opposed. The perfect form indicates the achievement of the limit, i.e. shows a limited action or its result (he made a noise, wrote). An imperfect mind does not indicate the limit of action (noises, he wrote). In the Germanic and Romance languages, according to most linguists, there is no grammatical category of aspect, because there are no formal morphological means (special suffixes, prefixes) of its expression.
Category of state - grammatical category of the verb, expressing subject-object relations
In linguistics, there is still no generally accepted classification of states, however, all classifications mention active, when the carrier of the verbal attribute corresponds to the subject (Students perform a song), and passive, when the carrier of the verbal attribute corresponds to the object (The song is performed by students.
This is the speaker's assessment of the action as desirable, possible, supposed (assumption), etc.
Different languages have a different set of mode forms. 6 All languages have real (represents an action as a real fact), conditional (represents an action as possible, desired, supposed, conditioned) and imperative (serves to convey an order, inducement or request) modes. Western European languages, in addition, have created special forms of the conditional to denote conditioned actions and to express assumptions, possibilities, desirability and non-categorical statements (German Ich w. Igawa, but translates it from the lips of others. In this way they convey a shade of distrust, doubtful "I, sumnivu.
In agglutinative languages (for example, Turkic) there are from four to twelve ways that express obligation, confirmation, intention, consent, etc.
The performer of the action can be the speaker. His interlocutor or a person who does not take part in the conversation. Accordingly, they distinguish between the first, second and third person (I write, write, write)
The category of a person refers to concordant, inflectional. It is expressed by personal endings (I guess, he works; English / work, he works). In some languages (Samoyedic, Paleo-Asiatic), the category of person is characteristic not only for verbs, but also for names in the position of the predicate. Yes, in In the Koryak language, gyolyaigym "man-I", gyolyaigyt "man-ty", gyola "man-he"; nytuigym "y-ti", nytuykyn "young-he" However, there are also languages in which the category of a person as a whole is not expressed. These include Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian, and some others... Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian, and other languages lie before them.
Lexico-grammatical categories (categories)
Lexico-grammatical categories (categories) are grammatically important groups of words within a certain part of speech that have the following properties:
1) are combined according to a common semantic feature. For example, lexical and grammatical categories are collective nouns, material nouns, nouns - the names of creatures, nouns - inanimate names, proper names, basic names, reflexive verbs, because each such group has a common semantic feature - collectability, materiality, too.
2) may or may not have a formal morphological expression. If, say, some prefabricated nouns have a formal expression - suffixes-stv (o), -) (- postfix-sya (wash, correspond, hug), then proper and common names, real names, names of creatures / inanimate formal indicators do not have (city. Eagle and an eagle flies, oil and a window, a crow and a crown));
3) interact with the grammatical categories associated with them. So, the category of state depends on the reflexivity of verbs (reflexive verbs do not belong to the active state), the category of case depends on the being / inanimate (in the names of creatures, the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the genitive, in the names of inanimate the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the nominative), from persons / non-specially - the category of gender (names in ru usually have the category of masculine or feminine, the names are neosib - all three genders), from proper and common names - the category of number (names have the form of only the singular or only the plural (Kyiv ,. Sumy), common names have singular and plural forms (table - tables, book - books);
4) may or may not have rows of forms contrasted within the category. If, for example, names are opposed to common names, names of creatures are opposed to inanimate names, transitive verbs are intransitive. Dies words, then inside real and collective nouns of a similar opposition. NO.
